Cereals and Pulses E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Food Science and Technology
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 752

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

Cereal and pulse crops are staple foods that provide essential nutrients to many populations of the world. Traditionally, whole grains were consumed but most current foods are derived from refined fractions of cereal and pulse crops. Consumption of processed or refined products may reduce the health benefits of food. In wheat-based processed foods, for example, the removed 40% of the grain (mainly the bran and the germ of the wheat grain) contains the majority of the health beneficial components. These components, particularly non-essential phytochemicals such as carotenoids, polyphenols, phytosterols/ stanols, and dietary fibers, have been shown to reduce the risk of major chronic diseases of humans, such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and Parkinson's disease. Such bioactives are therefore good candidates for ingredients of nutraceuticals and functional foods. There are many factors that can affect the bioactive content of cereal and pulse-based food ingredients, including genetics, growing and storage conditions, post-harvest treatments, food formulation and processing. All of these factors ultimately affect human health and wellness. Bioavailability is also important for these compounds for exerting their protective roles. Cereals and Pulses: Nutraceutical Properties and Health Benefits provides a summary of current research findings related to phytochemical composition and properties of cereal and pulse crops. The nutraceutical properties of each major cereal and pulse are discussed. Coverage of cereals and pulse crops includes barley, oats, rice, rye, corn, adlay, wheat, buckwheat, psyllium, sorghum, millet, common beans, field peas, faba beans, chickpea, lentil and soybeans. Chapters for each crop discuss methods to improve crop utilization, nutraceutical components and properties, bioactive compositions, antioxidant properties, beneficial health effects, disease prevention activities, and areas for future research. Also included are two chapters that examine the beneficial health properties of dietary fibers and antioxidants. Edited and written by an international team of respected researchers, this book is a reference guide for scientists working in food ingredients, food product research and development, functional foods and nutraceuticals, crop breeding and genetics, human nutrition, post-harvest treatment and processing of cereal grains and pulses. It will enable them to effect value-added food innovation for health promotion and disease risk reduction.

Leseprobe

Contents

Contributors

1 Cereals and pulses – an overview

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Chemistry and nutraceutical compositions

1.3 Potential health beneficial effects

2 Effects of barley consumption on cardiovascular and diabetic risk

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Barley β-glucan and risk of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and colon carcinogenesis

2.3 Other nutraceutical components and properties in barley

2.4 Potential of hulless barley in health promotion and disease prevention

2.5 Future studies

3 Nutraceutical properties and health benefits of oats

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Oat grain composition

3.3 The chemical and physical property of oat β-glucan

3.4 Effects of processing on oat β-glucan

3.5 Oat and health

3.6 Conclusions

4 Nutraceutical properties and health benefits of rice

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Rice grain structure and nutritional composition distribution

4.3 Nutrient compositions and their health benefits

4.4 Biofortification of nutrients in rice grain to improve its health benefits

4.5 Health benefits of rice bran

4.6 Health benefits of whole rice grain consumption

4.7 Future trends

5 Hypolipedemic effects of rice bran oil

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Chemical composition of rice bran oil (RBO)

5.3 Hypolipidemic effect of rice bran oil

5.4 Other beneficial effects of rice bran oil

5.5 Future studies

6 Phenolic phytochemicals from rye (Secale Cereale L.)

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Three classes of the phenolic compounds

6.3 Extraction methodology

6.4 Analysis methods

6.5 Bioactivity

6.6 Health beneficial effects of rye intake

6.7 Summary

7 Bioactive compounds in corn

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Phytochemicals in corn and their health benefits

7.3 Corn resistant starch and bioactivities

7.4 Future studies

8 Nutraceutical and health properties of adlay

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Health components of adlay

8.3 Potential health beneficial properties

8.4 Summary

9 Antioxidant and health promoting properties of wheat (Triticum spp.)

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Evidence of wheat’s health promoting properties

9.3 The antioxidant contents of wheat

9.4 Reported antioxidant and other health promoting properties of wheat

9.5 Bioavailability of phenolic acids in wheat

9.6 Use of post-harvest treatments to improve the bioaccessabilty of antioxidant in wheat-based ingredients

9.7 Effects of processing on antioxidants in wheat-based food systems

10 Buckwheat: A novel pseudocereal

10.1 Introduction of buckwheat

10.2 Nutritional composition of buckwheat

10.3 Unique health components of buckwheat

10.4 Allergens in buckwheat

10.5 Research trends of buckwheat nutritional and functional properties

11 Nutraceutical and health properties of psyllium

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Health beneficial effects of psyllium

11.3 Potential in controlled delivery of bioactives

11.4 Possible adverse effects

12 Nutraceutical and health properties of sorghum and millet

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Phytochemicals in sorghum and millet grains and fractions

12.3 Antioxidant properties of sorghum and millet grain and components

12.4 Potential beneficial effects of sorghum and millet consumption in human health

12.5 Perspectives

13 Nutraceutical and health properties of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris)

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Health beneficial effects of Phaseolus vulgaris

13.3 Possible adverse effects

13.4 Conclusion

14 Health benefits and bioactive compounds in field peas, faba beans, and chickpeas

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Phenolic compounds in field peas, chickpeas, and faba beans

14.3 Health benefits of compounds in field peas, chickpeas, and faba beans

14.4 Antinutritional factors in peas, chickpeas, and faba beans

14.5 Bioactive peptides

15 Bioactives and health benefits of lentils (Lens culinaris L.)

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Epidemiology: pulses and chronic diseases

15.3 Health effects of pulse carbohydrates

15.4 Health promoting vitamins and minerals in lentils

15.5 Health promoting phenolic compounds in lentils

16 Soy isoflavones and bone health

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Biosynthesis and composition of isoflavones in soybeans

16.3 Separation, characterization, and analysis of isoflavones

16.4 Soy isoflavones and bone health

16.5 Summary

17 Effects of dietary soy on the prevention of cardiovascular disease

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Soy foods and serum cholesterol

17.3 Soy and inhibition of LDL oxidation

17.4 Soy and inflammation

17.5 Soy and hypertension

17.6 Soy and endothelial function

17.7 Conclusions

18 Dietary fiber and human health

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Dietary fiber and metabolic syndrome

18.3 Dietary fiber and cancer

18.4 Dietary fiber and cardiovascular diseases

18.5 Potential undesirable effects

18.6 Summary

19 Antioxidants and human health

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Anti-inflammatory capacity of antioxidants

19.3 Antioxidants and metabolic syndrome

19.4 Antioxidants and cancer

19.5 Antioxidants and cardiovascular diseases

19.6 Summary and conclusions

Index

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Functional Food Science and Technology series

Functional foods resemble traditional foods but are designed to confer physiological benefits beyond their nutritional function. Sources, ingredients, product development, processing and international regulatory issues are among the topics addressed in Wiley-Blackwell's new Functional Food Science and Technology book series. Coverage extends to the improvement of traditional foods by cultivation, biotechnological and other means, including novel physical fortification techniques and delivery systems such as nanotechnology. Extraction, isolation, identification and application of bioactives from food and food processing by-products are among other subjects considered for inclusion in the series.

Series Editor: Professor Fereidoon Shahidi, PhD, Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada.

Titles in the series

Nutrigenomics and Proteomics in Health and Disease: Food Factors and Gene Interactions

Editors: Yoshinori Mine, Kazuo Miyashita and Fereidoon Shahidi

ISBN 978-0-8138-0033-2

Functional Food Product Development

Editors: Jim Smith and Edward Charter

ISBN 978-1-4051-7876-1

Cereals and Pulses: Nutraceutical Properties and Health Benefits

Editors: Liangli (Lucy) Yu, Rong Tsao and Fereidoon Shahidi

ISBN 978-0-8138-1839-9

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Cereals and pulses : nutraceutical properties and health benefits / edited by Liangli Yu, Rong Cao, Fereidoon Shahidi. p. cm. – (Functional food science and technology series) Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-8138-1839-9 (hard cover : alk. paper)1. Cereals as food. 2. Legumes as food. 3. Functional foods. 4. Grain in human nutrition. 5. Vegetables in human nutrition. I. Yu, Liangli. II. Cao, Rong. III. Shahidi, Fereidoon, 1951– TX393.C48 2012 641.3′31–dc23

2011036013

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Contributors

Jinsong Bao

Institute of Nuclear Agricultural Sciences, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China.

Trust Beta

Department of Food Science and Richardson Centre for Functional Foods and Nutraceticals, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

Anoma Chandrasekara

Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada.

Jinming Gao

College of Science, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, P.R. China.

Yanling Gao

School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiaotong University and Bor S. Luh Food Safety Research Center, Shanghai Jiaotong University.

Ronita Ghatak

Nutrition and Food Science in Urban Public Health Program, Hunter College of the City University of New York, New York, USA.

Xudan Guo

College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, P.R. China.

Bruce Hamaker

Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research and Department of Food Science, Purdue University, USA.

Junjie Hao

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, MD, USA.

Xinzhong Hu

College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, P.R. China.

Haiqiu Huang

Nutrition and Food Science Department, University of Maryland, MD, USA.

Pu Jing

School of Agriculture and Biology, and Bor S. Luh Food Safety Research Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Shanghai, P.R. China.

Hoda Kadouh

Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA.

Haiwen Li

Agricultural Research Station, Virginia State University, Petersburg VA, USA.

Qin Liu

School of Food Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Finance and Economics, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P.R. China.

Wei Liu

Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA and School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P.R. China.

Yangchao Luo

Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, MD, USA.

Devanand Luthria

Food Composition and Methods Development Lab, USDA-ARS, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Beltsville, MD USA.

Yujie Ma

College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, P.R. China.

Jeffrey Moore

Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.

John Parry

Agricultural Research Station, Virginia State University, Petersburg VA, USA.

Yang Qiu

Department of Food Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.

D. Dan Ramdath

Guelph Food Research Centre, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.

Fereidoon Shahidi

Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, Canada.

Margaret Slavin

Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, MD, USA.

Rong Tsao

Guelph Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph ON,Canada.

Margaret Udahogora

Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.

Min Wang

College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, P.R. China.

Qin Wang

Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, MD, USA.

Monica Whent

Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, MD, USA.

Zhuohong Xie

Department of Nutrition and Food Science,

University of Maryland, MD, USA.

Liangli (Lucy) Yu

Department of Nutrition and Food Science,

University of Maryland, MD, USA

Liangping Yu

Balchem Corporation, New Hampton, NY, USA.

Jin Yue

School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiaotong University and Bor S. Luh Food Safety Research Center, Shanghai Jiaotong University, P.R. China.

Genyi Zhang

School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, P.R. China.

Ying Zhong

Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland,St. John’s, Canada.

Kequan (Kevin) Zhou

Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA.

1 Cereals and pulses – an overview

Rong Tsao, Liangli (Lucy) Yu, and Fereidoon Shahidi

1.1 Introduction

For thousands of years grains and pulses have been produced and consumed as staple foods. Bread, noodles, porridge, breakfast cereals, and other forms of food made from wheat, oats, barley, rice, corn, lentils, chickpeas, and soybean (and other dried seeds) are found in all cultures and cuisines around the world. Many of these foods continue to be home prepared, however, large amounts of the staple foods today, particularly in the industrialized countries, are also made commercially. The global market for breakfast cereals alone was $24.5 billion in 2008, and it is estimated to grow by roughly 17.1% to a total value of $28.7 billion by 2013 (Datamonitor, 2009).

The same report also showed that ready-to-eat cereals dominated, having an 87.8% share of the global breakfast cereals market. America leads the global breakfast cereals market, accounting for 64.9% of the market’s value, according to the same report. However, processing may reduce the health benefits of food and this depends entirely on the form in which the products are consumed. Most of the wheat-based foods, including bread, noodles and pasta, and cookies, are made from bleached white flour (60% extraction). What is more important is that the 40% removed grain, mainly the bran and the germ, contains the majority of the health beneficial components.

Cereal grains and leguminous seeds contain myriad components that are important and essential to human health. The macro-nutrients, carbohydrates, proteins, and fats serve as a rich source of energy and contain many essential nutrients such as vitamins, amino acids, and fatty acids. However, in recent years, some of these and other minor components have been found to play important roles beyond satisfying basic nutritional requirements. Studies have shown that dietary fibers and certain phytochemicals can be key to health maintenance and disease risk reduction. Intakes of dietary fibers and phytochemicals have been associated with reduced risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic inflammation, neural degeneration, and other chronic ailments and illnesses. These bioactives are, therefore, good candidates as ingredients for nutraceuticals and functional foods.

Meanwhile, many factors can affect the composition and the potential health benefits of foods rich in these bioactives throughout the value chain. Genetics, growing and storage conditions, post-harvest treatments, food formulation, and processing can all affect the content of these bioactives in cereal- and pulse-based food ingredients, and related foods and food supplements, ultimately affecting human health and wellness. This monograph focuses on the chemical and nutraceutical compositions, and potential health beneficial properties, of commonly consumed cereals and legumes. The effects of growing conditions, post-harvest treatments, and food processing and formulation on nutraceutical properties of the cereals and legumes are also covered. In addition, the mechanisms involved in rendering the beneficial effects of cereal and legume components are discussed.

1.2 Chemistry and nutraceutical compositions

Intact kernels of grains or seeds contain three major parts: germ/embryo, endosperm/cotyledon, and bran/seedcoat. It is also important to know that most of the nutrients, including dietary fibers and polyphenols, are found in the germ and bran or seedcoat, therefore to receive maximum health benefits, food products made from whole grains or pulses are preferable. Refined grains and pulses often have the germ and the bran or seedcoat removed, thus important dietary fibers, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive phytochemcials are lost; although in countries such as the US and Canada manufacturers are required to enrich white flour with several vitamins and iron.

Phytochemicals are plant-originated secondary metabolites that possess various biological activities. These natural products can be categorized into different chemical classes (Liu, 2004; Tsao, 2010). Cereal grains and pulses are a rich source of bioactive phytochemicals. While polyphenols and carotenoids are perhaps the most studied phytochemicals, particularly for their antioxidant activities, other groups such as phytosterols and saponins are major contributors to the health benefits of cereal grains and pulses.

Food compositions can be altered by targeted breeding. Grains and pulse crops can produce significantly more or less of certain components, for example, soybeans with low, medium, and high isoflavone contents have been developed and formulated into functional soy-breads that contain different levels of naturally occurring isoflavones (Shao et al., 2009). Environmental factors such as growing season, soil type, temperature, and agronomic practices (organic vs. conventional) have also been found to significantly affect the phytochemical compositions (Zhou et al., 2005). Phytochemicals such as polyphenols and carotenoids are relatively unstable under high temperature, thus food processing, such as production of breakfast cereals, can lead to loss of important bioactive compounds that are key to human health (Slavin et al., 2000; Muzhingi et al., 2008).

1.3 Potential health beneficial effects

Dietary fibers and phytochemicals are important components of a healthy diet. Dietary fibers, particularly soluble fibers such as β-glucans from barley and oats, have been found to significantly reduce the total and LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol levels (Brown et al., 1999; Chapters 2 and 3 in this volume); and the effect was discovered to be related to the physicochemical properties such as the molecular weight of β-glucan (Wolever et al., 2010). Dietary fiber of rice bran also reduces LDL cholesterol, as discussed in Chapter 5. On the other hand, results of epidemiological studies of dietary fiber and cancer risks have not been consistent. For example, examining the consumption of dietary fiber and the risk of colorectal cancer, a recent Japanese study found that total, soluble, and insoluble dietary fibers were not measurably associated with overall risk or subsite-specific risk of colorectal cancer (Uchida et al., 2010). However, the same study suggested a decreased risk of distal colorectal cancer associated with rice consumption. Nevertheless, other studies have indeed shown a positive correlation between the consumption of dietary fibers and cancer risks. Howe et al. (1992) showed convincingly that intake of fiber-rich foods was inversely related to risk of cancers of both the colon and rectum. Among the 13 case–control studies, 12 showed significant correlation between dietary fiber intake and the decrease of risk of both left- and right-sided colon and rectal cancers, for men and women, and for different age groups, but no associations were seen for the intakes of vitamin C and β-carotene (Howe et al., 1992). A more recent study concluded similarly that the intake of dietary fiber was inversely associated with colorectal cancer risk. The authors also suggested that methodological differences (i.e. study design, dietary assessment instruments, definition of fiber) may account for the lack of convincing evidence for the inverse association between fiber intake and colorectal cancer risk in some previous studies (Dahm et al., 2010). Dietary fibers from pulse crops may also contribute to the reduction of LDL cholesterol and the risk of cancer, however, more research needs to be done in this area. Dietary fibers from other food crops including psyllium and sorghum are also known for similar health benefits (Chapters 11 and 12, respectively). Other forms of carbohydrates, such as resistant starch in corn (Chapter 7), also play important roles in alleviating health risks. The health properties of dietary fiber preparations and the potential molecular mechanisms involved in their beneficial actions are summarized in Chapter 18. In general, psyllium, oats, barley, and several edible legumes are important dietary sources of soluble fibers, while bran of wheat and corn are good sources of insoluble fiber. Soluble fibers may absorb moisture in the GI (gastrointestinal tract) track and form viscous fluid or gel, which may trap lipid and bile acids reducing their bioavailability and total energy intake. They may also be fermented in the large intestine and form short chain fatty acids, which can reduce the local pH and enhance the movement of intestinal contents. Such effects may lead to reduced absorption of energy and toxins, as well as changes of the microorganism profile in the large intestine. High intake of dietary fibers may reduce the risk of several human chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and colon cancer (Chapter 18).

While dietary fibers are an important ingredient contributing to the health benefits of cereal grains and pulses, ample evidence exists that phytochemicals may play greater roles. Many different classes of phytochemcials have been identified and their specific bioactivities reported. The major phytochemcials that have shown health benefits include various phenolic compounds, carotenoids, saponins, and phytosterols. Many of these secondary metabolites provide chemical defense against invading insects or microorganisms, or participate in wound healing in the plants.

Phenolic compounds, including the phenolic acids and flavonoids are responsible for the total antioxidant activity of cereals and pulses (Chapter 19). The majority of the phenolics are found in the bran or seed coat of the grains, therefore, consumption of whole grain and intact seed-based foods is of greater benefit. Diets rich in phenolics have been linked to the reduction of several chronic diseases, particularly those caused by oxidative stress such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and inflammatory illnesses. However, additional roles of phenolic compounds, particularly flavonoids, have been identified in recent years. In addition to the direct antioxidant activities, flavonoids, for example, have been shown to modulate cell signaling pathways at physiological concentrations way below those required to impact cellular antioxidant activities. Modulation of cell signaling pathways by flavonoids could help prevent cancer by stimulating phase II detoxification enzyme activity and by inhibiting proliferation and inducing apoptosis. Inhibition of biomarkers such as NFkB of inflammation and increase of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity may help prevent cardiovascular diseases.

The antioxidant activity of the phenolics has been associated with many chronic diseases. Cinnamic acid and its derivatives, particularly ferulic acid, are the main phenolic acids in cereal grains (Zhou et al., 2005). Phenolic acids are found mostly in the bran, and the majority may exist in conjugated and bound forms (Liyana-Pathirana and Shahidi, 2006; Kim et al., 2006; Chandrasekara and Shahidi, 2010; Chapter 19). Cereal grains are also the major dietary source of lignans, a group of polyphenols that play important roles in human health, particularly as precursors of mammalian lignans. These compounds are mostly found in the bound form, thus are not normally extractable by organic solvents (Chapters 6 and 9). Flavonoids, mainly flavones and flavonols, have been found in cereal grains. Apigenin, kempferol, and quercetin glycosides are major flavonoids, however, anthocyanins contribute significantly to the total flavonoid content in dark colored grains such as purple corn (Chapter 7). Catechins have also been identified in grains such as buckwheat (Chapter 10). Sorghum and millet, with their unique drought-resistance and high level of polyphenols, are considered important to combat the continuously increasing health problems of obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. Sorghum is unique among cereals with its high content of condensed tannins that are oligomeric and polymeric flavonoids. These proanthocyanins are strong antioxidants and considered key for lowering risks of several chronic diseases (Chapter 12). Seed coat of pulses is also a good source of flavonoids (Chapters 14 and 15). Isoflavones, a subgroup of flavonoids, are only found in soybean and other legumes. Isoflavones and lignans are phytoestrogens, therefore, in addition to other biological activities, their role in hormone-related diseases such as breast cancer and osteoporosis is also important (Chapters 17). Other legumes such as pulse crops have been studied in recent years and efforts have been made to determine the bioactives and their relationship with health benefits (Chapters 14 and 15).

Carotenoids are critical to the photosynthesis of plants, however, many of these compounds, such as β-carotene, are also important to humans as vitamin A precursors. In cereals and pulses, while many carotenoids have been identified, zeaxanthin and lutein are worthy of special mention. These two non-vitamin A precursors, found mainly in corn and other cereal grains such as wheat, are not only strong antioxidants, but can also inhibit cancer cell proliferation and prevent cell mutation. These compounds are especially critical to the health of the eye (Chapter 7).

Other phytochemicals, such as phytates, saponins, and phytosterols, have also been found to contribute to the potential health benefits of cereals and pulses. Policosanols and lactams are unique bioactives found in a minor cereal crop adley, among other commonly found phytochemicals that showed various health benefits (Chapter 8). D-chiro-inositol and fagopyritols in buckwheat have also been found to benefit diabetics (Chapter 10). However, it is generally understood that these and all other above-discussed active components play an assorted role in various health problems, as pointed out in Chapter 18. Their composition and specific roles can be found in different chapters of this book. It is our hope that this book offers a focused discussion of cereals and pulses as important contributors to health, and how we can improve the quantity and quality of their functional components in the diet throughout the value-chain, i.e. breeding, production, postharvest storage, and food processing. Reviews on the chemistry, biochemistry, and mechanisms of action of the bioactives, including dietary fibers and the various phytochemicals, will also provide insights into future research.

References

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Chandrasekara, A. and Shahidi, F. (2010) The content of insoluble bound phenolics in millets and their contribution to antioxidant capacity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58: 6706–6714.

Dahm, C.C., Keogh, R.H., Spencer, E.A., Greenwood, D.C., Key, T.J., Fentiman, I.S., Shipley, M.J., Brunner, E.J., Cade, J.E., Burley, V.J., Mishra, G., Stephen, A.M., Kuh, D., White, I.R., Luben, R., Lentjes, M.A., Khaw, K.T., and Rodwell Bingham, S.A. (2010) Dietary fiber and colorectal cancer risk: a nested case-control study using food diaries. Journal of the National Cancer Institue, 102: 614–626.

Datamonitor. 2009. Breakfast Cereals: Global Industry Guide, http://www.fastmr.com/prod/47026_breakfast_cereals_global_industry_guide.aspx. Howe, G.R., Benito, E., Castelleto, R., Cornée, J., Estève, J., Gallagher, R.P., Iscovich, J.M., Deng-ao, J., Kaaks, R., Kune, G.A., Kune, S., L’bbe, K.A., Lee, H.P., Lee, M., Miller, A.B., Peters, R.K., Potter, J.D., Riboli, E., Slattery, M.L., Trichopoulos, D., Tuyns, A., Tzonou, A., Wittermore, A.S., Wu-Williams, A.H., and Shu, Z. (1992) Dietary intake of fiber and decreased risk of cancers of the colon and rectum: evidence from the combined analysis of 13 case-control studies. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 84: 1887–1896.

Kim, K.H., Tsao, R., Yang, R., and Cui, S.W. (2006) Phenolic acid profiles and antioxidant activities of wheat bran extracts and the effects of hydrolysis conditions, Food Chemistry95: 466–473.

Liu, R.H. (2004) Potential synergy of phytochemicals in cancer prevention: Mechanism of action. Journal of Nutrition, 134: 3479S–3485S.

Liyana-Pathirana, C.M. and Shahidi, F. (2006) Importance of insoluble-bound phenolics to antioxidant properties of wheat. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54: 1256–1264.

Muzhingi, T., Yeum, K.J., Russell, R.M., Johnson, E.J., Qin, J., and Tang, G. (2008) Determination of carotenoids in yellow maize, the effects of saponification and food preparations. International Journal of Vitamin Nutrition Research, 78: 112–120.

Shao, S., Duncan, A.M., Yang, R., Marcone, M.F., Rajcan, R., and Tsao, R. (2009) Tracking isoflavones: From soybean to soy flour, soy protein 3 isolates to functional soy bread. Journal of Functional Foods, 1: 119–127.

Slavin, J.L., Jacobs, D., and Marquart, L. (2000) Grain processing and nutrition. Critical Reviews in Food Science Nutrition, 40: 309–326.

Tsao, R. (2010) Chemistry and biochemistry of dietary polyphenols. Nutrients, 2: 1231–1246.

Uchida, K., Kono, S., Yin, G., Toyomura, K., Nagano, J., Mizoue, T., Mibu, R., Tanaka, M., Kakeji, Y., Maehara, Y., Okamura, T., Ikejiri, K., Futami, K., Maekawa, T., Yasunami, Y., Takenaka, K., Ichimiya, H., and Terasaka, R. (2010) Dietary fiber, source foods and colorectal cancer risk: the Fukuoka Colorectal Cancer Study. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology, 45: 1223–1231.

Wolever, T.M., Tosh, S.M., Gibbs, A.L., Brand-Miller, J., Duncan, A.M., Hart, V., Lamarche, B., Thomson, B.A., Duss, R., and Wood, P.J. (2010) Physicochemical properties of oat β -glucan influence its ability to reduce serum LDL cholesterol in humans: a randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 92: 723–732.

Zhou, K., Yin, J.J., and Yu, L. (2005) Phenolic acid, tocopherol and carotenoid compositions, and antioxidant functions of hard red winter wheat bran. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53: 3916–3922.