Challenging Ableism, Understanding Disability, Including Adults with Disabilities in Workplaces and Learning Spaces E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Serie: J-B ACE Single Issue Adult & Continuing Eeducation
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 223

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Disability can affect adults across the life span--and it isthe one minority group every person could join. This sourcebookaims to broaden the view of disability from a medical or economicconcern to a social justice concern. It examines practical, theoretical, and research aspects ofdisability--including those who question disabilityclassifications--and situates it as a political and socialjustice concern, technical and pragmatic concern, and personalexperience. The authors present the perspectives of individualswith disabilities, service providers, parents, and teachers andoffer analyses that range from the personal to the broadlypolitical. This is the 132nd volume in this Jossey Bass highereducation quarterly report series. Noted for its depth of coverage,this indispensable series explores issues of common interestto instructors, administrators, counselors, and policymakers in abroad range of adult and continuing education settings.

Leseprobe

Contents

Editor’s Notes

Chapter 1: Shifting Lenses: A Critical Examination of Disability in Adult Education

Disability in Adult Education

Concepts from Disability Studies

Making Connections

Chapter 2: Getting to Know You: The Prospect of Challenging Ableism Through Adult Learning

Nature and Role of Knowledge and Beliefs

Categorization and Conceptual Change

Ableist Categorization and the Challenge for Adult Learners

Role of Contact and Relationship

Challenging and Confronting Thinking

Effect of Contact on Ableist Understandings of Disability

Implications for Professional Development

Chapter 3: Conducting Research with the Disability Community: A Rights-Based Approach

Traditional Approaches to Research with the Disability Community

Transformative Paradigm: An Overarching Umbrella for Disability Research

Example of the Transformative Research Paradigm

Conclusion

Chapter 4: When the Black Dog Barks: An Autoethnography of Adult Learning in and on Clinical Depression

Learning Tasks of Depression

Conclusion

Chapter 5: Alterity: Learning Polyvalent Selves, Resisting Disabling Notions of the Self

Preface: Alterity Defined

Dissociative Identity Disorder

Other Explanations for Alterity

Alterity Matters: The Theoretical Importance of the Self

Disabling Notions of the Self

Alters as Discrete, Autonomous, and Conflicted

Alterity as the Product of Trauma

Conclusion

Chapter 6: Learning and Adaptation After Diagnosis: The Role of Parent Education

Parent Education

Parent Empowerment

Other Strategies

Conclusion

Chapter 7: Challenges and Opportunities of Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom Veterans with Disabilities Transitioning into Learning and Workplace Environments

Educational Environment

Work Environment

Conclusion

Chapter 8: Revisiting Debates on Learning Disabilities in Adult Education

A Look at the Past

Adult Learning Theories Lens

Adult Development Lens

Sociocultural Lens

Conclusion

Chapter 9: Americans with Disabilities Act as Amended: Principles and Practice

What Changed?

Testing the Waters: The First Court Cases Under the ADAAA

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act and the ADAAA

Implications for Recruiters, Hiring Managers, Department Heads, and Adult Educators

Implications for Adult and Higher Education

Conclusion

Chapter 10: Moving Forward: Two Paradigms and Takeaways

Concepts from Disability Studies

Concepts from the Technical Rational Perspective

Takeaways

Index

Other Titles Available

Statement of Ownership

Challenging Ableism, Understanding Disability, Including Adults with Disabilities in Workplaces and Learning Spaces

Tonette S. Rocco (ed.)

New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, no. 132

Susan Imel, Jovita M. Ross-Gordon, Coeditors-in-Chief

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Editor’s Notes

At present, there is no issue of diversity, privilege, or human rights in the field of adult education that has been given less attention than disability. In the U.S. adult education literature, looking back as far as the Knowles 1960 edition of the Handbook of Adult Education, disability was included in two handbooks (see Klugerman, 1989; Rocco and Fornes, 2010). From 1984 to 2010, ten articles were published on disability in Adult Education Quarterly. Five of these are on issues surrounding HIV/AIDS; the others are on diabetes and cardiac patient education. An issue of Adult Learning (2001) was dedicated to adults with disabilities, and a few books have been published (Gadbow and DuBois, 1998; Ross-Gordon, 1989; Jordan, 1996). While not complete, this brief listing illustrates the lack of attention paid to disability issues by adult education. We hope that this sourcebook brings attention to disability and helps the field broaden its view of disability from a medical or economic concern to a social justice concern.

Disability affects adults across the life span, at work, and while seeking further education. This sourcebook examines practical and research aspects of disability and presents reflections on experience with disability as a person with a disability, a service provider, parent, or teacher. The first three chapters situate disability as a political and social justice concern. In Chapter 1, Tonette S. Rocco and Antonio Delgado provide an overview on disability by presenting concepts and theories from disability studies useful for a critical examination of disability in adult education. In Chapter 2, Margaret A. McLean examines the role of contact and relationship in changing ableist beliefs and concepts about disability. In Chapter 3, Kelly M. Munger and Donna M. Mertens explore the philosophical and theoretical frameworks that are useful for conducting research with people with disabilities that supports social change and enhances human rights.

The next three chapters provide personal insights into disability from the perspectives of those with disabilities, questioning disability classifications, and parents of children with disabilities. In Chapter 4, Stephen Brookfield relates his personal learning journey to discover how best to cope with clinical depression. In Chapter 5, Wayland Walker queries how one type of human difference—alterity, the experience of multiple distinct consciousnesses, or “alters,” by one person—is pathologized in American culture. In Chapter 6, Thomas G. Reio, Jr., and Sandra L. Fornes explore their learning and adaptation after diagnosis of their children’s disability and offer suggestions for navigating the resources available to parents.

The last four chapters take a pragmatic stance to look at the experiences of disabled veterans, adults with learning disabilities, and the law. In Chapter 7, Fariba Ostovary and Janet Dapprich present an overview of issues related to transitioning from the military to the civilian workplace and learning environments of disabled military servicemen/women. Specific emphasis is placed on the unique experiences of veterans who became disabled while serving in Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom. In Chapter 8, Alisa Belzer and Jovita Ross-Gordon discuss the current policy emphasis on evidence-based instruction by examining two recent publications on adult learning disabilities that view learning disabilities as cognitive disorders and fail to attend to adult learning theory and the importance of a sociocultural perspective. In Chapter 9, Lorenzo Bowman reviews the impact of amendments and regulations that have updated the Americans with Disabilities Act in its twentieth year with an emphasis on employment and adult and higher education. Finally, in Chapter 10, Tonette S. Rocco describes the major themes discussed in the text regarding disability and presents takeaways for adult education.

Tonette S. Rocco

Editor

References

Gadbow, N. F., and DuBois, D. A. Adult Learners with Special Needs: Strategies and Resources for Postsecondary Education and Workplace Training. Melbourne, Fla.: Krieger Publishing, 1998.

Klugerman, P. B. “Developmentally Disabled Adult Learners.” In S. Merriam and P. Cunningham (eds.), Handbook of Adult and Continuing Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989.

Jordan, D. Teaching Adults with Learning Disabilities. Malabar, Fla.: Krieger Publishing, 1996.

Rocco, T., and Fornes, S. “Perspectives on Disability in Adult and Continuing Education.” In A. Rose, C. Kasworm, and J. Ross-Gordon (eds.), The Handbook of Adult and Continuing Education. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2010.

Ross-Gordon, J. M. Adults with Learning Disabilities: An Overview for the Adult Educator. (Information Series No. 337). Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, 1989. (ERIC No. ED315 664.)

Tonette S. Rocco is associate professor and graduate program director, Adult Education and Human Resource Development, and director of the Office of Academic Writing and Publication Support, Florida International University, Miami, Florida.

Chapter 1

Shifting Lenses: A Critical Examination of Disability in Adult Education

Tonette S. Rocco, Antonio Delgado

Adult educators discuss disability as an organizing variable, rarely troubling the concept of disability as an identity marker by examining its social construction.

Medical advances increase the number of people with disabilities who have conditions that might have caused death just years before. Environmental degradation through the rapid progression of business, industry, and technology contribute to increases in chronic disease. War, terrorism, and police actions are major causes of impairment (Priestley, 2001). In fact, of the 21.9 million veterans in the United States in 2009, one in four had a disability (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). In the year 2008, an estimated 12.1 percent of the noninstitutionalized population in the United States reported a disability (Erickson, Lee, and von Schrader, 2010). Due to medical advances at home and on the battlefield, growing numbers of the “well” disabled are demanding access to opportunities for education and training, work, and leisure.

The purpose of this chapter is to critique the ways adult educators discuss disability. To enhance the discourse on disability from a critical perspective, we present concepts and theories from disability studies useful for a critical examination of disability in adult education. Disability should be an important concern for adult education and adult educators for at least three reasons.

1. The process of becoming disabled provides opportunities for the person with the disability and his or her family to learn about the disability.

2. Increasing numbers of students with disabilities enroll in formal adult and higher education programs.

3. Disability is an identity marker that diminishes opportunities for work, education, and leisure.

We provide a brief discussion of the state of research and thinking on disability in adult education. Next, we present four concepts from disability studies: disability as social construction, the comprehensive theory of disability oppression (Charlton, 1998), critical disability theory (Rocco, 2005), and critical theory of “dis-citizenship” (Devlin and Pothier, 2006). We conclude the chapter by making connections between disability studies and adult education.

Disability in Adult Education

Adult educators conduct research based on specific impairment, such as HIV/AIDS (Courtenay, Merriam, and Reeves, 1998), learning disabilities (Jordan, 1996; Ross-Gordon, 1989), Deaf/Hard of Hearing. (Clark, 2002), cancer (Rager, 2003), and heart disease (Wise, Yun, and Shaw, 2000). Adult educators write about disability experiences as they relate to transformational learning around HIV/AIDS (Courtenay, Merriam, and Reeves, 1998), specialized health education programs (Wise, Yun, and Shaw, 2000), literacy and adult basic education (learning disabilities) (Jordan, 1996; Ross-Gordon, 1989), and education and workplace accommodations (Gadbow and DuBois, 1998). Often this research is from the perspective of medical or functional models. Few adult educators situate research on disability in critical theory when writing on and examining disability (Hahn, 1988).

We know race, gender, and class are socially constructed, but adult educators the field do not see disability as a constructed state; rather, disability is seen as an unfortunate condition, and the person with a disability is viewed as a poor unfortunate victim (Rocco, 2005). Adult educators rarely see or acknowledge the fluid boundaries of disability and how they intersect our other identities. Rather, they discuss disability as an organizing variable, rarely troubling the concept of disability as an identity marker by examining its social construction. For instance, Archie-Booker, Cervero, and Langone (1999) examined the politics of planning culturally relevant AIDS prevention education. The political and cultural aspects of the programs were not centered on AIDS as disability and as socially and politically constructed but rather on how relevant the education was to African American women. Certainly, a necessary step toward being inclusive is to acknowledge/honor this one aspect of identity, the African American female. However, ignoring the AIDS/HIV positive identity perpetuates the binary categorization and reductionism that underlie the American economic, legal, and political system (Delgado and Stefanic, 2001) and supports the dominant power structure.

Boshier (1991) warned that “the way this disease [AIDS] is discussed can influence relationships to it and our ability to learn or teach about it” (p. 15) and impacts our students who have this additional identity marker. In 1990, he critiqued the functionalist, medical approach of AIDS education. What is striking about Boshier’s series of papers (1990; 1991; 1993) is that the emergent notion of the sociopolitical construction of disability and disease was not taken up again until 2000 (Egan, 2000; Gorman, 2000).

As of 2011, the adult education work around disability issues has just barely broken ground on other important issues, ranging from the individual person to the social context. Some of the adult education literature involving disability issues has explored the way individuals make new meaning regarding their identity and environment as a result of their disability status (Baumgartner, 2002, 2005; Baumgartner and David, 2009; Courtenay, Merriam, and Reeves 1998; Courtenay, Merriam, Reeves, and Baumgartner, 2000), learning experiences parenting a child with a disability (Hill, 2001), or the interpersonal dynamics involving disability disclosure (Rocco, 2001). Other work has explored teaching strategies (Covington, 2004; Gadbow 2001, 2002; Haddad, 1995; Summers, 2008) to inform practice in formal adult and higher education programs. Last, examining the structural relationships of power (Gorman, 2000) and education as a mechanism for social change (Beziat, 1990) is a starting point for adult educators to engage in research that will further uncover discrimination of disabled people resulting in the diminished opportunity for work, education, and leisure.

Concepts from Disability Studies

The field of disability studies provides a location for the deconstruction of disability and an examination of the cultural, political, and social ramifications of disability in society (Rocco and Fornes, 2010). As an interdisciplinary field, it provides a location for theorizing and considering disability beyond the medical and economic perspectives.

Disability as a Social Construct

The power of naming is personal and political; often it is the first battleground for minority groups seeking civil rights (Zola, 1993). Oliver (1990) points out that definitions are important for three reasons:

1. They are important because “human beings give meanings to objects in the social world” (p. 2). These meanings influence our behavior toward the objects.

2. Definitions fulfill our need to identify and classify.

3. In order for society to ameliorate or deal with a social problem, “nothing more or less than a fundamental redefinition of the problem [is] necessary” (p. 3).

For instance, the earlier label “handicapped” has evolved to “people with disabilities” to “disabled people” by those in the disability rights movement. Gleeson (1999) reasons: “The term ‘disabled people’ serves a political purpose by foregrounding the oppression—in other words, the socially imposed disability—that bears down upon impaired people” (p. 9). Priestly (2001) explains that the term “disabled people” emphasizes the structural location of disability as “a form of social oppression residing outside the person” (p. xvii).

The definition of disability is contested terrain by people with specific disabilities (such as the Deaf) and their organizations and by disability studies scholars (Thomas, 2003), who use two meanings: “disability as restricted activity” (Thomas, 2003, p. 2) and disability as a form of social oppression (Oliver, 1990, 1996). Disability as restricted activity “corresponds to a normative meaning of disability in our culture: that is—that disability is about not being able to do things” (Thomas, 2003, p. 3). Restricted activity, disabling environments, and the invisibility of disability are by-products of ableism.

Ableism is “a network of beliefs, processes and practices that produces a particular kind of self and body (the corporeal standard) that is projected as the perfect, species-typical and therefore essential and fully human. Disability then, is cast as a diminished state of being human” (Campbell, 2001, p. 44). Ableism also includes paternalistic elements of sympathy, economic subordination, and treating adults like children who are “assumed to be helpless, dependent, asexual, economically unproductive, physically limited, emotionally immature, and acceptable only when they are unobtrusive” so that able-bodied people can “act as the protectors, guides, leaders, role models, and intermediates for disabled individuals” (Hahn, 1986, p. 130).

Disability is socially constructed, and it is the person-created environment that is disabling, not the physical, cognitive, or mental variation that an individual experiences (Hahn, 1988). The environment becomes disabling when spaces are created without regard to the needs of people with disabilities. Asch (2001) proposes a human variation approach, suggesting that instead of maintaining the dichotomy—disabled or not disabled—we should determine how to modify the environment, not the individual.

People with disabilities have a unique voice emerging from particular individual and group experiences. These experiences are as rich and varied as are the disabilities and their manifestations. Disability should be recognized with true minority group status instead of viewed as an individual anomaly. Discrimination and oppression against people with disabilities is so ordinary that it is invisible.

Comprehensive Theory of Disability Oppression

The comprehensive theory of disability oppression emerged as Charlton (1998) collected oral histories and reflected on the nature of disability and oppression around the world. The theory is explained through four tenets:

1. Political economy

2. Culture(s) and belief systems

3. (False) consciousness and alienation

4. Power and ideology

Political economy is informed by where and how individuals “are incorporated into a world system dominated by the few that control the means of production and force” (Charlton, 1998, p. 23). This world system keeps people with disabilities poor, unemployed, or underemployed, and sustains an industry that benefits from the oppression of people with disabilities. Disabled people are decidedly outcasts, surplus labor, and declassed. Under ordinary circumstances, disabled people will not be used to produce, exchange, and distribute political and economic goods and services.

Culture and belief systems support the attitude that disability is abnormal and pitiful. For instance, “ideas and beliefs are informed by and in cultures, [which] are partial expressions of a world in which the dualities of domination/subordination, superiority/inferiority, normality/abnormality are relentlessly reinforced and legitimized” (Charlton, 1998, p. 26).

False consciousness and alienation is internalizing the dominant view of disability by believing that one is not able to perform, is less capable, and is less worthy. Alienation becomes self-annihilation when it prevents disabled people from “knowing their real selves, their real needs, and their real capabilities” (Charlton, 1998, p. 27) and recognizing their options. Authentic consciousness informs being when an individual becomes critically aware of the social conditions, opportunities, and oppressive forces that exist.

The dominant group uses power and ideology to maintain order through the capacity to cause events and to control resources (Clegg, 1989). Education is useful in maintaining the dominant power structure through “teaching acquiescence to power structures” (Charlton, 1998, p. 31). Educational institutions further support oppression by labeling and separating disabled students from nondisabled students through separate structures (entry points, classrooms) and specially designed curricula and through “testing and evaluation biased toward the functional needs of the dominant culture” (Charlton, 1998, p. 33).

Critical Disability Theory

In 2005, Rocco presented an initial conceptualization of critical disability theory that emerged from her reading of the disability studies and the critical race theory literature. The six principles that explain the theory are:

1. Disabled people have a unique voice and complex experience.

2. Disability should be viewed as part of a continuum of human variation (Asch, 2001).

3. Disability is socially constructed (Oliver, 1990; 1996).

4. Ableism is invisible.

5. Disabled people have a right to self-determination (Gorman, 2000).

6. The commodification of labor and disability business (the industry that exists to care for people with disabilities such as nursing homes, step down facilities, and so on) combine to maintain a system of poverty and isolation among people with disabilities (Albrecht, 1992).

Devlin and Pothier (2006) introduced a critical theory of dis-citizenship that includes the following principles. First, people with disabilities experience “unequal citizenship” (p. 1). Citizenship is about more than individual status, it is “a practice that locates individuals in the larger community” (pp. 1–2) and includes access to meaningful work and the full spectrum of society. Second are issues involving language, definitions, and voice. Devlin and Pothier critique the language used to describe a person with “a disability” by pointing out that we do not say person with “a gender” or “a race.” Next they ask what constitutes a disability. Since disability has no essential nature and is socially constructed, they suggest context determines whether a person is disabled. Third, political insights on powerlessness and context (physical locations, roles and responsibilities, social values, institutional priorities, and political will) must be used to interrogate the hierarchy of difference, liberalism, and “deep structural assumptions such as the narrative of progress” (p. 9). Fourth, a primary goal is to move toward a barrier-free society. Applying these tenets and principles to research in adult education and disability will unmask systemic oppression and move adult educators away from the assumption that disability is a private, personal, and individual concern.

Making Connections

Disability is rarely explored as a social construct, a political concern, or an experience that warrants a theoretical framework in adult education. Since we rarely consider disability as an issue of power or think of ourselves as teaching or recruiting students with disabilities, it may not seem like an important issue. However, 11 percent of U.S. postsecondary students self-reported as having disabilities in 2003–2004, equal to the percentage of African Americans enrolled in the same year (U.S. Department of Education, 2006), and since that time, these numbers have grown. A large number of these students have invisible disabilities, such as learning disabilities, depression, traumatic brain injury, or back injuries. Some are entering college to study a field that does not require physical labor or skills diminished or altered by the disability.

Research on the experience of disability should be conducted that facilitates personal liberation, recognizes individual rights, and attends to the agenda of people with disabilities (Moore, Beazley, and Maelzer, 1998). This agenda includes access to and participation in education, meaningful work, and participation in the civic and social life of the community. Just as some in adult education have invited and made space for African American and feminist scholars, we need to make space for disability so that students feel comfortable with exploring research agendas centered on disability and adult education.

Novice scholars in adult education have few mentors with whom to discuss disability as a social construct or a political designation. However, adult educators investigate issues of power and privilege in terms of race, gender, and sexual orientation without being members of these groups (Brooks and Edwards, 1997; Johnson-Bailey and Cervero, 1998; Tisdell and Taylor, 1995). Can an able-bodied person conduct research that contributes to our knowledge of disability as a sociopolitical construct? Disability theorists maintain the ability to conduct research is in how the questions are framed (Linton, 1998). Questions about disability could interrogate ableism, voice, experience, and other manifestations of power and privilege in adult education.

When discussing multicultural issues, we rarely concede that disabled people constitute a minority group with shared experiences of discrimination and few opportunities for education and employment (Ross-Gordon, 1991). The study of disability and institutional and structural barriers to educational access should not be seen in isolation from the work already being done on power and privilege in adult education. Instead, disability should be integrated into the stream of research on power and privilege. While disability scholars have “fought hard to get disability included in the race-class-gender triad” (Davis, 2001, p. 535), inclusion happens only in the disability studies literature, not in the adult education literature. In order to theorize disability as a public issue, it must become as visible as the race-class-gender triad.

References

Albrecht, G. L. The Disability Business: Rehabilitation in America. Sage Library of Social Research, no. 190. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992.

Archie-Booker, D. E., Cervero, R. M., and Langone, C. A. “The Politics of Planning Culturally Relevant AIDS Prevention Education for African-American Women.” Adult Education Quarterly, 1999, 49, 163–175.

Asch, A. “Critical Race Theory, Feminism, and Disability: Reflections on Social Justice and Personal Identity.” Ohio State Law Journal, 2001, 62(1) 391–423.

Baumgartner, L. M. “Living and Learning with HIV/AIDS: Transformational Tales Continued.” Adult Education Quarterly, 2002, 53(1), 44–59.

Baumgartner, L. M. “HIV-Positive Adults’ Meaning Making over Time.” In J. Egan, ed., HIV/AIDS Sourcebook (pp. 11–20). New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, no. 105. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2005.

Baumgartner, L. M., and David, K. N. “PoZitively Transformative: The Transformative Learning of People Living with HIV.” Proceedings of the 50th Annual Adult Education Research Conference. Louisville, Ky.: National-Louis University, 2009.

Beziat, C. “Educating America’s Last Minority: Adult Education’s Role in the Americans with Disabilities Act.” Adult Learning, 1990, 2(2), 21–23.

Boshier, R. “Ideological and Epistemological Foundations of Education About AIDS.” Proceedings of the 31st Annual Adult Education Research Conference. Athens: University of Georgia, 1990.

Boshier, R. “Popular Discourse Concerning Women and AIDS.” Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Adult Education Research Conference. Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1991.

Boshier, R. W. “Constructing HIV and Magic Johnson: Discourse, Education and Power.” Proceedings of the 34th Annual Adult Education Research. State College: Pennsylvania State University, 1993.

Brooks, A. K., and Edwards, K. A. “Narratives of Women’s Sexual Identity Development: A Collaborative Inquiry with Implications for Rewriting Transformative Learning Theory.” Proceedings of the 38th Annual Adult Education Research Conference. Stillwater: Oklahoma State University, 1997.

Campbell, F. K. “Inciting Legal Fictions: Disability’s Date with Ontology and the Ableist Body of the Law.” Griffith Law Review, 2001, 10, 42–62.

Charlton, J. I. Nothing About Us Without Us: Disability Oppression and Empowerment. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.

Clark, M. “Do You Hear What I See: Learning Experiences of Black Men Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing.” Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Adult Education Research Conference. Raleigh: North Carolina State University, 2002.

Clegg, S. R. Frameworks of Power. London: Sage, 1989.