Child Neuropsychology E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1054

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Child Neuropsychology

“Reed and Warner-Rogers have made a substantial contribution to the development of child neuropsychology, which has suffered a dearth of comprehensive texts, in this broad-ranging, well-conceived, and authoritative volume.”
Professor J Graham Beaumont, Department of Clinical Psychology, Royal Hospital for Neuro-disability, London

“For me, they have more than succeeded in meeting their goals for combining science and practice, staying academically grounded but accessible, and powerfully presenting the case for the necessary focus on developmental variables. The text is both fascinating and readable throughout.”
Jane Holmes Bernstein, Department of Psychiatry, Children’s Hospital Boston / Harvard Medical School

“A valuable addition to the libraries of pediatric/child neuropsychologists. It takes a somewhat different and refreshing approach as compared to existing texts, focusing on neurobehavioral functions rather than clinical disorders.The book places a strong emphasis on clinical translation and application that should appeal to practitioners, but is firmly grounded in state-of-the-art theory and research.”
Professor Keith Yeates, Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Research Institute, Ohio State University

“Here in a single volume, the reader will find summaries of current theory and knowledge regarding nearly all of the most common disorders seen by pediatric neuropsychologists. Whether read as the textbook for a course, or bought as a self-study aid, those new to the field will find this information to be invaluable. More experienced professionals are sure to appreciate well-edited chapters that will quickly bring them ‘up to speed’ on recent advances. This is an immensely useful book that should be a part of every pediatric neuropsychologist’s library.”
Steve Hughes, PhD, LP, ABPdN, Director of Education and Research, The TOVA Company

Based on the most up-to-date research, Child Neuropsychology is a thorough and accessible guide to the key concepts and basic processes central to neuropsychological assessment and child evaluation. Essays by leading experts in the field cover basic neuropsychological functions and related disorders in the context of brain development.

Divided into three parts, the text begins with clear definitions of the concepts and methodology of brain development in child neuropsychology. Part two examines normal and abnormal functional development. The final part considers professional practice and provides valuable insights into the special problems of neuropsychological assessment of infants and children in clinical and educational settings.

Leseprobe

Contents

List of Illustrations

Notes on Contributors

Acknowledgments

1 Introduction

Reference

Part I

2 The Importance of Tracing Developmental Trajectories for Clinical Child Neuropsychology

Prenatal Learning

Neuroconstructivism and Postnatal Learning

“Spared” versus “Impaired” Processing?

Concrete Examples from Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience

The Need for Developmental Trajectories

Conclusion

References

3 Child Brain Development

Major Stages in the Development of the Human Brain

Embryonic Development of the Brain

Fetal Development of the Brain

Developmental Disorders of the Cerebral Cortex

Postnatal Development

References

4 Genetics of Learning Abilities and Disabilities: Implications for Cognitive Neuroscience and Translational Research

Multivariate Genetic Analysis

Generalist Genes for Learning Abilities and Disabilities

Generalist Genes for Other Cognitive Abilities

Specialist Genes and Specialist Environments

Implications of Generalist Genes for Neuroscience

Implications of Generalist Genes and Specialist Environments for Translational Research

Acknowledgments

References

5 Brain Plasticity: Evidence from Children with Perinatal Brain Injury

Children with Perinatal Brain Injury: Lesion Characterization

Overall Intellectual Performance: Performance IQ and Verbal IQ

Language Development in Children with Perinatal Stroke

Visuospatial Cognition in Children with Perinatal Brain Injury

Emotion Processing

Language, Spatial Cognition, and Emotion: Labeling Emotions

Literacy: The Intersection of Language and Space

Gradients of Plasticity: Language, Space, and Emotion

Acknowledgments

References

6 Neuroimaging in Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Disorders

Brain Imaging Techniques

Comparison of Different Neuroimaging Techniques

Normal Neurodevelopmental Changes that Influence Pediatric Neuroimaging

Current Status of Neuroimaging in Childhood Psychopathology

Limitations of Neuroimaging Studies in Childhood

Future Trends and Implications for Neuroimaging in Child Psychiatry

Developments in Imaging Technology

Conclusion

References

7 The Concept and Development of General Intellectual Ability

General Intelligence

The Information-processing Basis of General Intelligence

The Development of General Intelligence

Low General Intelligence and Development

General Intelligence and Developmental Disorders

General Intelligence Genetics and the Definition and Cause of Developmental Disorders

Acknowledgments

References

Part II

8 The Neuropsychology of Language Development

Language Acquisition in Typical Development

Language Acquisition in Developmental Disorders

Congenital Language Disorders

Specific Language Impairment

Treatment of Language Disorders

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

9 The Neuropsychology

1. Current Neurobiological Models of Normal Infant Development of Spatial Vision

2. Development of Spatial Selective Attention for Action in Infancy

3. Development of Dorsal and Ventral Streams

4. Development of Action Modules for Reaching, Grasping, and Motor Planning

5. Development of Action Modules for Locomotion and Navigation

6. Development of Spatial Localization in Location Memory Tasks

7. Summary of Abnormal Spatial Development

8. Summary of the Developmental Model of Visual Spatial Development

References

10 The Neuropsychology of Children’s Memory

A Category System for Memory

Luria’s Model of Brain Function and Development

Organization of Memory

Recall versus Recognition

The Process of Memory

Implications for Assessment and Future Research

References

11 The Neuropsychology of Attention Development

The Neuroanatomy of Attention

Normal Neuropsychological Development of Attention

Attention Psychopathology Associated with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

ADHD Case Study

References

12 Executive Functions and Development

Measurement: Problems and Solutions

Neurological Substrate and Fractionation of Executive Function

Normal Neuropsychological Development of Executive Function

Abnormal Development

Behavioral Genetics of Executive Function

Clinical Implications and Current Research

Methodological Challenges and Future Directions

References

13 Self-regulation in the Developing Brain

Self-regulation: Concepts and Definitions

Neurobiology of Emotion Regulation

The Neural Substrates of Self-regulation in Development

Conclusion

References

14 Social Neuroscience

What is Empathizing?

Fractionating Empathy

Development of Empathy

Sex Differences in Empathizing

Neuroimaging Studies of Empathizing and Emotion

Neuroimaging of Discrete Emotions

Empathizing with Discrete Emotions

Common and Discrete Neural Substrates of Empathy

Acknowledgments

References

15 Reading

Typical Neuropsychological Development of Reading across Languages

Atypical Neuropsychological Development of Reading across Languages

Neuroimaging of Typical and Atypical Readers

Implications of Current Research

References

16 Developmental Dyscalculia

Defining Dyscalculia

Is Developmental Dyscalculia a Domain-general or Domain-specific Deficit?

Diagnosing Dyscalculia

Intervention

Conclusion

References

Part III

17 Neuropsychological Assessment in a Neurological Setting

General Issues

Supporting Neurological Management

Traumatic Brain Injuries

Epilepsy

Conclusion

References

18 Neuropsychological Assessment in Child Mental Health Contexts

The Function of Neuropsychological Assessment in Child Mental Health

Theoretical Models

A Neuropsychological Perspective in Childhood Mental Health

Conducting Neuropsychological Assessment in a Child Mental Health Setting

Conclusion

References

19 Applications of Neuropsychology in Schools

Incidence of Neurological Problems in Educational Contexts

Current Links between Neuropsychology and Education

Barriers to the Relationship between Neuropsychology and Education

Beyond Individual Assessment: Applying Neuropsychology with Groups of Children

Neuropsychology and Educational Intervention and Rehabilitation

Linking Neuroscience to Education: A Role for Child Neuropsychologists

Case Study

Effective Neuropsychology-Education Links in Individual Casework

Risks of Conducting Neuropsychological Assessments in Schools

Future Directions for Links between Neuropsychology and Education

Conclusion

References

20 Neuropsychological Assessment in Medical Contexts

Diabetes

Sickle Cell Disease

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

General Implications for Neuropsychological Testing in Medical Settings

References

21 A Clinician’s Guide to Child Neuropsychological Assessment and Formulation

Neuropsychological Assessment: A Valuable Endeavor?

The Building Blocks of Case Formulation

The Assessment Process

A Five-step Template

A “Gold Standard” of Assessment?

Step 1 Clarification: What, Why, Why Now?

Step 2 History and Assessment

Step 3 Formulation

Step 4 Communication: Sharing Formulations, Improving Understanding

Step 5 Monitoring and Reassessment

References

Plates

Index

Praise for Child Neuropsychology

“Reed and Warner-Rogers have made a substantial contribution to the development of child neuropsychology, which has suffered a dearth of comprehensive texts, in this broad-ranging, well-conceived and authoritative volume. Balanced, extensively referenced, and sufficiently ‘international’, this very readable book addresses both theoretical and practical aspects of the discipline. It will be an invaluable resource for neuropsychologists working with children suffering from neurological injury and disease, those training for this role, and clinicians in cognate disciplines.”

Professor J Graham Beaumont, Department of Clinical Psychology, Royal Hospital for Neuro-disability, London

“The authors have supplied their ‘missing textbook’. For me, they have more than succeeded in meeting their goals for combining science and practice, staying academically grounded but accessible, and powerfully presenting the case for the necessary focus on developmental variables in the investigation of the neuropsychology of the child, both in health and disease. The organization of their volume as a whole – key concepts, focus on principles of normal development within and across behavioral domains, clinical practice with children developing atypically – is reinforced chapter by chapter in the interweaving and integration of these three themes by a team of high caliber thinkers and writers. The contributions are consistent in range and quality. The text is both fascinating and readable throughout.”

Jane Holmes Bernstein PhD, Department of Psychiatry, Children’s Hospital Boston/Harvard Medical School

“The book will be a valuable addition to the libraries of pediatric/child neuropsychologists. It takes a somewhat different and refreshing approach as compared to existing texts, focusing on neurobehavioral functions rather than clinical disorders. The book places a strong emphasis on clinical translation and application that should appeal to practitioners, but is firmly grounded in state-of-the-art theory and research.”

Professor Keith Yeates, Department of Pediatrics,Children’s Research Institute, Ohio State University

“Here in a single volume, the reader will find summaries (some written by experts in the field) of current theory and knowledge regarding nearly all of the most common disorders seen by pediatric neuropsychologists. Whether read as the textbook for a course, or bought as a self-study aid, those new to the field will find this information to be invaluable. More experienced professionals are sure to appreciate well-edited chapters that will quickly bring them ‘up to speed’ on recent advances. In any case, Child Neuropsychology is unlikely to spend time collecting dust on the shelf. This is an immensely useful book that should be a part of every pediatric neuropsychologist’s library.”

Steve Hughes, PhD, LP, ABPdN,

Director of Education and Research, The TOVA Company

This edition first published 2008

© 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.

Registered Office

John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom

Editorial Offices

350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148–5020, USA

9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK

The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.

The right of Jonathan Reed and Jody Warner-Rogers to be identified as the author of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Child neuropsychology: concepts, theory, and practice / edited by Jonathan Reed and Jody Warner-Rogers.

p.; cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978–1-4051-5266-2 (pbk.: alk. paper) 1. Child neuropsychology. I. Reed, Jonathan, 1965–

II. Warner-Rogers, Jody. [DNLM: 1. Child Development. 2. Neuropsychology. 3. Child. 4. Developmental Disabilities–physiopathology. 5. Developmental Disabilities–psychology. 6. Neuropsychological Tests. WL 103.5 C5356 2008]

RJ486.5.C46 2008

618.92′8–dc22

2007049204

For Mandy and our children, Luke, Simon, Poppy, and Kitty

For my brothers and sisters and for Mum and Dad – wish you could be here to see it. J.R.

To Marcus – for helping me to be. J.W.-R.

Illustrations

List of Figures

2.1Changes in scores on the Bayley Scale of Infant Development.2.2Performance of children on the Benton Facial Recognition Test.2.3Performance by children with autism on a face recognition task.3.1Views of the developing brain in Carnegie stages 12, 13, 15, and 17.3.2Overview of regional patterning of the neural tube.3.3Overview of the histogenesis of the cerebellum.3.4Views of the developing human brain in the fourth, sixth, and eighth gestational months, and in a neonate.3.5Histogenesis of the cerebral cortex.3.6Radial and tangential migration of cortical neurons.3.7Overview of neuronal migration disorders.4.1Three hypothesized mechanisms of the effects of a single gene on the brain.5.1Pronominal use in biographical interviews.5.2Use of complex syntax in narratives.5.3Hierarchical forms.5.4Expressing positive emotions.5.5Labeling facial expressions.6.1Examples of MRI images.7.1Anderson’s model of minimal cognitive architecture.7.2Morton’s causal modeling framework.8.1Number of phrases on the infant form of the MacArthur–Bates CDI.8.2Number of words on the toddler form of the MacArthur–Bates CDI.8.3Longitudinal growth curves for the productive vocabulary of three different typically developing children.8.4Relationship between grammar and vocabulary size.8.5Grammar as a function of vocabulary size in children with Williams versus Down syndrome.9.1The Atkinson and Braddick model of visual spatial development.9.2Schematic model of different action modules within the dorsal stream.9.3Schematic model of development of preferential looking and reaching.12.1The Cooper and Shallice (2000) implementation of the “supervisory attentional system” model.12.2Surface and medial views of the brain, showing key regions of the prefrontal cortex.12.3Luria’s hand game.14.1Baron-Cohen’s 1994 model of mindreading.14.2Baron-Cohen’s 2005 model of empathizing.14.3The normal distribution of empathy in the population.14.4Original model for face perception and suggested modifications.16.1Dyscalculic 9-year-olds’ performance compared with matched controls.20.1Model of the relationship between diabetes variables and neurocognitive development.

List of Plates

Plate 1Neurulation in human embryos.Plate 2Semilobar holoprosencephaly.Plate 3MRIs of some malformations of the cerebral cortex.Plate 4The Rey–Osterrieth figure.Plate 5Frontal brain regions mediating emotion regulation processes.Plate 6Antisocial children in a go/no-go task following a negative mood induction.Plate 7Brain regions involved in processing socially relevant stimuli.Plate 8Brain areas involved in typical reading development.Plate 9Capacity-test screen shots from the Dyscalculia Screener.

Notes on Contributors

Ruksana Ahmed is a chartered clinical psychologist with specialist experience in providing assessments and interventions for children with neurodevelopmental disorders and their families. She currently works at the Centre for Interventional Paediatric Psychopharmacology (CIPP) within the Child and Adolescent Mental Health Department of Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London. As a member of the CIPP team, she is involved in a number of research projects which are continuing to inform pharmacological and psychological practice for children with a range of highly complex needs and their families.

Mike Anderson is Director of the Neurocognitive Development Unit of the School of Psychology at the University of Western Australia. He took his undergraduate degree in psychology at the University of Edinburgh and his PhD at the University of Oxford under the supervision of Pat Rabbitt. He was a lecturer at the University of Edinburgh and a senior scientist at the Medical Research Council’s Cognitive Development Unit in London before moving to Western Australia in 1990. His research interests are in developmental psychology, particularly in understanding the mechanisms underlying individual differences and developmental changes in intelligence.

Dagmara Annaz is a Lecturer in Developmental Psychology at the University of Edinburgh and Honorary Research Fellow at Birkbeck, University of London. She is part of the team that was awarded the Queen’s Anniversary Prize for Higher and Further Education in 2006. She studies cognitive abilities in developmental disorders.

Janette Atkinson gained her PhD from the University of Cambridge, followed by postdoctoral research at the Behavioral Genetics Institute, Colorado, and the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. In Cambridge, she jointly started the Visual Development Unit supported by the Medical Research Council, the first interdisciplinary team in developmental vision, combining psychology, ophthalmology, neuroscience, and neurology. She is recognized internationally as a leading researcher in neurobiological models of visual brain development, pioneering innovative techniques for assessing vision, visual disability, and blindness in infants and children. She has over 300 scientific publications to her name and is a Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences, a member of the Williams Syndrome Foundation Professional Advisory Panel, and a founder of the International Child Vision Research Society. She holds a professorship in psychology at University College London (UCL) and a visiting professorship at the University of Oxford. She is UCL Pro-Provost for North America, Coordinator for Athena SWAN (careers for women in SET), and continues to direct the Visual Development Unit at University College London and the University of Oxford.

Simon Baron-Cohen is Professor of Developmental Psychopathology at the University of Cambridge and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. He is Director of the Autism Research Centre in Cambridge. He holds degrees in human sciences from New College, Oxford, a PhD in psychology from University College London, and an MPhil in clinical psychology from the Institute of Psychiatry, London. He held lectureships in both of these departments in London before moving to Cambridge in 1994. He is also Director of the Cambridge Lifespan Asperger Syndrome Service. Among his publications, he is the author of Mindblindness (1995), The Essential Difference: Men, Women and theExtreme Male Brain (2003), and Prenatal Testosterone in Mind (2005), and the editor of Understanding Other Minds (1993, 2001), The Maladapted Mind (1997), and Synaesthesia (1997). He has also written books for parents and teachers, such as Autism: The Facts (1993), Tourette Syndrome: The Facts (1998), and Teaching Children with Autism to Mind Read (1998). He is the author of the DVD-ROM Mind Reading: An Interactive Guide to Emotions (2003), which was nominated for a BAFTA award for Best Off-line Learning. He has been awarded prizes from the American Psychological Association, the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BA), and the British Psychological Society (BPS) for his research into autism. In 2007 he was President of the Psychology Section of the BA and Vice President of the National Autistic Society, and he received the 2006 Presidents’ Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychological Knowledge from the BPS. His current research is testing the “extreme male brain” theory of autism at the neural, endocrine, and genetic levels.

Brian Butterworth is Professor of Cognitive Neuropsychology at the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience of University College London. He taught at Cambridge for eight years and is Professorial Fellow at the University of Melbourne, and has held visiting appointments at Padua, Trieste, MIT, and the Max Planck Institute at Nijmegen. He was elected Fellow of the British Psychological Society in 1993 and of the British Academy in 2002. He has been the coordinator of two European networks to research the neural basis of mathematical abilities, Neuromath: Mathematics and the Brain (2000–3) and Numbra: Numeracy and Brain Development (2004–7). He is currently working with colleagues around the world on the neuropsychology and genetics of mathematical abilities.

Bhismadev Chakrabarti is the Charles and Katharine Darwin Research Fellow at Darwin College, University of Cambridge. He holds a degree in chemistry from the University of Delhi, India, and a degree in natural sciences from the University of Cambridge. His doctoral research with Simon Baron-Cohen focused on genetic, neuroimaging, and behavioral studies of emotion processing and empathy. He is currently a Senior Research Associate at the Cambridge Autism Research Centre.

Frederic Dick is a Senior Lecturer at the Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development of the School of Psychology at Birkbeck, University of London, and Assistant Research Scientist at the Center for Research in Language at the University of California, San Diego. Much of his work focuses on the acquisition of spoken language and other complex auditory skills, and the way in which these processes shape functional and structural organization in the brain.

Hans J. ten Donkelaar studied medicine at the University of Nijmegen in The Netherlands, where he received his MD (1974) as well as his PhD (1975). In 1978, he was appointed Associate Professor of Neuroanatomy in the Department of Anatomy and Embryology of that university. His research interests are developmental and comparative aspects of motor systems, developmental disorders of the CNS, and neurodegenerative diseases. He is co-author of The Central Nervous System of Vertebrates (with Rudolf Nieuwenhuys and Charles Nicholson, 1998), Clinical Neuroembryology:Development and Developmental Disorders of the Human Central Nervous System (with Martin Lammens and Akira Hori, 2006), and an anatomy and embryology textbook in Dutch, which is now in its third edition (with Anthony Lohman and Antoon Moorman, 2007). In 1998, he joined the Department of Neurology of the Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center to do research in developmental and neurodegenerative diseases. He is currently working on a book on brain circuitry and its disorders.

Ian Frampton trained in the Clinical and Community Psychology Doctoral Program of the University of Exeter and held the postdoctoral Fellowship in Developmental Neuropsychology at the Institute of Psychiatry, London, from 1996 to 1998. During this time, he worked with children with cerebral palsy and other neurodevelopmental disorders, including obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. He is currently Consultant in Paediatric Psychology in Cornwall and Clinical Co-Director of the Centre for Clinical Neuropsychology Research at the University of Exeter. He is a Visiting Research Consultant to the Regional Eating Disorders Research Team at Ulleval University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.

Usha Goswami is Professor of Education at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. She is also Director of the university’s Centre for Neuroscience in Education, which uses EEG techniques to study the neural basis of dyslexia and dyscalculia. Previously, she was Professor of Cognitive Developmental Psychology at the Institute of Child Health, University College London (1997–2003), and University Lecturer in Experimental Psychology at the University of Cambridge (1990–7). She received her PhD from the University of Oxford in 1987. Her current research examines relations between phonology and reading, with special reference to the neural underpinnings of rhyme and rhythm in children’s reading. She has received a number of career awards, including the British Psychological Society Spearman Medal, the Norman Geschwind-Rodin Prize for Dyslexia Research, and Fellowships from the National Academy of Education (USA) and the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (Germany).

Andrew Graham is a consultant neurologist at Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, with a specialist interest in cognitive and behavioral neurology. He contributes to the Addenbrooke’s Memory and Cognitive Disorders Clinic, and his research interests include developing novel neuropsychological tasks to detect early frontal lobe dysfunction.

Sue Harrison is a clinical pediatric neuropsychologist working at Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London. She is also a fully qualified teacher and an educational psychologist. She has worked in mainstream and special schools with pupils from nursery to secondary age, including those with neurological, learning, and behavior problems. She is interested in meeting the educational needs of children with neurological issues, and is actively researching in the area of epilepsy and its effect on cognitive abilities and educational outcome.

Sarah Helps is a consultant clinical psychologist working both within the UK National Health Service and in private practice. She has a special interest in working with children and young people with neuropsychological and neurodevelopmental difficulties and the impact of these on the individual and their family and social context.

Jane Hood is a consultant pediatric neuropsychologist in pediatric neurosciences at Guy’s and St. Thomas’ Hospital, London. She is also a qualified educational psychologist and has recently completed a CPD doctorate in educational psychology. She worked as an educational psychologist for several years before training in pediatric neuropsychology. Prior to that, as a qualified teacher, she taught in a number of special schools, working with children with severe emotional and behavioral difficulties, and moderate through to profound learning difficulties. She has published papers on memory disorders in children and the cognitive effects of stimulant medication on children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Arthur MacNeill Horton, Jr. received his EdD degree in counselor education from the University of Virginia in 1976. He also holds diplomas in clinical psychology and behavioral psychology from the American Board of Professional Psychology and the American Board of Professional Neuropsychology. He is the author or editor of over 15 books, more than 50 book chapters, and over 150 journal articles. He is a past president of the American Board of Professional Neuropsychology and the National Academy of Neuropsychology. He previously worked as a Program Administrator at the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health, with responsibilities for neuropsychology.

Claire Hughes is a Reader in Developmental Psychology in the Department of Social and Developmental Psychology of the University of Cambridge. She also heads the Social Development Research Group of the Centre for Family Research and is a Fellow of Newnham College, Cambridge. Her current research interests include cognitive development (with a special focus on executive functions and theory of mind) and social development (with a special focus on developmental psychopathology).

Annette Karmiloff-Smith is a Professorial Research Fellow at Birkbeck, University of London. She has a doctorate from the University of Geneva, where she worked with Piaget, and is a Fellow of the British Academy and Academy of Medical Sciences. She was awarded the 1995 British Psychological Society Book Award for Beyond Modularity. In 2002, she won the European Science Foundation Latsis Prize for Cognitive Sciences. She has honorary doctorates from Louvain and Zhejiang Universities. In 2004, she was awarded a CBE. She is the author of seven books and 200 book chapters and journal articles; her writings have been translated into 17 languages.

Yulia Kovas is a Lecturer at Goldsmiths College, London, and an Honorary Visiting Lecturer at the Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College, London. She received her PhD in 2007 from the Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre of the Institute of Psychiatry. She received her first degree in 1996 in world literature, linguistics, and pedagogy from the University of St. Petersburg, Russia, and taught children of all ages for six years. She received a BSc in psychology from Birkbeck, University of London, in 2003, and an MSc in social, genetic, and developmental psychiatry from King’s College, London, in 2004. Her current interests include the genetic and environmental etiology of individual differences in mathematical ability and disability and the etiology of covariation and comorbidity between different learning abilities and disabilities. She is also involved in research into the etiology of common psychopathology, including depression, anxiety, addiction, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Robert Leech is a postdoctoral researcher in the School of Psychology at Birkbeck, University of London. His research focuses on the development of linguistic and auditory processing and analogical reasoning, using behavioral, neuroimaging, and computational methodologies.

Susan C. Levine is a Professor in the Department of Psychology, the Department of Comparative Human Development, and the Committee on Education of the University of Chicago. Her research focuses on mathematical, spatial, and language development, and how variations in input affect the development of typically developing children and children with early brain injury.

Marc D. Lewis is a Professor of Human Development and Applied Psychology at the University of Toronto. He specializes in the study of personality development as it relates to emotion and emotion regulation. His work is informed by developmental psychology, affective neuroscience, and a dynamic systems perspective on brain and behavior. His research has focused on transitions in emotional development and, in collaboration with Isabela Granic, he has developed a state space grid methodology for analyzing socioemotional behavior as a dynamic system. More recent work utilizes EEG methods for identifying the neural underpinnings of emotion regulation in normal and clinically referred children and for assessing neural changes corresponding with successful treatment. His papers on the contribution of dynamic systems theory and affective neuroscience to understanding human development have appeared in such journals as Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Child Development, Development andPsychopathology, and the Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology.

Marko Nardini studied psychology and philosophy at the University of Oxford, and gained a PhD in psychology from University College London. His doctoral work, supervised by Janette Atkinson, was on normal and atypical development of spatial cognition. He has continued his postdoctoral research at Oxford, University College London, and Birkbeck, University of London.

Ruth Nass is a pediatric neurologist at New York University Medical Center. Her clinical interests include dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism. Her research interests are in the cognitive consequences of congenital stroke and risk factors for autism in tuberous sclerosis.

Robert Plomin is Medical Research Council Research Professor and Director of the Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre of the Institute of Psychiatry in London. He received his PhD in psychology from the University of Texas at Austin in 1974. He was then at the Institute for Behavioral Genetics in Boulder, Colorado (1974–86) and at Pennsylvania State University (1986–94) until he moved to London and launched the Twins’ Early Development Study. His current research combines quantitative genetic and molecular genetic analyses of learning abilities and disabilities in childhood.

Jonathan Reed is a clinical psychologist in private practice specializing in child neuropsychology. He is a director and co-founder of a community child neuropsychology rehabilitation service, Recolo UK Ltd. He has worked as a child neuropsychologist at Guy’s Hospital, London, and at the Royal London Hospital, and as a developmental psychologist in East Kent. He was also a researcher on the National Traumatic Brain Injury Study. His major interest is in applying scientific knowledge from the rapidly expanding field of child neuroscience to clinical practice.

Judy S. Reilly is a developmental psycholinguist. She is a Professor of Psychology at San Diego State University and the University of Poitiers in France. Her research focuses on the development of language and literacy as well as emotion in typically developing children and those with neurodevelopmental disorders.

Fiona Richardson received her PhD in cognitive science from the University of Hertfordshire. She integrates a range of different approaches, such as brain imaging, computational modeling, and behavioral testing, to explore general mechanisms of development, and in particular the development of language skills across the lifespan.

Paramala J. Santosh is a consultant child and adolescent neuropsychiatrist who is the Head of the Centre for Interventional Paediatric Psychopharmacology at Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London. He is recognized as an international expert in developmental neuropsychiatry and pediatric psychopharmacology. He has published widely and has conducted research in neuroimaging, pediatric psychopharmacology, comorbidity of autism, ADHD and bipolar disorders, and childhood dementias. He is an Honorary Senior Lecturer at both the Institute of Child Health and the Institute of Psychiatry in London, and is the Joint Programme Director for the Great Ormond Street Hospital and Royal London Hospital Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Training Scheme. He is a member of the Neurosciences Subcommittee of the Medicines for Children Research Network.

Peta Sharples studied medicine at St. Mary’s Hospital, London. She trained in pediatric neurology at Great Ormond Street Hospital, Oxford and Newcastle, where she was an Action Research Training Fellow and First Assistant in Paediatric Neuroscience. Her PhD, which described the relationship between clinical outcome and cerebral metabolism in children with severe traumatic brain injury, was awarded the Michael Blacow Prize of the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health and the Ronnie MacKeith Prize of the British Paediatric Neurology Association. She is a consultant pediatric neurologist in Bristol. As well as leading the pediatric neuro-rehabilitation service at Frenchay Hospital, she heads a clinical and experimental program of research, funded by grants from national bodies including the Department of Health, the British Brain and Spine Foundation, the Royal College of Surgeons, and Cancer and Leukaemia in Childhood.

Maxine Sinclair is a clinical child psychologist at South London and Maudsley Foundation Trust and Honorary Tutor at the Institute of Psychiatry, London. Her research interests are in developmental neuropsychology and childhood hyperkinesis.

Henry Soper is a faculty member of the Clinical Psychology Program at The Fielding Graduate University in Santa Barbara, California. He developed and is the Director of the Neuropsychology Concentration at Fielding, and teaches a certificate program in school neuropsychology. He is also the Director of the Developmental Neuropsychology Laboratory in Ventura, California. He is known internationally for his work on autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, handedness, schizophrenia, experimental and clinical neuropsychology, experimental psychology, and language development. For many years he directed the clinical neuropsychology internship program at Camarillo State Hospital. His current research includes investigations into cognitive hemispheric specialization and the bases of different forms of intellectual functioning. He is also investigating the neuropsychology of expressive and receptive prosody. He is the author of over 70 scientific articles, chapters, and presentations in the basic and clinical neurosciences, and has held several National Institutes of Health and other research fellowships.

Joan Stiles is Professor of Cognitive Science and the Director of the Center for Human Development and the Human Development Program at the University of California, San Diego. Her research employs both behavioral and functional neuroimaging methodologies to explore the relation between brain and cognitive development in typically developing children and children with neurodevelopmental disorders.

Eric Taylor is a child neuropsychiatrist. He is Head of the Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Department of the Institute of Psychiatry at King’s College, London, and chairs an interdisciplinary research group on the childhood problems that lead to poor adult mental health. His personal research interests are in childhood hyperkinesis, psychopharmacology, and neuropsychiatric conditions in childhood. This currently takes him (usually in collaboration) into neuroimaging and experimental psychological studies, molecular genetics, clinical nosography, longitudinal epidemiology, treatment trials, and community surveys of needs for treatment. He is lead clinician for the outpatient teams at the Maudsley Hospital, has been Vice-Dean and Deputy Registrar of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, and chairs the Paediatric Psychopharmacology Group, the Child Psychiatry Research Society, and a guidelines development group for the National Institute for Clinical Excellence. He is past editor of the Journal of ChildPsychology and Psychiatry, an editor of European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, and serves on several journal editorial boards.

Michael C. S. Thomas is a Reader in Cognitive Neuropsychology at Birkbeck, University of London, and the Director of the Developmental Neurocognition Laboratory at the Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development. He studies cognitive variability and developmental disorders, using behavioral, computational, and neuroimaging methods.

Rebecca M. Todd is a doctoral candidate in developmental science and neuroscience at the University of Toronto. Her research lies within the domain of developmental social cognitive neuroscience, an emerging field that bridges developmental psychology and cognitive and affective neuroscience. Specific research interests include the consolidation of the neural correlates of self-regulation processes over development, and individual differences in regulatory patterns associated with anxiety and response to trauma.

Jody Warner-Rogers is a consultant clinical psychologist and pediatric neuropsychologist. Together with Jonathan Reed, she ran the Paediatric Neuropsychology Service for several years at Guy’s Hospital, London. She now divides her time between the Paediatric Neurodisability Service at Guy’s and St. Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust and her private practice.

Ingram Wright has a long-standing interest in children’s development. After completing a first degree in psychology at the University of Cambridge, he took a PhD in developmental psychology at the University of Warwick, followed by a doctorate in clinical psychology at the University of Leeds. He then undertook work in clinical neuropsychology at several UK centers and specialist training at Great Ormond Street Hospital in London before continuing with applied research and clinical practice at the University of Sheffield and Sheffield Children’s Hospital. He now works as a consultant neuropsychologist at North Bristol NHS Trust where he is engaged in teaching, research, and clinical work in child neuropsychology. He has particular research and clinical interests in the cognitive development and rehabilitation of children with acquired brain injury.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all the contributors who gave their time and energy to make this book possible. Our initial ideas for the book were shaped in conversation with Mike Coombs, and we would like to thank him for his help in this and for introducing us to Blackwell. Our thanks go to Andrew McCleer for commissioning the book, and to Elizabeth Johnston, our editor at Blackwell, for her constant support, advice, and help, which has been invaluable. Also many thanks go to Sue Ashton, our copy-editor, for her excellent practical support and guidance. A number of people made helpful suggestions, and we would particularly like to thank Keith Yeates, Howard Fine, Mark Pertini, and Katie Byard, and also Steve Hughes and Cecil Reynolds for helping us out of a corner.

We would also like to thank Professor Richard Robinson, who saw the value of pediatric neuropsychology to the practice of neurology and fought to create the first pediatric neuropsychology post at Guy’s Hospital over a decade ago. Thanks are also due to Melinda Edwards, who argued for the first job-share post in the psychology department, a post that allowed us to collaborate professionally and combine our ideas, enthusiasm, and clinical experience in a manner that eventually led to the publication of this book.

1

Introduction

Jonathan Reed and Jody Warner-Rogers

If “child neuropsychology is the study of brain-behaviour relationships within the dynamic context of the developing brain” (Anderson, 2001, p. 3), then in order to understand the field and practice within it, one must possess a thorough understanding of what a brain does and how it develops. The process of change is key in child neuropsychology. This differs from adult neuropsychology, where the focus of study is on damage to an already developed brain. Robust models of adult brain–behavior relationships have developed over the past hundred years. Child neuropsychology is, in contrast, an emerging discipline. It requires the creation of new models based on the process of development. We need to understand how brains and behavior develop, what contributions genes make, and what happens when there are deviations from typical development. Many people from different backgrounds, including researchers in child development, neuroscientists, and clinicians, are developing their understanding of these processes. We felt that there was a need to bring together different voices to begin to define what a comprehensive theory of child neuropsychology should encompass.

The idea for this book came from our experiences as clinicians. As practicing neuropsychologists, we recognized that a clear formulation is the key to understanding and supporting children’s brain-based difficulties. For children, a neuropsychologically informed formulation requires a thorough understanding of how brain–behavior relationships develop over time (see Chapter 21). But how does one acquire this understanding? We realized that something was missing from our bookshelf, and it was at this point that the idea for the book began to materialize. By their very nature, textbooks can date very quickly, particularly in a fast-moving field. They can never reflect the most contemporary research findings; one must hit the journals for that level of recency. Yet textbooks can provide the conceptual framework within which newly acquired knowledge can be organized, understood, and integrated. This textbook aims to provide that architecture for child neuropsychology. We saw the need for a book that bridged cutting-edge science and clinical practice, a book that was developmentally focused and not disorder based, a book that was academically grounded, but accessible to a range of students, clinicians, and researchers. We hope that this textbook addresses this need.

The first part of the book looks at key theoretical concepts and research evidence that underpins our current understanding of brain development and function. Dagmara Annaz, Annette Karmiloff-Smith, and Michael C. S. Thomas operationalize the term “developmental approach” by stressing the need to trace normal developmental trajectories. Hans J. ten Donkelaar describes basic brain development from conception onward, and discusses the influence of specific aberrations that occur throughout this process, each capable of producing a wide range of deviations from the expected trajectories. Yulia Kovas and Robert Plomin discuss the contribution of genes in relation to learning disability and provide insight into the possible impact of genes on neuropsychological development. Judy S. Reilly and colleagues outline the fallout of early traumatic brain injury, highlighting the concept and constraints of neural plasticity. Brain imaging has brought forward our understanding of brain-behavior relationships, and Paramala J. Santosh and Ruksana Ahmed provide a helpful review of the technologies of brain imaging and their use with children. One key concept that is often missing from neuropsychology textbooks is that of general intellectual ability (IQ). Mike Anderson explores the concept of IQ and how this broad-based marker of brain functioning may develop.

Undoubtedly, a firm grounding in “normal” child neuropsychological development is the foundation for any efforts to evaluate and (most importantly) to improve those situations in which developmental progress has not proceeded smoothly. The field of child neuropsychology relies heavily on the theories and research of developmental and cognitive psychologists. Part II of the book gives an overview of current research regarding normal neuropsychological development and provides examples of deviations from these processes. Within the domain of cognitive development, Frederic Dick and colleagues take us through the emergence of language skills and the effect of different disorders on language development. Janette Atkinson and Marko Nardini look at visuospatial and visuomotor development; Arthur MacNeill Horton and Henry Soper outline the key factors that are important in understanding the development of memory; Maxine Sinclair and Eric Taylor discuss the development of attention; and Claire Hughes and Andrew Graham examine the development of executive function. But neuropsychological development is not confined to basic information processes: social, behavioral, and emotional development are key factors in clinical practice. Rebecca M. Todd and Marc D. Lewis provide a fascinating discussion of the development of the self-regulation of emotions and behavior. Simon Baron-Cohen and Bhismadev Chakrabarti review the state of our understanding in social neuroscience and, in particular, how empathy develops. No discussion of normal development would be complete without reference to education. The last two chapters of Part II are devoted to the development of academic skills: Usha Goswami summarizes the acquisition of reading, and Brian Butterworth provides insight into the often neglected areas of numeracy and dyscalculia.

Building on the first two parts of the book, Part III focuses on clinical practice. Ingram Wright and Peta Sharples discuss neuropsychological practice with neurological disorders. Ian Frampton illustrates the applicability of neuropsychological thinking to child and adolescent mental health issues. Sue Harrison and Jane Hood highlight the value of neuropsychological assessment in education. Sarah Helps demonstrates how the field can contribute to the understanding and management of other physical illnesses. The book concludes with an approach to neuropsychological assessment and formulation, based on the themes of this book and on our clinical experiences.

We hope that this book will enhance the clinical practice of our colleagues, and help to stimulate ideas and discussion for the next stage of research and practice within the exciting field of child neuropsychology.

Reference

Anderson, V., Northam, E., Hendy, J., & Wrennall, J. (2001). Developmental neuropsychology: A clinical approach. Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press.

Part I

Key Concepts