Chitin and Chitosan E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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- Serie: Wiley Series in Renewable Resources
- Sprache: Englisch
Offers a comprehensive guide to the isolation, properties and applications of chitin and chitosan Chitin and Chitosan: Properties and Applications presents a comprehensive review of the isolation, properties and applications of chitin and chitosan. These promising biomaterials have the potential to be broadly applied and there is a growing market for these biopolymers in areas such as medical and pharmaceutical, packaging, agricultural, textile, cosmetics, nanoparticles and more. The authors - noted experts in the field - explore the isolation, characterization and the physical and chemical properties of chitin and chitosan. They also examine their properties such as hydrogels, immunomodulation and biotechnology, antimicrobial activity and chemical enzymatic modifications. The book offers an analysis of the myriad medical and pharmaceutical applications as well as a review of applications in other areas. In addition, the authors discuss regulations, markets and perspectives for the use of chitin and chitosan. This important book: * Offers a thorough review of the isolation, properties and applications of chitin and chitosan. * Contains information on the wide-ranging applications and growing market demand for chitin and chitosan * Includes a discussion of current regulations and the outlook for the future Written for Researchers in academia and industry who are working in the fields of chitin and chitosan, Chitin and Chitosan: Properties and Applications offers a review of these promising biomaterials that have great potential due to their material properties and biological functionalities.
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Table of Contents
Cover
List of Contributors
Series Preface
Preface
1 Sources of Chitin and Chitosan and their Isolation
1.1 Chitin and Chitosan
1.2 Sources of Chitin and Chitosan
1.3 Isolation of Chitin
1.4 Production of Chitosan
1.5 Towards Commercial Applications
1.6 Outlook
References
2 Methods of Isolating Chitin from Sponges (Porifera)
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Brief Overview of Classical Methods of Isolating Chitin from Invertebrates
2.3 The Modern Approach to Chitin Isolation from Sponges
2.4 Prospective Applications of Poriferan Chitin
2.5 Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
3 Physicochemical Properties of Chitosan and its Degradation Products
3.1 Physicochemical Properties of Chitosan
3.2 Products of Degradation and their Application
3.3 Outlook
References
4 New Developments in the Analysis of Partially Acetylated Chitosan Polymers and Oligomers
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Chitosan Oligomers
4.3 Chitosan Polymers
4.4 Outlook
References
Notes
5 Chitosan‐Based Hydrogels
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Chitosan‐Based Multilayered Hydrogels
5.3 Chitin/Chitosan Physical Hydrogels Based on Alkali/Urea Solvent System
5.4 Chitosan‐Based Injectable Hydrogels
5.5 Chitosan‐Based Self‐Healing Hydrogels
5.6 Chitosan‐Based Shape Memory Hydrogels
5.7 Superabsorbent Chitosan‐Based Hydrogels
5.8 Outlook
References
6 Beneficial Health Effects of Chitin and Chitosan
6.1 Immunomodulatory Effects of Chitin and Chitosan as Demonstrated with
In Vitro
Studies
6.2 Beneficial Health Effects Mediated by Chitin and Chitosan as Demonstrated with Animal Studies
6.3 Beneficial Health Effects Mediated by Chitin and Chitosan as Demonstrated with Clinical Trials
6.4 Requirements to forward the Field of Study Towards the Beneficial Health Effects of Chitin and Chitosan
6.5 Outlook
Acknowledgement
References
7 Antimicrobial Properties of Chitin and Chitosan
7.1 Microbiological Activity of Chitosan – The Mechanism of its Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity
7.2 The use of Chitin/Chitosan’s Microbiological Activity in Medicine and Pharmacy
7.3 Microbiological Activity of Chitosan in the Food Industry
7.4 Microbiological Activity of Chitosan in Paper and Textile Industries
7.5 Microbiological Activity of Chitosan in Agriculture
7.6 Outlook
References
8 Enzymes for Modification of Chitin and Chitosan
8.1 CAZymes in Chitin Degradation and Modification
8.2 Modular Diversity in Chitinases, Chitosanases and LPMOs
8.3 Biological Roles of Chitin‐Active Enzymes
8.4 Microbial Degradation and Utilisation of Chitin
8.5 Biotechnological Perspectives
8.6 Biorefining of Chitin‐Rich Biomass
8.7 Outlook
References
9 Chitin and Chitosan as Sources of Bio‐Based Building Blocks and Chemicals
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Chitin Conversion into Chitosan, Chitooligosaccharides and Monosaccharides
9.3 Building Blocks for Polymers from Chitin and its Derivatives
9.4 Outlook
Acknowledgement
References
10 Chemical and Enzymatic Modification of Chitosan to Produce New Functional Materials with Improved Properties
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Functional Chitosan Derivatives by Chemical and Enzymatic Modification
10.3 Graft Co‐Polymers of Chitosan
10.4 Cross‐Linked Chitosan and Chitosan Polymer Networks
10.5 Outlook
References
11 Chitosan‐Based DrugDelivery Systems
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Beneficial Effects of Chitosan
11.3 Chitosan—an Active Polymer for Bypassing Biological Barriers
11.4 Chitosan‐Based DDS Formulations
11.5 Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
12 The Application of Chitin and its Derivatives for the Design of Advanced Medical Devices
12.1 Selection of the Raw Sources: Safety Criteria
12.2 Types of Wound Dressings Consisting of Chitin‐Derived Biopolymers Available in the Market
12.3 Performance and Safety Assessment
12.4 New Ideas and Concepts
12.5 Risk Acceptance and Design Process Aspects
12.6 Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
13 Food Applications of Chitosan and its Derivatives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Chitosan and its Derivatives as Food Additive
13.3 Functional Ingredient and Health Beneficial Effects
13.4 Active Packaging
13.5 Enzyme Immobilization
13.6 Encapsulation and Delivering of Bioactive Ingredients
13.7 Adsorption and Chelation of Toxic and Undesirable Compounds
13.8 Outlook
References
14 Potential of Chitosans in the Development of Edible Food Packaging
14.1 Potential Limitations for Real Introduction into the Market
14.2 Films and Coatings for Food Preservation
14.3 Specific Case of Chitosan Nanoparticles (CSNPs)
14.4 Applications to Sensitive Real Food Products
14.5 Conclusions
References
15 The Use of Chitosan‐Based Nanoformulations for Controlling Fungi During Storage of Horticultural Commodities
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Importance of Fruits and Vegetables
15.3 Storage Disorders and Diseases of Horticultural Products
15.4 Plant Fungi Inhibition by Chitosan Application
15.5 Chitosan Integrated with Other Alternative Methods for Controlling Postharvest Fungi
15.6 Chitosan‐Based Formulations
15.7 Physiological Response and Quality Retention of Horticultural Commodities to Chitosan Coating Application
15.8 Influence of Chitosan Coatings on the Shelf Life of Horticultural Products
15.9 Effects of Chitosan Coatings with Additional Compounds on Quality and Microorganisms Development
15.10 Integration of Chitosan Nanoparticles into Coating Formulations and their Effects on the Quality of Horticultural Commodities and Development of Microorganisms
15.11 Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
16 Chitosan Application in Textile Processing and Fabric Coating
16.1 Chitosan in the Textile Industry
16.2 Textile Production
16.3 General Test Methods
16.4 Fibres and Yarns from Chitin and Chitosan
16.5 Sizing with Chitosan
16.6 Chitosan as a Finishing Agent or Coating
16.7 Outlook
Nomenclature
References
17 Chitin and Chitosan for Water Purification
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Wastewater Treatment by Adsorption
17.3 Wastewater Treatment by Coagulation/Flocculation
17.4 Wastewater Treatment by Membrane Separation
17.5 Outlook
Acknowledgement
References
18 Chitosan for Sensors and Electrochemical Applications
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Chitosan: A Biopolymer with Unique Properties
18.3 Modification and Preparation of Chitosan‐Based Materials for Electrochemical Applications
18.4 The Proton Conductivity of Chitosan
18.5 Selected Applications
18.6 Outlook
References
19 Marketing and Regulations of Chitin and Chitosan from Insects
19.1 Historical Outline
19.2 Natural Origins of Chitin
19.3 Specificities of Chitin Biopolymer
19.4 Differences Among Chitins from Insects and Other Sources
19.5 Extraction and Purification Specificities of Chitins from Insects
19.6 Market Opportunities and its Regulations
19.7 Outlook
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1
Sources of chitin
.
Table 1.2
Examples of pre‐treatment steps
.
Table 1.3
Examples of demineralization steps
.
Table 1.4
Examples of deproteination steps
.
Table 1.5
Examples of decoloration and post‐treatment steps
.
Table 1.6
Examples of chitin extraction procedures applied on insects
.
Table 1.7
Examples of chitin deacetylation
.
Table 1.8
Examples of pre‐ and post‐treatment steps linked to chitin deacetylatio
...
Table 1.9
Examples chitosan extraction procedures from fungi
.
Table 1.10
Advantages and disadvantages of three chitin sources (partially based
...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1
GPC/SEC analysis of chitosan A degradation products
.
Table 3.2
Results of GPC/SEC analysis of chitosan with varied DD
.
Table 3.3
Analytical results of solutions after the degradation of two chitosan g
...
Table 3.4
Results of DD estimation of different chitosan samples
.
Table 3.5
Comparison of DD measurement methods
Table 3.6
Comparison of DD determination methods for chitosan
.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1
Immune‐modulatory effects of chitin and chitosan
.
Table 6.2
Antipathogenic effects of chitin and chitosan
.
Table 6.3
Anti‐tumour effects of chitin and chitosan
.
Table 6.4
Clinical trials demonstrating cholesterol reduction and CVD preventive
...
Table 6.5
Clinical trials demonstrating beneficial health effects of chitin and c
...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1
Examples of graft co‐polymers of chitosan and their applications
Chapter 11
Table 11.1
Drug delivery systems on different technological maturity levels
.
Table 11.2
Composition and applications of chitosan‐based formulations for drug d
...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1
Examples of wound dressings consisting of chitin‐derived biopolyme
...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1
Recent studies of chitosan as a food additive
.
Table 13.2
Recent studies on antioxidant/antimicrobial chitosan films incorporate
...
Table 13.3
Recent studies of the application of chitosan films or coatings to per
...
Table 13.4
Recent works using chitosan‐based systems to encapsulate polypheno
...
Table 13.5
Recent works using chitosan‐based systems for the encapsulation of pro
...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1
Methods for chitosan nanoparticle formation
.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1
Response of various fungal pathogens causing plant and fruit diseases
...
Table 15.2
Volatile compounds as molecules responsible for strawberry aroma of —c
...
Table 15.3
Chitosan edible coatings on preserving the quality and nutraceutical c
...
Table 15.4
Chitosan coating/bioactive component and its effects on fruits/vegetab
...
Table 15.5
Level of control of chitosan nanoparticles on fungi
.
Table 15.6
Effects of chitosan nanoparticle–based coating/bioactive component app
...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1
A selection of test methods applied in the textile industry dependent
...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1
Application of chitosan (pristine and modified) as adsorbent for diffe
...
Table 17.2
Application of chitosan (pristine and modified) as adsorbent for diffe
...
Table 17.3
Mechanisms of coagulation; adapted from [105]
.
Table 17.4
List of common inorganic coagulants
.
Table 17.5
Coagulant comparison; adapted from [119]
.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1
Chemical structure of chitin and chitosan and some examples of sp
...
Figure 1.2
Schematic representation of (a) α‐form and (b) β‐form of chitin
...
Figure 1.3
Processes involved in the isolation and purification of chitin fr
...
Figure 1.4
Processes involved in the production of chitosan
.
Figure 1.5
Reaction mechanism of the deacetylation step
.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1
Presence of chitin in diverse representatives of Porifera
.
Figure 2.2
From sponge to chitinous scaffold. Demineralisation of dried Iant
...
Figure 2.3
Industrial methods of chitin extraction from crustacean shells
.
Figure 2.4
Schematic representation of the slow‐etching approach for chitin
...
Figure 2.5
Wide field fluorescence microscopy image providing strong evidenc
...
Figure 2.6
Scheme of the standard method for chitin isolation from demospong
...
Figure 2.7
The skeleton of Mycale euplectellioides before (a) and after (b)
...
Figure 2.8
Skeleton isolated from Aplysina archeri marine demosponge (a) wit
...
Figure 2.9
The skeleton isolated from Aplysina fistularis (a) after the firs
...
Figure 2.10
(a) Cell‐free but pigmented skeleton of Aplysina aerophoba and (
...
Figure 2.11
Deformed chitin fibres isolated by the microwave‐assisted method
...
Figure 2.12
SEM images of naturally prefabricated 3D chitin–GeO2 composite u
...
Figure 2.13
Chitinous scaffold isolated from the demosponge Aplysina caulifo
...
Figure 2.14
The electrochemical reduction of copper leads to a chitin scaffo
...
Figure 2.15
Categorisation of scaffolds for tissue engineering based on thei
...
Figure 2.16
Chitinous scaffold from
Ianthella basta
as carrier after 2 days
...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1
Physicochemical characteristics of chitosan
.
Figure 3.2
Distribution of average molar mass (MMD) of microcrystalline chit
...
Figure 3.3
Distribution of average molar mass of degraded microcrystalline c
...
Figure 3.4
Distribution of average molar mass of degraded microcrystalline c
...
Figure 3.5
Background removal from absorption peaks in an IR spectrum of chi
...
Figure 3.6
Ninhydrin reaction
.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1
Liesegang ring phenomenon and microstructures of multilayered chi
...
Figure 5.2
Programmable fabrication of chitosan hydrogels with multilayered
...
Figure 5.3
A liposomal core coated with alternately multilayered sodium hyal
...
Figure 5.4
SEM micrographs of the multilayered Gtn–CS hydrogel with graded c
...
Figure 5.5
The diagrammatic illustration of the dissolution process of chiti
...
Figure 5.6
Preparation and gross mechanical characterization of double‐cross
...
Figure 5.7
Confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscope images of the gel
...
Figure 5.8
(a) Schematic representation of the study showing the coordinativ
...
Figure 5.9
Preparation of DF‐PEG–GC injectable hydrogels. (a) Benzaldehydes
...
Figure 5.10
(a) Illustrative formation of the CSPBA/PVA/OHC–PEO–CHO hydrogel
...
Figure 5.11
(a) Schematic illustration for synthetic route of CMCS‐PNIPAAm‐G
...
Figure 5.12
Synthesis scheme of the CEC‐I‐OSA‐I‐ADH hydrogels. (a) The photo
...
Figure 5.13
The self‐healing process of a skin‐inspired chitosan hydrogel af
...
Figure 5.14
Photographs demonstrating the electrical conductivity and self‐h
...
Figure 5.15
Self‐healing phenomena of the CS‐PEG hydrogel system. (a) Self‐h
...
Figure 5.16
Novel self‐healing chitosan hydrogel cross‐linked by zinc phthal
...
Figure 5.17
Chitosan hydrogel with double cross‐linked networks (DN) by comb
...
Figure 5.18
(a) Mechanism of shape memory hydrogels. (b) Strategies employed
...
Figure 5.19
Preparation procedures and shape recovery effect of chitosan‐fun
...
Figure 5.20
Mechanism and shape recovery behavior of self‐deformed hydrogel.
...
Figure 5.21
The process and mechanism of triple shape memory and shape recov
...
Figure 5.22
Photographs of a superabsorbent hydrogel in (a) dry state and (b
...
Figure 5.23
Effects of pH of the solution on water absorption capacity of th
...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Schematic illustration of enzymatic pathways for degradation of c...
Figure 8.2 The substrate‐assisted mechanism used by GH18 chitinases. Binding...
Figure 8.3 Structures of Serratia marcescens chitinases. The left figures sh...
Figure 8.4 The structure of the GH19 chitinase BcChi‐A from Bryum coronatum....
Figure 8.5 Structure of the chitobiase from Serratia marcescens in complex w...
Figure 8.6 Structure of the active sites of CsxA (a) and PpGlcNase (b) in co...
Figure 8.7 Structure of family GH46 chitosanases. Panel A shows the structur...
Figure 8.8 Catalytic centre and reaction mechanism of LPMOs. (a) Reaction me...
Figure 8.9 Reaction mechanism of CE4 deacetylases. The figure shows a propos...
Figure 8.10 Structure‐based sequence alignment of CE4 enzymes. The five cons...
Figure 8.11 Structure of CE4 deacetylases. (a) ClCDA in cartoon representati...
Figure 8.12 Schematic illustration of modular architectures of chitinolytic...
Figure 8.13 The chitinolytic machinery of Serratia marcescens. The chitinase...
Figure 8.14 Catabolic pathway for chitin utilisation in Serratia marcescens....
Figure 8.15 Proposed pathway for chitin utilisation in Flavobacterium johnso...
Figure 8.16 The chitinolytic pathway of Thermococcus kodakarensis. Tk‐ChiA c...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1
Valorisation of chitin‐containing biomass within the bio‐based ec
...
Figure 9.2
A schematic representation of chitin conversion into chitosan, ch
...
Figure 9.3
Enzymatic degradation of chitin via chitinolytic pathway (1) and
...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1
Derivatisation of chitosan and fields of application of the modi
...
Figure 10.2
Functional chitosan derivatives obtained by chemical or enzymati
...
Figure 10.3
Schematic illustration of (a) grafting through, (b) grafting to,
...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1
Properties of chitosan/modified chitosan and their applications
...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1
Published documents on the application of chitin and its derivat
...
Figure 12.2
Published documents on the application of chitin and its derivat
...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1
Repeating units of partially acetylated chitosan characterized b
...
Figure 14.2
Impact of pH on the protonation of the amino group of the glucos
...
Figure 14.3
Concepts of antimicrobial coatings for food preservation
.
Figure 14.4
Suggested mechanisms of antimicrobial activity of chitosans
.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1
Textile value chains from the basic commodity to the textile. Th
...
Figure 16.2
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) figures of chitosan fibres ob
...
Figure 16.3
(a) Viscosity of low‐molecular‐weight (LMW) and high‐molecular‐w
...
Figure 16.4
Fabrics treated with ninhydrin, a chitosan‐specific dye. In the
...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1
Types of chitosan cross‐linking and cross‐linking reagents used
...
Figure 17.2
Schematic representation of the adsorption mechanism of anionic
...
Figure 17.3
Schematic representation of the adsorption mechanism of heavy me
...
Figure 17.4
Principle sketch of the pressure‐driven membrane processes: (a)
...
Figure 17.5
Schematic representation of chitosan modification with phthalic
...
Figure 17.6
Schematic representation of ultrafiltration process: (a) ultrafi
...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1
Chitosan structure
.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1
Structure of chitin and chitosan
.
Figure 19.2
Different chitin assemblies according to Bouligand [10]
.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Wiley Series in Renewable Resources
Series Editor:
Christian V. Stevens, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium
Titles in the Series:
Wood Modification: Chemical, Thermal and Other ProcessesCallum A. S. Hill
Renewables‐Based Technology: Sustainability AssessmentJo Dewulf, Herman Van Langenhove
BiofuelsWim Soetaert, Erik Vandamme
Handbook of Natural ColorantsThomas Bechtold, Rita Mussak
Surfactants from Renewable ResourcesMikael Kjellin, Ingegärd Johansson
Industrial Applications of Natural Fibres: Structure, Properties and Technical ApplicationsJörg Müssig
Thermochemical Processing of Biomass: Conversion into Fuels, Chemicals and PowerRobert C. Brown
Biorefinery Co‐Products: Phytochemicals, Primary Metabolites and Value‐Added Biomass ProcessingChantal Bergeron, Danielle Julie Carrier, Shri Ramaswamy
Aqueous Pretreatment of Plant Biomass for Biological and Chemical Conversion to Fuels and ChemicalsCharles E. Wyman
Bio‐Based Plastics: Materials and ApplicationsStephan Kabasci
Introduction to Wood and Natural Fiber CompositesDouglas D. Stokke, Qinglin Wu, Guangping Han
Cellulosic Energy Cropping SystemsDouglas L. Karlen
Introduction to Chemicals from Biomass, 2nd EditionJames H. Clark, Fabien Deswarte
Lignin and Lignans as Renewable Raw Materials: Chemistry, Technology and ApplicationsFrancisco G. Calvo‐Flores, Jose A. Dobado, Joaquín Isac‐García, Francisco J. Martín‐Martínez
Sustainability Assessment of Renewables‐Based Products: Methods and Case StudiesJo Dewulf, Steven De Meester, Rodrigo A. F. Alvarenga
Cellulose Nanocrystals: Properties, Production and ApplicationsWadood Hamad
Fuels, Chemicals and Materials from the Oceans and Aquatic SourcesFrancesca M. Kerton, Ning Yan
Bio‐Based SolventsFrançois Jérôme and Rafael Luque
Nanoporous Catalysts for Biomass ConversionFeng‐Shou Xiao and Liang Wang
Thermochemical Processing of Biomass: Conversion into Fuels, Chemicals and Power, 2nd EditionRobert C. Brown
Forthcoming Titles:
The Chemical Biology of Plant BiostimulantsDanny Geelen, Lin Xu
Biorefinery of Inorganics: Recovering Mineral Nutrients from Biomass and Organic WasteErik Meers, Gerard Velthof
Waste Valorization: Waste Streams in a Circular EconomySze Ki Lin, Chong Li, Guneet Kaur, Xiaofeng Yang
Process Systems Engineering for Biofuels DevelopmentAdrián Bonilla‐Petriciolet, Gade Pandu Rangaiah
Biobased Packaging: Material, Environmental and Economic AspectsMohd Sapuan Salit, Rushdan Ahmad Ilyas
Chitin and Chitosan
Properties and Applications
Edited by
LAMBERTUS A.M. VAN DEN BROEK
Wageningen Food & Biobased ResearchWageningenThe Netherlands
CARMEN G. BOERIU
Wageningen Food & Biobased ResearchWageningenThe Netherlands
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List of Contributors
Artur Bartkowiak Center of Bioimmobilisation and Innovative Packaging Materials, Faculty of Food Sciences and Fisheries, West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Leen Bastiaens VITO (Flemish Institute for Technological Research), Mol, Belgium
Silvia Bautista‐Baños Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bióticos (CEPROBI), Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Yautepec, Morelos, Mexico
Nathalie Berezina Ynsect, Évry, France
Carmen G. Boeriu Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Leonie Bossog Textilchemie Dr. Petry GmbH, Reutlingen, Germany
Suse Botelho da Silva Food and Chemical Engineering, Polytechnic School, Unisinos University, São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil
Rudi Breier Textilchemie Dr. Petry GmbH, Reutlingen, Germany
Lambertus A.M. van den Broek Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Kinga Brzoza‐Malczewska Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres, Lodz, Poland
Corneliu Cojocaru ‘Petru Poni’ Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Romanian Academy, Iaşi, Romania
Véronique Coma University of Bordeaux, LCPO, UMR 5629, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Pessac, France
Stefan Cord‐Landwehr University of Münster, Institute for Biology and Biotechnology of Plants, Münster, Germany
Zormy Nacary Correa‐Pacheco CONACYT‐CEPROBI, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Yautepec, Morelos, Mexico
Els D’Hondt VITO (Flemish Institute for Technological Research), Mol, Belgium
Liyou Dong Food & Health Research, Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Food Chemistry, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Hermann Ehrlich Institute of Electronics and Sensor Materials, TU Bergakademie‐Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany
Vincent G.H. Eijsink Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology, and Food Science, The Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Ås, Norway
Kathy Elst VITO (Flemish Institute for Technological Research), Mol, Belgium
Wen Fang Institute of Biomedical Macromolecules, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Maria Emiliana Fortuna ‘Petru Poni’ Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Romanian Academy, Iaşi, Romania
Coen Govers Food & Health Research, Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Natalia Gutowska Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres, Lodz, Poland
Karolina Gzyra‐Jagieła Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres, Lodz, Poland
Tom Hager German Institutes of Textile and Fiber Research, Denkendorf, Germany
Thomas Hahn Fraunhofer Institute of Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology, Stuttgart, Germany
Valeria Harabagiu ‘Petru Poni’ Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Romanian Academy, Iaşi, Romania
Antoine Hubert Ynsect, Évry, France
Andra Cristina Humelnicu ‘Petru Poni’ Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Romanian Academy, Iaşi, Romania
Maria Ignat ‘Petru Poni’ Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Romanian Academy, Iaşi, Romania
Teofil Jesionowski Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland
Yvonne Joseph Institute of Electronics and Sensor Materials, TU Bergakademie‐Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany
Malgorzata Kaisler Bioprocess Engineering Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Christine Klinger Institute of Physical Chemistry, TU Bergakademie‐Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany
Cristiane Krause Santin Food and Chemical Engineering, Polytechnic School, Unisinos University, São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil; itt CHIP – Unisinos Semiconductor Institute, São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil
Magdalena Kucharska Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres, Lodz, Poland
Liziane Dantas Lacerda Food and Chemical Engineering, Polytechnic School, Unisinos University, São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil
Guilherme Lopes Batista itt CHIP – Unisinos Semiconductor Institute, São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil
Longina Madej‐Kiełbik The Institute of Security Technologies “MORATEX”, Lodz, Poland
Sophanit Mekasha Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology, and Food Science, The Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Ås, Norway
Bruno M. Moerschbacher University of Münster, Institute for Biology and Biotechnology of Plants, Münster, Germany
Anna Niehues University of Münster, Institute for Biology and Biotechnology of Plants, Münster, Germany
Monika Owczarek Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres, Lodz, Poland
Xenia Patras ‘Petru Poni’ Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Romanian Academy, Iaşi, Romania
Bożenna Pęczek Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres, Lodz, Poland
Cristian Peptu ‘Petru Poni’ Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Romanian Academy, Iaşi, Romania
Iaroslav Petrenko Institute of Experimental Physics, TU Bergakademie‐Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany
Razvan Rotaru ‘Petru Poni’ Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Romanian Academy, Iaşi, Romania
Petrisor Samoila ‘Petru Poni’ Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Romanian Academy, Iaşi, Romania
Monika Sikora Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres, Lodz, Poland
Lise Soetemans VITO (Flemish Institute for Technological Research), Mol, Belgium
Daiana de Souza Food and Chemical Engineering, Polytechnic School, Unisinos University, São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil
Thomas Stegmaier German Institutes of Textile and Fiber Research, Denkendorf, Germany
Marcin H. Struszczyk The Institute of Security Technologies “MORATEX”, Lodz, Poland
Bogdan Ionel Tamba A&B Pharm Corporation, Roman, Neamţ, Romania
Mirela Teodorescu ‘Petru Poni’ Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Romanian Academy, Iaşi, Romania
Tina Rise Tuveng Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology, and Food Science, The Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Ås, Norway
Gustav Vaaje‐Kolstad Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology, and Food Science, The Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Ås, Norway
Rosa Isela Ventura‐Aguilar CONACYT‐CEPROBI, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Yautepec, Morelos, Mexico
Zhengke Wang Institute of Biomedical Macromolecules, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Jasper Wattjes University of Münster, Institute for Biology and Biotechnology of Plants, Münster, Germany
Harry J. Wichers Food & Health Research, Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Food Chemistry, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Maria Wiśniewska‐Wrona Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres, Lodz, Poland
Werner Wunderlich German Institutes of Textile and Fiber Research, Denkendorf, Germany
Marcin Wysokowski Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland; Institute of Electronics and Sensor Materials, TU Bergakademie‐Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany
Ling Yang Institute of Biomedical Macromolecules, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Susanne Zibek Fraunhofer Institute of Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology, Stuttgart, Germany
Dorota Zielin&c.acute;ska The Institute of Security Technologies “MORATEX”, Lodz, Poland
Sonia Żółtowska Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland; Institute of Electronics and Sensor Materials, TU Bergakademie‐Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany
Series Preface
Renewable resources, their use and modification are involved in a multitude of important processes with a major influence on our everyday lives. Applications can be found in the energy sector; paints and coatings; and the chemical, pharmaceutical, and textile industry, to name but a few.
The area interconnects several scientific disciplines (agriculture, biochemistry, chemistry, technology, environmental sciences, forestry), which makes it very difficult to have an expert view on the complicated interaction. Therefore, the idea to create a series of scientific books, focusing on specific topics concerning renewable resources, has been very opportune and can help to clarify some of the underlying connections in this area.
In a very fast‐changing world, trends are not only characteristic of fashion and political standpoints; science too is not free from hypes and buzzwords. The use of renewable resources is again more important nowadays; however, it is not part of a hype or a fashion. As the lively discussions among scientists continue about how many years we will still be able to use fossil fuels – opinions ranging from 50 to 500 years – they do agree that the reserve is limited, and that it is essential not only to search for new energy carriers but also for new material sources.
In this respect, the field of renewable resources is a crucial area in the search for alternatives for fossil‐based raw materials and energy. In the field of energy supply, biomass‐ and renewables‐based resources will be part of the solution alongside other alternatives such as solar energy, wind energy, hydraulic power, hydrogen technology and nuclear energy. In the field of material sciences, the impact of renewable resources will probably be even bigger. Integral utilisation of crops and the use of waste streams in certain industries will grow in importance, leading to a more sustainable way of producing materials. Although our society was much more (almost exclusively) based on renewable resources centuries ago, this disappeared in the Western world in the nineteenth century. Now it is time to focus again on this field of research. However, it should not mean a ‘retour à la nature’, but should be a multidisciplinary effort on a highly technological level to perform research towards new opportunities, to develop new crops and products from renewable resources. This will be essential to guarantee an acceptable level of comfort for the growing number of people living on our planet. It is ‘the’ challenge for the coming generations of scientists to develop more sustainable ways to create prosperity and to fight poverty and hunger in the world. A global approach is certainly favoured.
This challenge can only be dealt with if scientists are attracted to this area and are recognised for their efforts in this interdisciplinary field. It is, therefore, also essential that consumers recognise the fate of renewable resources in a number of products.
Furthermore, scientists do need to communicate and discuss the relevance of their work. The use and modification of renewable resources may not follow the path of the genetic engineering concept in view of consumer acceptance in Europe. Related to this aspect, the series will certainly help to increase the visibility of the importance of renewable resources. Being convinced of the value of the renewables approach for the industrial world, as well as for developing countries, I was myself delighted to collaborate on this series of books focusing on the different aspects of renewable resources. I hope that readers become aware of the complexity, the interaction and interconnections, and the challenges of this field, and that they will help to communicate on the importance of renewable resources.
I certainly want to thank the people of Wiley’s Chichester office, especially David Hughes, Jenny Cossham and Lyn Roberts, in seeing the need for such a series of books on renewable resources, for initiating and supporting it, and for helping to carry the project to the end.
Last, but not least, I want to thank my family, especially my wife Hilde and children Paulien and Pieter‐Jan, for their patience, and for giving me the time to work on the series when other activities seemed to be more inviting.
Christian V. Stevens,Faculty of Bioscience EngineeringGhent University, BelgiumSeries Editor, ‘Renewable Resources’June 2005
Preface
Chitin was reported for the first time about 200 years ago, in extracts of mushrooms and insects. About 40 years later, chitosan was obtained from chitin by acid treatment. These polysaccharides are among the most abundant natural biopolymers in the world. They are, for example, present in crustaceans, insects and fungi. Just before World War II, there was a huge interest in the applications of these polysaccharides as a bioplastic. However, the simultaneous upcoming of synthetic polymers and the exponential increase in high‐performance synthetic polymers, which outperformed their natural counterparts, resulted in a decrease of interest in chitin/chitosan materials. In the 1970s, large‐scale production of chitin and chitosan from the shells of marine organisms started, owing to the development of aquaculture and the enactment of severe environmental regulations to decrease the amount of shellfish dumping in the oceans. Nowadays there is a need to be less dependent on fossil resources. The transition to a biobased economy and the increasing societal demand for more green and environmentally friendly products urge us to look for chemicals, materials and fuels based on renewable resources. The enormous potential of chitin and chitosan on account of their abundance, unique properties and numerous applications makes them interesting biomass resources. This book, Chitin and Chitosan: Properties and Applications, shows the state‐of‐the‐art and future perspectives of chitin and chitosan materials and applications. The book presents the most recent developments in the science and technology of all related fields, from extraction and characterisation to modification, material synthesis and end‐user applications. This book comprises 19 chapters that deal with most topics related to chitin and chitosan polymers and materials.
In Chapters 1–4, the sources of chitin and chitosan are described and how these biopolymers can be isolated. Next to the isolation, the analysis of the biopolymers is described. The different sources and/or isolation methods can result in different structures and properties. In Chapter 5–7, hydrogels, health effects and the anti‐microbial effects of chitin and chitosan are discussed. To improve or to modify the properties, enzymes and chemical reactions can be applied to customise these biopolymers, as shown in Chapters 8–10. The applications of chitin and chitosan in drug delivery, medical devices, agriculture, food, packaging, horticulture, textile, water purification and sensors are discussed in more detail in Chapters 11–18. And finally, Chapter 19 is devoted to the market and regulation of chitin and chitosan.
These topics have never been addressed previously in a single book. Books, book chapters and reviews have been dedicated to the specific fields of application of chitin and chitosan materials. This book presents an overview of the latest scientific and technological advances in almost all areas of application, and show the great potential of chitin and chitosan as materials of the future. We hope that the reader will be inspired by the examples given of these biopolymers in different areas. We are confident that chitin and chitosan will become major renewable resources in the biobased circular economy.
This book should be useful for scholars and those in academia, such as undergraduate and postgraduate students in the areas of agriculture, polymer and material sciences, biobased economy and life sciences. In addition, we hope this book will aid researchers and specialists from industry in the field of (bio)polymers, packaging, biomedical applications, water treatment, textiles, sensors, and agriculture and food – as well as regional and national policy‐makers.
The input is from well‐known experts from all over the world. We would like to express our great gratitude to all chapter authors of this book, who have made excellent contributions. In addition, we would like to thank Sarah Higginbotham, Emma Strickland and Lesley Jebaraj from Wiley for all their help.
Lambertus A.M. van den Broek and Carmen G. BoeriuWageningen 2019
1Sources of Chitin and Chitosan and their Isolation
Leen Bastiaens, Lise Soetemans, Els D’Hondt, and Kathy Elst
VITO – (Flemish Institute for Technological Research), Mol, Belgium
Chitin is a natural biomolecule that was reported for the first time in 1811 by the French professor Henri Braconnot as fungine [1] and in 1823 by Antoine Odier as chitin. Chitin consists of large, crystalline nitrogen‐containing polysaccharides made of chains of a modified glucose monosaccharide, being N‐acetylglucosamine. It is ubiquitously present in the world and has even been reported to be one of the most abundant biomolecules on earth, with an estimated annual production of 1011–1014 tons [2, 3]. Chitin serves as template for biomineralization such as calcification and silicification, providing preferential sites for nucleation, and controlling the location and orientation of mineral phases [4, 5]. This phenomenon explains the presence of chitin in solid structures in a variety of biomass such as cell walls of fungi and diatoms and in exoskeletons of Crustaceans. Chitin is present in diverse structures in at least 19 animal phyla besides its presence in bacteria, fungi, and algae [5].
Chitosan is mainly known as a partially deacetylated derivative of chitin that is more water soluble than chitin, and as such is easier to process. For this reason, chitosan—and, in some cases, even more preferably, the relatively small sized (1–10 kDa) chitosan oligomers—are the molecules that are envisioned for multiple applications such as agriculture; water and wastewater treatment; food and beverages; chemicals; feed; cosmetics; and personal care [6, 7]. In addition, chitosan oligomers have been reported as being bioactive [8], offering potential for application in, for instance, wound dressing and cosmetics. Although chitin and chitosan are versatile and promising biomaterials [9], the extraction and purification of chitin and its conversion to chitosan (oligomers) require several process steps, and these have been mentioned as bottlenecks that hinder the wider use of the underspent chitin in the world.
This chapter intends to provide more information related to (1) the structure of chitin, (2) sources of chitin and chitosan, and (3) their extraction and purification, as well as (4) the conversion of chitin into chitosan. The further conversion of chitosan to chitosan oligomers is the subject of Chapter 3.
1.1 Chitin and Chitosan
1.1.1 Chemical Structure
Chitin, and its derivate chitosan, are natural polysaccharides consisting of 2 monosaccharides, N‐acetyl‐D‐glucosamine and D‐glucosamine, connected by β‐1,4‐ glycoside bonds. Depending on the frequency of the latter monosaccharides, the molecule is defined as chitin or chitosan. Chitin contains mainly N‐acetyl‐D‐glucosamine and can be transformed to chitosan by partial deacetylation of the monomer N‐acetyl‐D‐glucosamine to D‐glucosamine (see Figure 1.1) [7]. Diverse definitions of chitin and chitosan circulate in literature. Most sources mention a deacetylation degree of at least 50% [7, 10] as a criterion to define the molecule as chitosan. Others report a deacetylation degree of at least 60% or 75% for chitosan, implying that, respectively, more than 60% or 75% of the monosaccharides are D‐glucosamine moieties [11–13]. Chitin in its natural appearance is usually already a heteropolymer, with a deacetylation degree ranging between 5% and 20% [14]. The structure of chitin is very similar to that of cellulose and shares generally the same function of providing structure integrity and protection of the organism.
1.1.2 Different Crystalline Forms of Chitin
Chitin usually functions as a supporting material and is composed of layers of polysaccharide sheets. Each individual sheet consists of multiple parallel‐positioned chitin chains [17], as schematically presented in Figure 1.2. Highly crystalline fibers are formed when the polymer sheets are placed next to each other and form interactions [12]. Depending on their orientation, three crystalline forms have been reported (α, β, and γ).
The most abundant form is α‐chitin, which is present in almost all crustaceans, insects, fungi, and yeast cell walls [7]. In this formation, the chitin sheets (three sheets as example in Figure 1.2a), consisting of parallel chitin chains (for each sheet, two chains are presented in Figure 1.2a), are positioned in an anti‐parallel way, allowing a maximum formation of hydrogen bonding. More specifically, two intramolecular and two intermolecular bondings are formed: a first intermolecular bonding with a vertical neighbor chain (in the same sheet), and another with a horizontal neighbor chain form a different sheet [15]. These hydrogen bounds create a remarkably high crystallinity, resulting in a more stiff and stable material. Therefore, α‐chitin is characterized as a non‐reactive and insoluble product [16]. Since this form is the most common polymorphic, α‐chitin has been extensively studied [12].
On the other hand, in β‐chitin, the chitin sheets are ordered in parallel (Figure 1.2b) with weaker intermolecular forces. This results in a softer molecule with a higher affinity for solvents and a higher reactivity. It is proven to be soluble in formic acid and can be swollen in water [15]. This chitin form is present in the squid pen, in the tubes of pogonophoran and vestimentiferan worms, and in monocrystalline spines excreted by diatoms such as Thalassiosira fluviatilis [7]. Although squid and tubes of Tevnia jerichonana both contain β‐chitin, their crystallinity differs. This implies that the crystallinity also depends on the source. Chitin obtained from squid pens is semi‐crystalline, and chitin from T. jerichonana is almost complete crystalline [7, 8, 16].
Figure 1.1Chemical structure of chitin and chitosan and some examples of species that contain chitin.
Figure 1.2Schematic representation of (a) α‐form and (b) β‐form of chitin.
The third formation, γ‐chitin, is less common. It is considered to be a mixture or intermediate form of α‐ and β‐chitin with both parallel and antiparallel arrangements [16]. More specifically, every third chitin chain has the opposite direction to the two preceding chitin sheets [13, 15]. Very few studies have been carried out on γ‐chitin, and it has been suggested that γ‐chitin may be a distorted version of the other two instead of a true third polymorphic form.
1.2 Sources of Chitin and Chitosan
1.2.1 Sources of Chitin
For more than a century, scientists reported chitin to be present in a variety of organisms. Initially, zoologists named all hard yellow–brownish structures chitin, without chemical analysis, sometimes generating misleading data. Later on, it was accepted that the presence of chitin could only be demonstrated after chemical tests. Hymann (1958), for instance, used an iodine‐based color test to study the presence of chitin in different sea animals. Later on, more sophisticated techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), mass spectroscopy (MS), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), and Raman spectroscopy were used [18]. Quantification of chitin is challenging and only reported in more recent publications. Currently, quantitative data on chitin contents are still incomplete, and available numbers need to be interpreted with care. Not only are different quantification methods used, but also varying parts of the biomass are considered (whole organism versus chitin‐rich part of the organisms).
Nowadays, it is estimated that a large portion of chitin produced in the biosphere is present in the oceans [19, 20]. It can be found in aquatic species belonging to phyla such as Cnidaria (corals [21, 22]), Entoprocta [23], Phoronida (horseshoe worms [18]), Ectoprocta [18], Brachiopoda (lamp shells [18]), Bryozoa [19], Porifera (sponges [5, 24]), and Mollusca (squid [8, 23], cuttlefish [26], and clams [8]). Further, chitin has also been detected in fungi (mushrooms and yeasts [1]), algae (diatoms [27], coralline algae [28], green algae [29, 30]), Onychophora (velvet worms), and protozoa [31]. The most easily accessible sources of chitin, however, are the exoskeletons of Arthropoda, which includes insects [32–35], arachnids (spiders [36] and scorpions [37]), myriapods (millipedes and centipedes [38]), as well as Crustaceans (shrimp, krill, crab, and lobster [8, 9, 18, 37]).
Table 1.1 lists examples of chitin‐containing sources, along with available compositional data. The amount of chitin varies with species type, the biomass part considered, and even with seasons and growth stages [40]. Values ranging from <1% to 72% (w/w) on dry matter basis on the biomass type have been reported.
Table 1.1Sources of chitin.
Origin
Species
Biomass type
N (%)
CaCO
3
(%)
% protein
% (w/w) chitin in biomass type of dry weight
Ref.
Crustaceans (
Arthropoda
phylum)
Crab cuticle
40–50
15–30*
[
8
]
Blue swimming crab (male)
Portunus pelagicus
Shells
68.87
10.33
20.8
[
26
]
Blue swimming crab (female)
Portunus pelagicus
Shells
65.5
14.36
20.14
[
26
]
Crabs
Shells
66.58
16.68
16.73
[
25
]
Marbled crab
Grapsus marmoratus
10
[
41
]
Red crab
Portunus puber
10
[
41
]
Spider crab
Maja squinado
16
[
41
]
Cancer crab
Cuticula
72.1
[
40
]
Carcinus crab
Whole body
64.2
[
40
]
King crab
Paralithodes
Whole body
35
[
40
]
Shrimp cuticle
20–30
30–40*
[
8
]
Jinga shrimp
Metapenaeus affinis
Shells
45.66
37.59
16.75
[
26
]
Brown shrimp
Penaeus aztecus
Shells
48.97
29.5
21.53
[
25
]
Pink shrimp
Penaeus duorarum
Shells
42.26
34.02
23.72
[
25
]
Shrimp
Palaemon Fabricius
22
[
41
]
Shrimp
Penaeus monodon
Shells
5.74
10
[
33
]
Grooved tiger prawn
Penaeus semisulcatus
Shells
52.03
28.84
19.13
[
26
]
Scyllarid lobster
Thenus orientalis
Shells
61.81
16.93
21.26
[
26
]
Locust lobster
Scyllarus arctus
25
[
41
]
Spiny lobster
Palinurus vulgaris
32
[
41
]
European lobster
Homarus vulgaris
17
[
41
]
Crayfish
Procambarus clarkii
Shells
63.94
15.56
20.6
[
25
]
Crayfish
Astacus fluviatilis
36
[
41
]
Krill cuticle
20–25
20–30*
[
8
]
Barnacle
Lepas anatifera
7
[
41
]
Squilla
Squilla mantis
24
[
41
]
Isopoda
Oniscus asellus
Dried adult
4.7
6–7*
[
32
]
Insects (
Arthropoda
phylum)
Honey bees
Apis mellifera
Exoskeletons
5.56
2.5
[
33
]
Grasshopper
Aiolopus simulatrix
Fully dried adult
5.3*
[
42
]
Aiolopus strepens
Fully dried adult
7.4*
[
42
]
Duroniella fracta
Fully dried adult
5.7*
[
42
]
Duroniella laticornis
Fully dried adult
6.5*
[
42
]
Oedipoda miniata
Fully dried adult
8.1*
[
42
]
Oedipoda caerulescens
8.9*
[
42
]
Pyrgomorpha cognata
6.6*
[
42
]
Schistocerca gregaria
Exoskeletons
2.92
12.2
[
33
]
Black soldier fly
Hermetia illucens
Fully dried prepupae
2.7–19.7
2
37.7–40.7
5.6–6.7
[
34
]
Hermetia illucens
Fully dried larvae
17.5
2.10
3
[
43
]
Hermetia illucens
Whole larvae
6.4
Own work
Lesser mealworm
Alphitobius diaperinus
Whole worm
5.6
Own work
Beetle
Melolontha melolontha
Fully dried adult
6.72
13–14*
[
35
]
Beetle
Calosoma rugosa
Exoskeletons
5
[
33
]
Cockroach
Blattella
18.4 ^
[
40
]
Cockroach
Periplaneta
Cuticle
54.8^
[
40
]
Blatta lateralis
Fully dried nymphs
19.0
0.67
3
[
43
]
Silkworm
Bombyx
44.2^
[
40
]
Bombyx mori L
.
Cuticle
23–52
36–62
[
44
]
Waxworm
Galleria
33.7^
[
40
]
Tebo worms
Chilecomadia moorei
Fully dried larvae
15.5
1.11
3
[
43
]
Tobacco hornworm
Manduca sexta
Exoskeleton of the adult (organic part)
60
20
[
21
]
Ladybug
Coleoptera
27–35^
[
40
]
Shield bug
Palomena prasina
Fully dried adult
10.8*
[
45
]
Butterfly
Pieris
2
[
40
]
Housefly
Musca domestica
Fully dried adults
19.7
1.19
3
[
43
]
Mollusks (Mollusca phylum)
Squid (Cephalopoda)
Pen
Negligible
20–40*
[
8
]
Pen
4.74
46.23
49
[
25
]
Loligo vulgaris
40
[
41
]
Cuttlefish (Cephalopoda)
Sepia spp
.
Shells
91.25
1.35
7.4
[
26
]
Pens
88.48
6.12
5.4
[
25
]
Sepia officinalis
20
[
41
]
Clam/oyster (Bivalvia)
Shell
85–90
3–6*
[
8
]
Other animals
Bryozoa
Plumatella repens
Dried
13.3*
[
32
]
Black coral (Cnidaria)
Antipathella fiordensis
Skeleton (organic part)
70
10
[
21
]
Horseshoe worms (Phoronida)
Tube
[
18
]
Sponges (Porifera)
[
28
]
Spiders (Arachnids)
Geolycosa vultuosa
6.42
8–8.5
[
36
]
Hogna radiata
6.41
5.5–7
[
36
]
Fungi
Basidiomycota (yeast)
Fomes fomentarius
2.4*
[
45
]
Lactarius vellereus
19
[
40
]
Full biomass
11
[
46
]
Basidiomycota (mushroom)
Agaricus bisporus
Cell wall
43.8
[
47
]
Zygomycota
Mucor rouxii
Cell wall
50.1
[
48
]
44.5
[
40
]
Rhizopus oryzae
Full biomass
14.6
[
49
]
Ascomycota (yeast)
Aspergillus niger
Cell wall
42
[
40
,
48
]
Penicillium chrysogenum
Cell wall
20.1
[
40
]
Penicillium notatum
Cell wall
18.5
[
40
]
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Cell wall
2.9
[
40
]
Algae
Diatoms
Thalassiosira fluviatilis
Ropes
[
50
]
Green algae
Pithophora oedogonia
Cell wall
[
30
]
Chlorella vulgaris
Cell wall
[
29
]
Note: *not provided how it is measured; ^based on the weight of the organic cuticle, others were measured based on weight differences of the raw materials and that of the sample obtained after acid and alkaline treatments2, crude ash3 based on acid detergent fiber, minus present amino acids.
1.2.1.1 Crustaceans (Part of Arthropoda)
Chitin is located in the exoskeletons of Arthropoda. The skeleton is a tough and hard material designed for mechanical support to the body and functions as an armor against predators. These characteristics can be dedicated to the presence of highly crystalline α‐chitin that, combined with proteins, forms a hybrid material with high stiffness (at least 150 GPa). These chitin–protein complexes, together with minerals for strength, form a fibrous structure that is among the most resistant organic materials [38, 52]. The shells of crustaceans mainly contain chitin (20–30%), proteins (20–40%), minerals (30–60%), pigments, and sometimes also lipids (0–14%) [8, 38]. Based on Table 1.1, it can be said that the chitin content ranges from 6% to 72% in crustacean shells. This large variation can be explained by the origin of the biomass (e.g., differences in species such as gray shrimp versus pink shrimp, or in growth phase), the part of the biomass considered for chitin analysis (e.g., shells as such or stripped of remaining flesh), or the varying pretreatment or analysis method used. Crabs and shrimp are mostly used at an industrial level and contain 10–72% chitin. As mentioned previously, the differences in species impacts the chitin content—for example, the Cancer crab contains 72% chitin as compared to 64% chitin in the Carcinus crab and 35% chitin in the king crab.
1.2.1.2 Insects (Part of Arthropoda)
Chitin is found in the exoskeleton of insects, but also in internal structures such as the inner cuticular linings of the alimentary canal and the tracheal system. In contrast with the exoskeletons of crustaceans, insect cuticles contain also catecholamines besides chitin, proteins, lipids, and minerals. The catecholamines are cross‐linked by o‐quinones with proteins and possibly also with chitin [14]. α‐Chitin in the exoskeleton of insects serves the same function as for crustaceans. It increases the strength of the skeleton, gives structure, prevents physical and chemical damages, and protects against infectious diseases [14]. The chitin content differs significantly between different insect species. In addition, Kaya et al. found that the chitin content is also significantly dependent on the life stage of the insect. The larvae of Vespa crabro (wasp) had a chitin content of 2.2% dry weight (DW) in comparison with 6.2% for pupa and 10.3% of the adult. This phenomenon can be explained by the different chitin functions in different body parts during different stages [52]. Similar results were obtained by Kaya et al. with the larvae of the potato beetle (7% chitin) and the adult beetle (20% chitin) [53].
1.2.1.3 Other Sources
Spiders (also part of the Arthropoda) contain α‐chitin (5–8.5%) with a high acetylation degree. Kaya et al. characterized physicochemically the chitin structure of two spider species (Geolycosa vultuosa and Hogna radiata), for which acetylation degrees of 97% and 99% were found, respectively [36]. Within the Mollusca, squids receive major attention because they are the prototype for β‐chitin. In addition, high chitin content (up to 49%) in the pen have been reported [25], which may be the basis to conclude that squid pen can become increasingly common as another potentially important chitin source [54]. However, it should be kept in mind that these high percentages are related to the composition of the chitin‐rich pen that represents a very minor fraction of the whole squid. Chitin may be involved in the formation of skeletons in calcifying marine sponges [28]. Sponges are described more in detail in Chapter 4. Within the Cnidarian taxa, skeletons often contain, besides chitin, calcium‐based minerals. Black corals form an exception and have a unique halogenated scleroprotein named antipathin associated with chitin [22]. Lophophorates (marine and freshwater Octopoda, Phoronida, Brachiopoda) have exoskeletons, named tubes, that consists of chitin [18]. Chitin is the most important ultrastructural compound of fungal cell walls, where it is embedded in the amorphous matrix and provides the framework of the cell wall morphology [55]. It exists in the spores, mycelia, and stalks, and has only been detected as α‐chitin [55]. Its amount ranges from 2% to 50% (w/w) on dry cell wall base, whereby the lowest value corresponds to yeasts [56] and the highest to Euascomycetes [55]. Depending on the class of fungi, the cell wall can also contain glucans, mannans, as well as chitosan. As the cell wall is only a part of the fungal biomass, the overall chitin (plus chitosan) yield is lower, and values have been reported (glucosamine on dry matter base) of 8–16% (w/w) for Aspergillus niger and Mucor rouxii mycelia [48] and 12% (w/w) for Agaricus bisporus stalks [47].
In the case of algae, since 1965, diatoms such as Thalassiosira were reported to secrete β‐chitin ropes that span between two recently divided daughter cells to keep them together, creating flexible cell chains that float in the water [27, 50]. However, chitin has also been shown to be present in diatoms in other forms—for instance, in the siliceous shell. In calcified coralline algae such as Clathromorphum compactum, chitin has been reported to be present that strengthens the skeleton and protects the algae from ocean acidification and grazing in shallow waters [28]. The presence of chitin was also demonstrated in the cell walls of the green algae Pithophora oedogonia [30] and Chlorella vulgaris [29]. Quantitative data on the chitin content in the algae, however, are scarce. The fact that chitin in algae is plant‐based can be an advantage for some applications.
1.2.2 Sources for Chitosan
Chitosan is mainly known as a partially deacetylated derivative of chitin, but has also been found to be naturally present in some types of biomass. Some fungi contain chitosan as an important constituent of their cell wall at various stages their life cycle. The class of Zygomycetes (e.g., the Mucor, Absidia, Benjaminiella, Cunninghamella, Gongronella, and Rhizopus genera) has especially been recognized as a valuable source of chitosan [59, 60]. Chitosan content of 1–10% on dry biomass base have been found with a reported degree of deacetylation of 83–94%. Chitosan is not directly synthesized, but is rather the result of an efficient conversion of chitin to chitosan by the presence of a deacetylase enzyme [57]. The deacetylation enzymes are thought to be in close proximity to the regions where the chitin transverses the plasma membrane [59]. As chitin is synthesized, the deacetylase enzyme converts it to chitosan [57]. Since chitosan can be isolated with less extreme procedures, fungi may become an interesting source of chitosan in the future [26].
In addition to fungi, bacteria too have been reported to be able to convert chitin into chitosan using enzymatic deacetylation. Kaur et al. isolated, from soil, bacteria (Bacillus sp. and Serritia sp.) that produce chitin deacetylase and release chitosan. Although the efficiency of this process is limited due the insolubility of chitin [13], it contributes to the
