Cities of Europe E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Studies in Urban and Social Change
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 697

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Cities of Europe is a unique combination of book and CD-ROM examining the effects of recent socio-economic transformations on western European cities. * A unique combination of book and CD-ROM examining the effects of recent socio-economic transformations on western European cities. * Focuses on the interplay between segregation, social exclusion and governance issues in these cities. * Takes a comparative approach by highlighting the specifics of European cities vis-à-vis other urban contexts and analysing the intra-European differences. * The CD-ROM features a series of 2,000 photographs from seventeen cities (Amsterdam, Antwerp, Barcelona, Berlin, Birmingham, Brussels, Bucharest, Helsinki, London, Milan, Naples, New York, Paris, Rotterdam, Tirana, Turin, and Utrecht). * Also features 126 thematic maps, interviews with established scholars, and literature reviews. * The book and the CD-ROM are linked through an extensive cross-referencing system.

Leseprobe

Contents

Table of Contents of the CD

Notes on Contributors

Acknowledgments

Series Editors’ Preface

ForewordSaskia Sassen

Introducing European Cities

1 Cities of Europe: Changing Contexts, Local Arrangements, and the Challenge to Social CohesionYuri Kazepov

Introduction

The Importance of Considering the Context

The Prominence of the Political and the European Context

Changing Contexts

Conclusions: Challenging European Cities

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

NOTES

REFERENCES

2 The European City: A Conceptual Framework and Normative ProjectHartmut Häussermann and Anne Haila

Introduction

Four Theoretical Traditions

Max Weber

Moderate Modernism and Recent Trends

Conclusions

REFERENCES

Part I: The Changing Concept of European Cities

3 Urban Social Change: A Socio-Historical Framework of AnalysisEnzo Mingione

Introduction

The Main Trends of Change

Welfare Capitalism Regimes and Their Crises

Conclusions: Lines of Diversification in the Fragmented Societies

NOTES

REFERENCES

4 Social Morphology and Governance in the New MetropolisGuido Martinotti

Introduction

Metropolitan Development and Population: The Paradox of Deurbanization

An Analytical Framework for Understanding the Changing City

Consequences for the Urban Sciences

Conclusions

NOTES

REFERENCES

5 Capitalism and the City: Globalization, Flexibility, and IndifferenceRichard Sennett

Introduction

Rigidity and Strangeness

Flexibility and Indifference

Conclusions: The Fate of the Urban Virtues

REFERENCES

6 Urban Socio-Spatial Configurations and the Future of European CitiesChristian Kesteloot

Introduction

European Socio-Spatial Configurations

Socio-Spatial Configurations and the Urban Future

Conclusions

NOTES

REFERENCES

Part II: The Spatial Impact of Ongoing Transformation Processes

7 The Dynamics of Social Exclusion and Neighborhood Decline: Welfare Regimes, Decommodification, Housing, and Urban InequalityAlan Murie

Introduction

Social Exclusion: Different Perspectives

Measurement or Process

Integration, Welfare States, and the Production of Exclusion

Classes of Welfare in Decommodified Housing

Neighborhood Disadvantage

Conclusions

REFERENCES

8 Social Exclusion, Segregation, and Neighborhood EffectsSako Musterd and Wim Ostendorf

Introduction

Analytical Dimensions of Segregation and Exclusion

Spatial Segregation and Neighborhood Effects on Social Exclusion

Conclusions

NOTES

REFERENCES

9 Segregation and Housing Conditions of Immigrants in Western European CitiesRonald van Kempen

Introduction

Segregation Patterns in Western European Cities

Housing Conditions

Explanations of Segregation and Housing Conditions

Conclusions

NOTES

REFERENCES

10 Gentrification of Old Neighborhoods and Social Integration in EuropePatrick Simon

Introduction

Urban Decline and Gentrification in European Cities

Renovation and Social Change

The New Middle Classes and the “Multiculturals”

Gentrification and Integration

Conclusions

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

NOTES

REFERENCES

Part III: Social Exclusion, Governance, and Social Cohesion in European Cities

11 Elusive Urban Policies in EuropePatrick Le Galès

Introduction

What is Urban Policy in Europe? The Legacy

Urban Policies as Public Policies: Do Not Take the Label for Granted

What Does the Label "Urban Policies" Cover?

Conclusions: European Urban Policies? Do They Make Any Sense?

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

NOTES

REFERENCES

12 Changing Forms of Solidarity: Urban Development Programs in EuropeJan Vranken

Introduction

Urban Development Programs in Their Context

Solidarity and Cohesion are Different but Related

Does the Area-based Approach of Urban Development Programs Provide an Answer to Problems of Cohesion and Solidarity?

Conclusions

NOTES

REFERENCES

13 Challenging the Family: The New Urban Poverty in Southern EuropeEnrica Morlicchio

Introduction

The Poverty of “Ordinary” People in Southern Europe

The School as a Central Factor in the Process of Exclusion

The Overburdened Family

The Spatial Clustering of Poor People

Intergenerational Transmission of Poverty: Two Low-Income Families in Naples

Conclusions

NOTES

REFERENCES

14 Minimum Income Policies to Combat Poverty: Local Practices and Social Justice in the “European Social Model”Marisol García

Introduction

Social Citizenship and the Question of Social Justice

The European Dimension

Spheres of Justice at the Local Level

The Case of Minimum Income Policies

Conclusions

NOTES

REFERENCES

Visual Paths Through Urban Europe (CD-Rom)

Index

Studies in Urban and Social Change

Published by Blackwell in association with the International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. Series editors: Harvey Molotch, Linda McDowell, Margit Mayer, Chris Pickvance

The Blackwell Studies in Urban and Social Change aim to advance debates and empirical analyses stimulated by changes in the fortunes of cities and regions across the world. Topics range from monographs on single places to large-scale comparisons across East and West, North and South. The series is explicitly interdisciplinary; the editors judge books by their contribution to intellectual solutions rather than according to disciplinary origin.

Published

Cities of Europe

Yuri Kazepov (ed.)

Cities, War, and Terrorism

Stephen Graham (ed.)

Cities and Visitors: Regulating People, Markets, and City Space

Lily M. Hoffman, Susan S. Fainstein, and Dennis R. Judd (eds)

Understanding the City: Contemporary and Future Perspectives

John Eade and Christopher Mele (eds)

The New Chinese City: Globalization and Market Reform

John R. Logan (ed.)

Cinema and the City: Film and Urban Societies in a Global Context

Mark Shiel and Tony Fitzmaurice (eds)

The Social Control of Cities? A Comparative Perspective

Sophie Body-Gendrot

Globalizing Cities: A New Spatial Order?

Peter Marcuse and Ronald van Kempen (eds)

Contemporary Urban Japan: A Sociology of Consumption

John Clammer

Capital Culture: Gender at Work in the City

Linda McDowell

Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies

Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe and Ivan Szelenyi (eds)

The Politics of Ethnic Minorities in European Cities

Romain Garbaye

The People's Home? Social Rented Housing in Europe and America

Michael Harloe

Post-Fordism

Ash Amin (ed.)

Free Markets and Food Riots

John Walton and David Seddon

Fragmented Societies

Enzo Mingione

Urban Poverty and the Underclass: A Reader

Enzo Mingione

Forthcoming

Social Capital in Practice

Talja Blokland and Mike Savage (eds)

Cities and Regions in a Global Era

Alan Harding (ed.)

Urban South Africa

Alan Mabin and Susan Parnell

Urban Social Movements and the State

Margit Mayer

Social Capital Formation in Immigrant Neighborhoods

Min Zhou

Cities of Europe © 2005 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

except for the CD-Rom Visual Paths Through Urban Europe © 2005 by Yuri Kazepov

BLACKWELL PUBLISHING

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9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK

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The right of Yuri Kazepov to be identified as the Author of the Editorial Material in this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

First published 2005 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

3 2007

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cities of Europe: changing contexts, local arrangements, and the challenge to urban cohesion/edited by Yuri Kazepov.

p. cm. – (Studies in urban and social change)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-4051-2133-5 (alk. paper) – ISBN 1-4051-2132-7 (alk. paper) 1. Cities and towns–Europe, Western. 2. Sociology, Urban–Europe, Western. I. Kazepov, Yuri. II. Series.

HT131.C56 2004

307.76'094—dc22

2004008399

ISBN-13: 978-1-4051-2133-0 (alk. paper) – ISBN-13: 978-1-4051-2132-3 (alk. paper)

A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

The publisher's policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestrypolicy, and which has been manufactured from pulp processed using acid-free and elementarychlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover boardused have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards.

For further information on

Blackwell Publishing, visit our website:

www.blackwellpublishing.com

Table of Contents of the CD

Visual Paths Through Urban Europe (CD)

I: The Changing Context of European Cities

Non-Places

Nico Giersig (Humboldt University, Berlin)

Local Identity

Maarten Loopmans (Catholic University of Leuven)

De-industrialization

Justin Beaumont (University of Utrecht)

II: The Spatial Impact of Ongoing Transformation Processes

Gentrification

Nico Giersig (Humboldt University, Berlin) and Manuel B. Aalbers (University of Amsterdam)

Social Housing

Maarten Loopmans (Catholic University of Leuven)

Sub-urbanization

Manuel B. Aalbers (University of Amsterdam)

III: Social Exclusion, Governance, and Social Cohesion in European Cities

Ethnic Villages

Manuel B. Aalbers (University of Amsterdam)

Local Community

Manuel B. Aalbers (University of Amsterdam)

Urban Poverty

Nico Giersig (Humboldt University, Berlin) and Manuel B. Aalbers (University of Amsterdam)

Additional text

The Transformation of Inner and Outer Space.

Reflections on Space after 9/11

Robin Harper (New York University)

Interviews

Susan Fainstein (Columbia University, NY)

Hartmut Häussermann (Humboldt University, Berlin)

Chris Hamnett (Kings College, London)

Paul Kantor (Fordham University, NY)

Chris Kesteloot (Catholic University of Leuven)

Patrick Le Galès (Sciences Po, Paris)

Peter Marcuse (Columbia University, NY)

Guido Martinotti (University of Milan-Bicocca)

Enzo Mingione (University of Milan-Bicocca)

John Mollenkopf (City University of New York)

Harvey Molotch (New York University)

Saskia Sassen (University of Chicago)

Richard Sennett (London School of Economics)

The CD-Rom includes also about 2000 pictures, 14 city data sheets and more than 120 thematic maps. The credits of the CD mentions all those who participated.

Notes on Contributors

Marisol García is Professor of Sociology at the University of Barcelona (ES). She was the President of the International Sociological Association (ISA) RC21 on Urban and Regional Research, 1998–2002. She has been Fellow of the Citizenship Forum at the European University Institute in Florence (I) and has been involved for many years in European comparative research (ESOPO, INPART, SEDEC, EUREX, EUROPUB). She is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. Her publications range from urban sociology to the question of social justice and citizenship.

Anne Haila is Professor of Urban Studies at the Department of Social Policy at the University of Helsinki (FIN). From 1994 to 1998 she was Vice-President of the ISA Research Committee on Urban and Regional Development and its Scientific Secretary from 1998 to 2002. Since 1999 she has been a member of the editorial board of Planning Theory and Practice. She has a strong international record of publications and research on globalization, East European cities and science parks.

Hartmut Häussermann is Professor of Urban and Regional Sociology at the Institute of Social Sciences of Humboldt University, Berlin (D) and President of RC21, the Research Committee on Urban and Regional Development of the ISA. He is involved in a range of comparative research concerned with social and spatial inequalities, urban renewal, urban development policies such as URBEX and EUREX. He is a partner in the Urban Europe RTN project. He has published extensively on these issues.

Yuri Kazepov is Professor of Urban Sociology and Compared Welfare Systems at the University of Urbino (I). He has been Jean Monet Fellow at the European University Institute (Fiesole, I) and Visiting Professor at the University of Bremen (Germany). Since the early 1990s he has been involved as national partner or as coordinator in several EU funded research projects on urban poverty and segregation, local social policy, welfare reforms and activation policy. For the period 2002—2006 he is the secretary of RC21 Research Committee on Urban and Regional development of the ISA and a founding member of ESPAnet (European Social Policies Analysis).

Christian Kesteloot is Professor of Social and Economic Geography at the Catholic University of Leuven (B), and also teaches at the Free University of Brussels, Belgium. He is a former Research Director of the Fund for Scientific Research, Flanders and member of URBEX and EUREX. He specializes in socio-spatial structures and urban restructuring in West European cities and participates in several European networks on these topics, including ethnic minorities, the socially excluded, and young people. He has published extensively on these issues.

Patrick Le Gales is Directeur de Recherche au CNRS at CEVIPOF and Professor of Politics and Sociology at Sciences Po Paris (F). Previously, he was at CRAPE (IEP Rennes, 1992–97). He has been also a Visiting Fellow at the Robert Schuman Center (IUE Florence, 1996–97) and a Visiting Professor and Fellow at UCLA (1999) and at the University of Oxford (2002–03). He is Editor of the International Journal of Urban and Regional Research and is involved in European comparative research on local societies, urban and regional governance, economic development, urban policies, and state restructuring.

Guido Martinotti is Professor of Urban Sociology at the University of Milan-Bicocca (I). Since 1986 he has been Visiting Professor at the Department of Sociology of the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB). In the spring semester of 1998 he was Fellow of the E.M. Remarque Institute, New York University. Between 1992 and 1996 he was Chairman of the Standing Committee for the Social Sciences of the European Science Foundation (ESF). Since 1999 he has been a member of the External Advisory Group of DG Research on Improving the Human Potential and enlarging the socio-economic knowledge base of the European Union.

Enzo Mingione is Professor of Economic Sociology at the University of Milan-Bicocca (I). He has been Visiting Professor at the University College of London (UK, 1974–75) and of the University of California,

Los Angeles (UCLA, 1992–93), LSE (2003) and Sciences Po Paris (2004). He has been a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Urban and Regional Research of which he is now a corresponding editor. He has been Italian Coordinator of ESOPO and of the National Research Council project on Governance and Economic Development. He is President of the Bignaschi Foundation and responsible for the Observatory of Urban Poverty at the University of Milan-Bicocca (together with F. Zajczyk and Y. Kazepov).

Enrica Morlicchio is Professor of Sociology of Development at the University of Naples Federico II (I) where she carries out research on segregation, ghettoization and poverty, with special reference to Southern Europe and in particular Italy. She has published extensively on the issue, both nationally and internationally. She was a member of the URBEX and EUREX projects and is a member of the UGIS project.

Alan Murie is Professor of Urban and Regional Studies and Head of the School of Public Policy at the University of Birmingham (UK). He has published extensively, nationally and internationally, with a focus on social and spatial changes related to housing and residence and the policy issues associated with these. He was a member of the URBEX and EUREX projects and is a member of the RESTATE project.

Sako Musterd is Professor of Social Geography at the University of Amsterdam (NL). He specializes in segregation and integration and in urban development issues. Among the books he has edited are Urban Segregation and the Welfare State and Amsterdam Human Capital. He is on the management board of Housing Studies and is a corresponding editor of the International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. He has been the International Coordinator of the URBEX research project and participates in the RESTATE (5th framework) program and in the EUREX online seminar.

Wim Ostendorf is Associate Professor at the Department of Geography and Planning of the University of Amsterdam (NL), where he teaches research methodology, urban geography and geography of the Netherlands. His main research interests concentrate on urbanization processes in metropolitan regions and on issues of population, segregation, and housing. On these topic he has published extensively, both nationally and internationally. He is engaged in comparative European research projects such as Cost Civitas, URBEX and RESTATE.

Saskia Sassen is the Ralph Lewis Professor of Sociology at the University of Chicago, and Centennial Visiting Professor at the London School of Economics. She is currently completing her forthcoming book Denationalization: Territory, Authority and Rights in a Global Digital Age (Under contract with Princeton University Press 2004). She has also just completed for UNESCO a five-year project on sustainable human settlement for which she set up a network of researchers and activists in over 50 countries. Her most recent books are, the edited Global Networks, Linked Cities (Routledge 2002), and the co-editedSocio-Digital Formations: New Architectures for Global Order (Princeton University Press 2004), and The Global City (fully updated edition in 2001).

Richard Sennett is Professor of Sociology and Chair of the Cities Programme at the London School of Economics (UK), an interdisciplinary teaching and research program joining urban visual design to the social sciences. In the Sociology Department he teaches courses on narrative theory and its application to practical ethnography, and the sociology of the arts. He is internationally well known through his publications: Flesh and Stone: The Body and the City in Western Civilisation (W.W. Norton, 1994) and The Corrosion of Character: The Personal Consequences of Work in the New Capitalism (W.W. Norton, 1998) and, more recently, Respect: The Welfare State, Inequality, and the City (Penguin, 2003).

Patrick Simon is a senior researcher at Institut National d'Etudes Demographiques (INED) (F) where he studies, as socio-demographer, social and ethnic segregation in French cities, discrimination in social housing and the labor market, and the integration of ethnic minorities in European countries. He was a member of the URBEX and EUREX projects, is the coordinator of a European project on the measurement of discriminations, and represents INED in the Network of Excellence, International Migration and Social Cohesion in Europe (IMISCOE) in the 6th framework program.

Ronald van Kempen is Professor of Urban Geography at the University of Utrecht (NL). His research activities are focused on housing low-income groups and immigrants, neighborhood developments, segregation and the links between policy and theory in these fields. Many of his projects are internationally comparative projects. He has published in numerous international journals and has edited several books. He is currently managing an extensive project on large estates funded by the European Union (RESTATE).

Jan Vranken is a Professor at the University of Antwerpen (B). He teaches courses on social inequality and stratification, poverty and social exclusion, and social problems, and coordinates the Research Unit on Poverty, Social Exclusion and the City (OASeS) (www.ua.ac.be/oases). Since the late 1970s he has participated in several European poverty programs and initiatives. From 2000 to 2003 he coordinated a large project on Governance in European cities (UGIS) within FP6. Recently he became a member of the Management Committee of COST-A26 on European City-Regions.

Acknowledgments

The complexity of the editorial project which brought about the publication of this book and the enclosed CD, would have never been managed without the help of many people and the financial and infrastructural support of several institutions. Let me first thank the University of Urbino, in particular the Institute of Sociology and Guido Maggioni, who was heading it at the time the manuscript has been prepared. The freedom I had in developing new ideas and to embark into such an ambitious project are rare to be found in any institution.

The European Commission should also be gratefully mentioned as it allowed this project to become real by providing generous funding within the stream of accompanying measures targeted to dissemination of the Improving Human Potential programme of the DG Research, contract (Nr. HPHA-CT2000-00057). The EU official in charge of the project, Fadila Boughanemi supported me with all its capacity and competence helping the project through all bureaucratic complexities.

The link to the European Commission and its research policies is even stronger. In fact, most of the chapters make an explicit or implicit reference to empirical results from EU funded research in which most of the authors were involved in the recent past. The following projects and their coordinators should be gratefully mentioned:

1) ESOPO: Evaluating SOcial POlicy. A project on local policies against poverty, coordinated by Chiara Saraceno (University of Turin, Italy).

2) URBEX: URban poverty, EXclusion and segregation. A project on the spatial impact of socio-economic transformations, coordinated by Sako Musterd (University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands).

3) UGIS: Urban Governance. A project on governance issues tackling mainly regeneration projects at the local level, coordinated by Jan Vranken (University of Antwerp, Belgium).

4) EUREX: Online seminar on Poverty, Exclusion and Governance in European Cities, coordinated by myself within the Minerva programme of DG Culture.

To the authors of the chapters go many thanks for supporting the ambitious project of a young colleague with comments and constructive criticism aimed at improving the accessibility and readability of the book. Warmest gratitude goes also to Patrick Le Gales and Harvey Molotch for their support throughout the whole project. Being a non-native speaker I benefited from the help of Terry McBride, who also prepared the first version of the manuscript according to the publishers guidelines.

My introductory chapter benefited from comments by Alberta Andreotti, David Benassi, Domenico Carbone, Angela Genova, Patrick Le Gales, Harvey Molotch, Enzo Mingione, and Matteo Villa to whom I express my gratitude for their help. The usual disclaimers apply.

Very special thanks go also to all those involved in the realization of the CD-Rom on visual paths through urban Europe. The CD is the result of a really very complex collaborative work, which involved more than 80 people from 11 countries and different scientific backgrounds and institutions. To all of them – named in the credits section of the CD-Rom – goes my deepest gratitude for their commitment and support throughout the whole project. In particular I would like to thank Daniele Barbieri professor at ISIA (Istituto Superiore Industrie Artistiche, Urbino), who codirected with me the realization of the CD-Rom, for his immense patience toward my never-ending requests. Valter Toni, also a professor at ISIA, provided essential technical support during the final rush. Daniela de Bartolo and Daniela Gravina, who were students of ISIA at the time in which the CD has been finalized, provided the concept and the nice graphic design of the CD, implementing most of its functions and surfing options. Franco Mariani, director of ISIA made the framework for this fruitful collaboration possible and should be gratefully mentioned for that.

Among the many other people who helped me, I would like to mention Eduardo Barberis and Giovanni Torrisi, who not only helped me with excellent technical and editorial support for both the book and the CD, but were always available when needed with their problem-solving oriented minds, a rare quality.

Henning Moser, Anja Nothelfer and Erica Barbiani provided not only pictures, but also extensive visual advice and support.

The editorial team for the CD included Manuel Aalbers, Eduardo Barberis, Nico Giersig, Maarten Loopmans, and Justin Beaumont, who enthusiastically provided texts, pictures, and comments. They helped me also revizing the whole written and visual material in the CD. Maarten Loopmans played also a substantial role in linking the images with the chapters.

Finally, there are no words which can express my deep gratitude to Simona, my wife, and Alexander, my son. They gave me the energy to bridge the difficult moments simply existing. This book owes much to them and to them it is dedicated.

Series Editors’ Preface

The Blackwell Studies in Urban and Social Change series aims to advance theoretical debates and empirical analyses stimulated by changes in the fortunes of cities and regions across the world. Among topics taken up in past volumes and welcomed for future submissions are:

Connections between economic restructuring and urban changeUrban divisions, difference and diversityConvergence and divergence among regions of east and west, north and southUrban and environmental movementsInternational migration and capital flowsTrends in urban political economyPatterns of urban-based consumption

The series is explicitly interdisciplinary; the editors judge books by their contribution to intellectual solutions rather than according to disciplinary origin.

Proposals may be submitted to members of the series Editorial Committee:

Harvey Molotch

Linda McDowell

Margit Mayer

Chris Pickvance

Foreword

The city has long been a site for the exploration of major subjects confronting society and the social sciences. In the mid-1900s it lost that heuristic capability. This had partly to do with the actual urban condition; the city of the mid-1900s is no longer the entity that captures the foundational dislocations of an epoch as it had been at the turn of the century and into the early 1900s. The massive effort to regulate the urban social and spatial order had succeeded to a certain extent. Further, and in my view crucial, the strategic dynamics shaping society found their critical loci in the government (the Fordist contract, the Keynesian state project) and in mass manufacturing, including the mass production of suburbs.

Today the city is once again emerging as a strategic lens for producing critical knowledge, not only about the urban condition but also about major social, economic, and cultural refigurings in our societies. Large complex cities have once again become a strategic site for a whole range of new types of operations – political, economic, cultural, subjective – both urban and non-urban. They are also in part the spaces for post-colonial history-in-the-making. One question, then, is whether studying cities can today, as in past periods, help us produce critical knowledge and analytic tools for understanding the broader social transformation underway. The old categories, however, are not enough. Some of the major conditions in cities today challenge many, though not all, of the well-established forms of theorization and empirical analysis.

One set of challenges arises out of the Intersection of major macrosocial trends and their particular spatial patterns. The city and the metropolitan region emerge as one of the key sites where these macro-social trends instantiate and hence can be constituted as objects of study. In this regard then, the complex city or city-region becomes a heuristic zone: it actually can produce knowledge about, and make legible, some of the major transformations and dynamics shaping society. This is the city not as a bounded unit, but as a complex structure that can articulate a variety of macro-social processes and reconstitute them as a partly urbanized condition.

This volume is an important contribution to this larger effort. Its particular contribution lies in the specification of a European city type. In a conceptual and historical tour de force, Haussermann and Haila locate this European city type for us and set the stage for the volume. The effort of this volume is not to find homogeneity. Rather, together the chapters document the fact of enormous heterogeneity among European cities, but within a framework that does not deborder the European city type.

In a strong, detailed and illuminating introduction, Kazepov shows us the complexity of the notion of a European city. Kazepov notes that what binds these chapters into a European type is their emphasis, whether explicit or not, on the regulatory heritage and current policy apparatus within which these cities function. A critical variable for all authors is the set of changes that came about in the 1980s and the pressures they produced on welfare states throughout Europe. In sharp contrast with cities in the USA subject to similar pressures, in Europe the welfare states and the role of the state remain strong and consequential. It is at this juncture that the model of a European city finds one of its key moorings.

Within this broader framing, each author focuses in great detail on one particular feature. This makes reading these chapters truly rewarding as they go, as I like to say, digging into their issue. It raises the level of complexity in the specification of a type of European city.

At the most general level, one consequence of the changes emerging in the 1970s and 1980s in Europe has been the development of new forms of governance through which different actors have become increasingly involved in policy design and delivery. In an earlier phase, the notion of urban policies, Le Gales emphasizes, was related to national efforts to address the threats of urban violence, delinquency, and the fear of the working class. Urban policy is the development of welfare state policies; often they are simply public state policies.

Le Galès examines the increasingly constructivist frame within which urban policies are produced today. The complex processes of stucturation include a wider range of actors coming from different sectors of society, with different interests and acting at different levels. This brings about a field of experimentation by local actors, who are no longer simply implementing decisions taken at other levels of government, but are active participants in redesigning policy. Cities become a key site for aggregation and representation of interests. For Le Gales, organizing a mode of governance is critical, and it is here that European cities reveal themselves as different from US cities. The ongoing importance of the welfare state in Europe also means that urban elites are less dependent on business interests.

Introducing complexities, Martinotti shows us how specific populations with specific interests today cut across older class differences and so make regulation more difficult. Most of the social problems in today's metropolitan societies are related to the way in which potential conflicts among inhabitants, commuters, city users, and businesspeople are played out and are structured. Despite some measure of convergence with US cities, the fact remains that the less market-oriented local governance arrangements and the more binding regulation systems and urban planning constraints give European cities more control over the tensions different interests can produce. The effect is to temper the consequences of economic globalization and neoliberal adjustment, the spread of flexibility and of vulnerability.

However, Vranken, on his part, finds limits in the governance approach to cities and their problems. He shows how urban policies have not captured the complexity and the key dynamics of cities in seeking to address the breakdowns of cohesion: the mix of organic and mechanical forms of solidarity present in a city, the particular dynamics through which cohesion can be achieved (e.g., by allowing a community to establish its identity), the need to recognize that edges and borders can be fruitful zones contributing to cohesion rather than strengthening divisions.

Kesteloot emphasizes that even as state action makes the critical difference in Europe compared with the USA, state action varies across Europe. The social issues confronting European cities may be the same but the socio-spatial arrangements of cities vary and have different effects on how the social issues are handled. The socio-spatial structure of the city results from historical processes: older spatializations of economic, social and political processes; the material and social modes for collective organization and consumption of older periods; the organization of the economy and the conditions for class struggle. These differences can shape different futures for these cities, especially their social relations.

The weight of these differences in social relations comes sharply to life in the disturbing findings by Mingione and Morlicchio, respectively. Each notes the differences between Northern and Southern Europe. In the latter, the importance of clientelism, segmented labor markets, locally fragmented social assistance schemes, and unsupported family responsibilities, produce specific burdens and major responsibilities on families rather than the state as in Northern Europe. The redistribution of resources is confined to the family, thereby trumping the European welfare state. This reproduces already high inequality. But the vicious cycle goes deeper. Mingione shows how the instability arising out of changes in the market and the family spilled over into the welfare state, affecting its capabilities and leading to breakdown in its fiscal and crisis management capacities.

Murie adds to this type of analysis by emphasizing the importance of going beyond income when we measure and explain poverty. His findings also point to a particular kind of trumping of the welfare state. He is concerned with the resources households can draw on, resources that can determine their life chances. Murie emphasizes the importance of a wider definition of poverty, one that specifies the terms of access to resources other than income and employment. Important in this context are decommodified services (not provided through markets) and how poor families can access them. Different neighborhoods are positioned differently as a result of a variety of conditions such as stereotyping, racism, mobility, and transiency. We cannot assume that such decommodified services will be evenly distributed and that they go to all those who need them. This can in turn generate inequalities. Poverty is then a far more dynamic and embedded condition than indicated by income and by the features of the welfare state.

García addresses the challenge to social citizenship, crucial to the European city, contained in the fact of the persistence of poverty. She emphasizes the importance of a broader form of social inclusion, not only income, in order to secure social citizenship. Given increasing inequality in the terms of inclusion into the social, political, and economic spheres, García wants to make more explicit the implicit notions of social justice emerging in the policy context for addressing poverty in the European Union (EU). To some extent, social citizenship has been realized in the EU (welfare regimes, Social Europe), but the context has changed from strong welfare to one where more private/market mechanisms enter the picture. Hence new understandings of social justice need to be developed in today's Europe. It comes down to a specification of what we mean by social inclusion: an increasing focus on the multidimensional causes of poverty beyond narrow economic definition, highlighting the importance of participation in society.

In yet another twist on the limits of welfare states, Ronald van Kempen shows us how the housing conditions of migrants in Europe are still worse than those of nationals. He finds that segregation persists in all the cities examined and that it has failed to decline over time; for some groups it has increased. He also finds, interestingly, sharp differences for the same group across countries and, within a given city, sharp differences for different groups and among cities in a country. Different dynamics in each city, country or group may be part of the explanation. Van Kempen finds that spatial segregation exists in different combinations with inequality.

Musterd and Ostendorf focus on ongoing segregation and social exclusion and their potential reinforcement through the spatial clustering of socially excluded people. They find a mix of dynamics: that the extent of social welfare development has a significant effect on the reduction of polarization, that higher unemployment can result from structural or spatial mismatch, and that globalization has reduced the role of the state in welfare and increased that of the market. In their detailed analysis they find that welfare states and urban histories make a difference, and explain much of the difference in social segregation and exclusion between US and European cities. Further, the types of welfare policies also make a difference. Thus, in Dutch segregated neighborhoods the authors find that those who were in a stronger position (e.g., had a job) in a weak neighborhood, fared worse after losing the job than those who start out unemployed in a weak neighborhood. Current Dutch welfare policies can neutralize the negative effects in the second case but not in the first. The major policy implication is that government policy should not target areas but do more individual targeting.

The question of politics as distinct from governance is addressed in oblique ways in the last two chapters I discuss here. In his study of a gentrifying neighborhood, Simon shows us the diversity of possible patterns. While he recognizes that this is perhaps the less common situation, he emphasizes that we need to recognize it is one trajectory. The gentrifiers are particular types. However, at the same time within this self-selected group there are differences, one group wanting to preserve the diversity which includes the long-term poorer residents, and the other group acting according to the familiar image in the gentrification literature, i.e. trying to drive the long-term residents out. The latter group fails, in good part because of the efforts of the former gentrifiers who seek to ensure that even if old-time residents are forced to leave their housing because of price rises, that they relocate in the same neighborhood. Thereby these gentrifiers are not only protecting the old-time residents but also their own interest in having a diverse neighborhood, and one where they can be certain to be able to stay too. Simon retheorizes class relations by showing the possibility of political projects that join different classes.

Sennett reminds us that the peculiar value of urban life, even in decaying cities, is that cities are places where learning to live with strangers and with those who are not like ourselves, can happen directly. Cosmopolitanism arises from this. Urban life can teach people how to live with multiplicity inside themselves: it is not just about registering differences – of identity, language, etc. – out there. As we interact with others who are different, there also is a shift in who we are. How our identity is constructed will vary in different types of interactions. Urban life then, gives us the concrete materials for developing that consciousness. Crucial for Sennett is that this is a possibility, not an inevitability. There are cities whose features actively exclude that possibility. In this sense, European cities are far more amenable than US cities to this possibility.

Saskia Sassen

University of Chicago and London School of Economics

Introducing European Cities

1 Cities of Europe: Changing Contexts, Local Arrangements, and the Challenge to Social Cohesion

¨uri Kazepov

2 The European City: A Conceptual Framework and Normative Project Hartmut Häussermann andAnne Haila

1

Cities of Europe: Changing Contexts, Local Arrangements, and the Challenge to Social Cohesion

Yuri Kazepov

Introduction

European cities are back on the agenda of researchers in social sciences as a distinct topic. In the last few years scientific production has markedly increased, highlighting their distinctiveness in comparative terms.1 This increased interest towards difference is the outcome of the scientific debate and empirical research emerged from the need to understand the transformation trends set in motion at the end of the 1970s, their impacts and the resulting growing diversity at different territorial levels.

The deep process of spatial reorganization which began in the aftermath of the crisis of Fordism brought about two apparently contradictory directions of change, running partly parallel and bringing about this distictiveness. From the economic point of view, the extensive globalization of production strategies and consumption behaviors, with multinational firms and financial markets playing a decisive part, has been paralleled by an increased localization of production into regional economies and industrial districts with varying impacts at the local level. From the political point of view, the rise of supranational institutions and political configurations (e.g., the European Union, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization (WTO)) gaining strategic guidance in fostering the mobility of capital, goods, services and labor, has been paralleled by a transfer of regulatory authority downwards to subnational territories, namely regions and cities.