Clinical Guide to Fish Medicine E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Clinical Guide to Fish Medicine Designed as a practical resource, Clinical Guide to Fish Medicineprovides an evidence-based approach to the veterinary care of fish. This guide--written and edited by experts in the field--contains essential information on husbandry, diagnostics, and case management of bony and cartilaginous fish. This important resource: * Provides clinically relevant information on topics such as anatomy, water quality, life-support systems, nutrition, behavioral training, clinical examination, clinical pathology, diagnostic imaging, necropsy techniques, anesthesia and analgesia, surgery, medical treatment, and transport * Describes common presenting problems of fish, including possible differentials and practical approaches * Reviews key information on non-infectious and infectious diseases of fish in a concise format that is easily accessible in a clinical setting Written for veterinarians, biologists, technicians, specialists, and students, Clinical Guide to Fish Medicine offers a comprehensive review of veterinary medicine of fish.
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Seitenzahl: 1788
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgments
List of Contributors
Section A: Fish Medicine Topic Reviews
A1 Anatomy and Taxonomy
Introduction
Anatomy of Bony Fish
Anatomy of Cartilaginous Fish
Taxonomy
Acknowledgments
References
A2 Water Quality
Introduction
Water Source
Dissolved Oxygen
Total Gas Pressures
Temperature
Salinity and Salt Composition
Nitrogenous Wastes (Ammonia, Nitrite, Nitrate)
pH
Alkalinity and Hardness
Carbon Dioxide
Chlorines and Chloramines
Iodide and Iodate
Heavy Metals
Turbidity/Suspended Solids
Microbiome and Bacterial Testing
Water Quality Testing Options
Conclusion
References
A3 Life Support Systems
Introduction
Bacteria and Other Microorganisms
System Type
Oxygenation and Gas Exchange
Water Flow
Mechanical and Physicochemical Filtration
Biological Filtration: Nitrification and Mineralization
Denitrification
Ecological Scrubbers
Water Disinfection
Temperature Control
Noise and Vibration
Lighting
Other Life Support Equipment
Pond Life Support
Coral Reef Life Support
Conclusion
References
A4 Nutrition and Nutritional Support
Introduction
Natural History
Nutrient Requirements
Feeding
Food Storage and Preparation
Nutritional Support
Larval and Broodstock Nutrition
New Directions in Fish Nutrition Research
References
A5 Fish Behavior
Introduction
Fish Abilities
Benefits of Behavioral Management
Introduction to the Science of Learning
Before Training Begins
Getting Started with Training
Basic Training
Beyond Basic Training (Other Reasons to Train)
Modifying Problem Behaviors
Conclusion
References
A6 Clinical Examination and Diagnostic Sampling
Introduction
History
Clinical Examination
Individual Identification
Diagnostic Sampling
Commercial Laboratories
References
A7 Clinical Pathology and Ancillary Diagnostics
Introduction
Reference Materials in Fish Medicine
Wet Mount Examinations
Cytologic Examination
Histopathology
Hematology
Blood Biochemistry
Toxicologic and Nutritional Analyses
Microbiology
Molecular Diagnostics
Immunohistochemistry
In Situ Hybridization
Antibody‐Based Testing
Conclusion
References
A8 Diagnostic Imaging
Introduction
Conventional Radiography
Computed Tomography
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Ultrasonography
Common Abnormalities on Diagnostic Imaging
Conclusion
References
A9 Necropsy and Ancillary Diagnostics
Introduction
Specimen Selection
Human Safety
Equipment Needed
Gross Necropsy
Histology
Conclusion
References
A10 Anesthesia and Analgesia
Introduction
Anatomical and Physiological Considerations
Water Quality Considerations
Anesthetic Techniques and Drugs
Monitoring, Support, Recovery, and Resuscitation
Analgesia
Euthanasia
References
A11 Surgery and Endoscopy
Introduction
General Surgical Principles
Surgical Procedures
General Endoscopy Principles
Endoscopic Procedures
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
A12 Medical Treatment
Introduction
Environmental Changes
Routes of Administration
Commonly Used Medical Treatments
Vaccines
Immune Stimulants
Critical Care
Legislation
Conclusion
References
A13 Environmental Considerations of Immersion Medications
Introduction
Impacts of Water Chemistry on Immersion Medications
Effects of Water Clarification and Disinfection on Immersion Medications
Effects of Immersion Medications on the Biological Filtration
Effects of The Microbiome
Effects on Target and Nontarget Species
Medication Assays
Diving or Swimming in Medicated Water
Disposal of Medicated Water
Record‐Keeping
Specific Drug Examples
References
A14 Acquisition and Transport
Introduction
Source and Sustainability
General Principles of Acquisition and Transport
Preparation
Catch and Handling Recommendations
Transport Containers
Transport Options
Acclimation on Arrival
Legislation
Conclusion
References
A15 Fish Quarantine
Introduction
Critical Components
Risk Assessment Approach
Training and Enrichment
“Failing” Quarantine
Clearing Quarantine
Reviewing Quarantine Results
References
Section B: Presenting Problems
B1 Acute Mortalities in a Group
B2 Respiratory or Cardiovascular Signs
Dyspnea and Tachypnea
Gill Pallor
B3 Cutaneous Signs
Red/Erosive Skin Lesions
Light Skin Lesions
Dark Skin Lesions
Pruritus
B4 Gastrointestinal or Coelomic Signs
Inappetence, Weight Loss
Coelomic Distension
Bibliography
Dental Disease
Cloacal/Anal Distension or Prolapse
B5 Musculoskeletal or Neurologic Signs
Spinal Deformity
Bibliography
External Masses
Circling or Spiraling
Positive Buoyancy
Bibliography
Negative Buoyancy
B6 Ocular Signs
Exophthalmos or Buphthalmos
Bibliography
Ocular Opacity
Section C: Diseases of Fish
C1 Noninfectious Diseases (Environmental)
Introduction
Low Dissolved Oxygen
Bibliography
Gas Supersaturation
Bibliography
Barotrauma
Bibliography
Temperature Stress
pH Stress
Bibliography
Ammonia Toxicity
Bibliography
Nitrite Toxicity
Bibliography
Nitrate Toxicity
Bibliography
Chlorine and Chloramine Toxicity
Bibliography
Heavy Metal Toxicity
Bibliography
Hydrogen Sulfide Toxicity
Bibliography
Organophosphate and Carbamate Toxicity
Bibliography
C2 Noninfectious Diseases (Other)
Introduction
Physical Trauma
Bibliography
Electrical Trauma
Bibliography
Exertional Myopathy
Bibliography
Lateral Line Depigmentation
Bibliography
Thyroid Hyperplasia (Goiters)
Bibliography
Mucometra and Ovarian Cysts
Bibliography
Egg Retention (Egg Binding)
Bibliography
Dystocia
Bibliography
Cataracts
Bibliography
Lipid Keratopathy (Corneal Lipidosis)
Bibliography
Obesity
Bibliography
Micronutrient Deficiency
Bibliography
Gastrointestinal Foreign Bodies
Bibliography
Neoplasia
Bibliography
C3 Viral Diseases
Introduction
Viral Diseases (General)
Bibliography
Cyprinid Herpesviruses
Bibliography
Ictalurid Herpesviruses
Bibliography
Rhabdoviruses
Bibliography
Birnaviruses
Bibliography
Pox Viruses
Bibliography
Lymphocystiviruses
Bibliography
Ranaviruses
Bibliography
Megalocytiviruses
Bibliography
Orthomyxoviruses
Bibliography
Betanodaviruses
Bibliography
C4 Bacterial Diseases
Introduction
Bacterial Diseases (General)
Bibliography
Aeromonas salmonicida
Bibliography
Motile Aeromonad Septicemia
Bibliography
Vibriosis
Bibliography
Enteric Septicemia of Catfish
Bibliography
Edwardsiellosis
Bibliography
Columnaris and Flexibacteriosis
Bibliography
Flavobacterium psychrophilum
Bibliography
Yersiniosis
Bibliography
Streptococcosis
Bibliography
Renibacterium salmoninarum
Bibliography
Mycobacteriosis
Bibliography
Nocardiosis
Bibliography
Epitheliocystis
Bibliography
Francisellosis
Bibliography
Piscirickettsiosis
Bibliography
C5 Fungal and Fungal‐Like Diseases
Introduction
Oomycota
(Saprolegniasis)
Bibliography
Exophiala
spp.
Bibliography
Fusarium
spp.
Bibliography
Microsporidia
Bibliography
Mesomycetozoea
(DRIPs)
Bibliography
C6 Protozoal Diseases
Introduction
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis
Bibliography
Cryptocaryon irritans
Bibliography
Chilodonella
spp.
Bibliography
Brooklynella
spp.
Bibliography
Scuticociliates
Bibliography
Trichodinids
Bibliography
Sessile Ciliates
Bibliography
Cryptobia
spp.
Bibliography
Ichthyobodo
spp.
Bibliography
Spironucleus and Hexamita
spp.
Bibliography
Amyloodinium and Piscinoodinium
spp.
Bibliography
Amoebic Gill Disease
Bibliography
C7 Metazoan Diseases
Introduction
Monogeneans (General)
Bibliography
Capsalid Monogeneans
Bibliography
Dactylogyrid Monogeneans
Bibliography
Gyrodactylid Monogeneans
Bibliography
Monocotylid Monogeneans
Bibliography
Microbothriid Monogeneans
Bibliography
Polyopisthocotyle Monogeneans
Bibliography
Digenes (Excluding Blood Flukes)
Bibliography
Digenes (Blood Flukes)
Bibliography
Turbellaria
Bibliography
Cestodes
Bibliography
Leeches
Bibliography
Ascarid Nematodes
Bibliography
Camallanid Nematodes
Bibliography
Philometrid Nematodes
Bibliography
Anguillicolid Nematodes
Bibliography
Trichosomoidid Nematodes
Bibliography
Pentastomids
Bibliography
Acanthocephalans
Bibliography
Copepods
Bibliography
Isopods
Bibliography
Branchiurans
Bibliography
c8 Myxozoan and Coccidial Diseases
Introduction
Myxozoan (General)
Bibliography
Enteromyxum
spp.
Bibliography
Henneguya
spp.
Bibliography
Myxobolus
spp.
Bibliography
Ceratonova
and
Ceratomyxa
spp.
Bibliography
Hoferellus
spp.
Bibliography
Kudoa
spp.
Bibliography
Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae
Bibliography
Eimeria
spp.
Bibliography
Cryptosporidium
spp.
Bibliography
Appendix 1: Conversions
Distance/Area
Weight
Volume
Concentration
Temperature
Energy
Appendix 2: Common Disinfectants
Appendix 3: Fish Diagnostic Laboratories in the United States
Appendix 4: Veterinary Training Programs in Aquatic Animal Medicine
Veterinary Schools with Aquatic Animal Courses
Veterinary Student Programs and Volunteer Opportunities
Veterinary Internships and Fellowships
Veterinary Residencies
Conferences and Courses that Include Fish Medicine
Job Opportunities
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table A1.1 Obligate and facultative air‐breathers.
Table A1.2 Fluid and electrolyte balance in freshwater and marine bony fish.
Table A1.3 Examples of sexual dimorphism in bony fish.
Table A1.4 Ovarian types in fish.
Table A1.5 Example of reproductive modalities in bony fish.
Table A1.6 Reproductive methods of elasmobranchs
Chapter 2
Table A2.1 Common advantages and disadvantages of different water sources.
Table A2.2 Possible water quality parameters for some common species and grou...
Table A2.3 Fraction of the total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) that is present as un...
Chapter 4
Table A4.1 Approximate diet composition for some model fish species.
Table A4.2 Total lipid and fatty acid composition of seafood items commonly f...
Table A4.3 Dietary vitamin requirements for teleosts and elasmobranchs.
Table A4.4 Dietary mineral requirements for teleosts and elasmobranchs.
Table A4.5 Nutrient parameters of seafood items commonly fed to fish.
Table A4.6 Nutrient parameters of crustaceans commonly fed to fish.
Table A4.7 Nutrient parameters of mollusks commonly fed to fish.
Table A4.8 Nutrient parameters of other invertebrates commonly fed to fish.
Chapter 6
Table A6.1 Important questions when obtaining the history of an aquatic patie...
Table A6.2 Common venomous fish species.
Table A6.3 Zoonotic diseases that may be acquired from fish or water through ...
Chapter 7
Table A7.1 Standard and specialized bacterial media and their uses.
Table A7.2 OIE‐listed fish diseases in 2019.
Chapter 9
Table A9.1 Gram‐stain characteristics of common fish bacteria.
Table A9.2 Organisms that may stain acid‐fast positive.
Table A9.3 Commonly used cytology and histology stains.
Chapter 12
Table A12.1 Marine fish and invertebrate groups that may show increased sensi...
Table A12.2 Proposed doses for emergency drugs in fish.
Chapter 13
Table A13.1 Chemicals where impact on biological filtration has been shown, b...
Table A13.2 Chemicals where reports have suggested no impact on biological fi...
Chapter 14
Table A14.1 Recommended bag sizes for individual fish.
Chapter 15
Table A15.1 An example of a risk assessment for koi going into an established...
Table A15.2 An example of a risk assessment for neon tetras going into a new ...
Table A15.3 An example of a risk assessment for marine Indo‐Pacific tropical ...
Table A15.4 An example of a risk assessment for bonnethead sharks (
Sphyrna ti
...
Table A15.5 An example of a risk assessment for Nile tilapia in a culture fac...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure A1.1 Coeliotomy in a porcupinefish (
Diodon holocanthus
) showing the c...
Figure A1.2 Radiograph of an Atlantic spadefish (
Chaetodipterus faber
) showi...
Figure A1.3 Leakage of drug with green marker following intramuscular inject...
Figure A1.4 Intact (a) and incised (b) swim bladder of a bluestriped grunt (
Figure A1.5 Swim bladder variations including two lobes in a spangled grunte...
Figure A1.6 Eyelid on a crevalle jack (
Caranx hippos
).
Figure A1.7 Otoliths visible on lateral radiograph of a red drum (
Sciaenops
...
Figure A1.8 Computed tomography of the skull of a moray eel (
Muraenidae
) sho...
Figure A1.9 Teeth in a California sheephead (
Semicossyphus pulcher
) (a) and ...
Figure A1.10 Angling of the esophagus seen at necropsy of a lookdown (
Selene
...
Figure A1.11 Ultrasound of the spiral intestine of an African lungfish (
Prot
...
Figure A1.12 Normal gills seen during necropsy of a sweetlips (
Plectorhinchu
...
Figure A1.13 Exposed pseudobranch (arrow) in a soldierfish (
Myripristis
sp.)...
Figure A1.14 Air‐breathing structures: modified pharyngeal mucosa in an elec...
Figure A1.15 Kidneys in a deacon rockfish (
Sebastes diaconus
): cranial kidne...
Figure A1.16 Ampullae of Lorenzini in a bamboo shark (
Chiloscyllium
sp.) (ar...
Figure A1.17 Cross‐section through the peduncle of a blacktip reef shark (
Ca
...
Figure A1.18 Modified iris of a clearnose skate (
Raja eglanteria
); the spira...
Figure A1.19 Gross appearance of a normal liver (a) and a small liver (b) at...
Figure A1.20 Interrenal gland (arrow) between the kidneys removed from a sou...
Figure A1.21 Preopercular spine on a marine angelfish.
Figure A1.22 Sexual dimorphism in brook trout (
Salvelinus fontinalis
); a fem...
Chapter 2
Figure A2.1 Dissolved oxygen meter.
Figure A2.2 Changes in dissolved oxygen (DO), carbon dioxide (CO
2
), and pH a...
Figure A2.3 Total gas pressure meter readings from a fish system showing the...
Figure A2.4 A simple schematic of the nitrogen cycle.
Figure A2.5 Sequential increases in ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate as the nit...
Chapter 3
Figure A3.1 Gas exchange using an air stone (a) and a degassing tower (b)....
Figure A3.2 Centrifugal pumps for water flow. There are mechanical filters (...
Figure A3.3 Sock filters (a) and a rotating drum filter (b).
Figure A3.4 Sand filter (a), canister filter (b), bead filter (c).
Figure A3.5 Settling tank.
Figure A3.6 Foam fractionator.
Figure A3.7 Granular activated carbon.
Figure A3.8 Undergravel filter showing the direction of water flow (blue arr...
Figure A3.9 Foam/sponge filter showing the direction of water flow (blue arr...
Figure A3.10 Biotower showing the direction of water flow (blue arrows) and ...
Figure A3.11 Biowheel filter (a) and fluidized bed (b).
Figure A3.12 A sulfur denitrification system.
Figure A3.13 Algal scrubber wheels.
Figure A3.14 Diagram showing ultraviolet light disinfection.
Figure A3.15 Ozone disinfection system showing the ozone gas generator (a), ...
Figure A3.16 Heat exchanger.
Figure A3.17 Rubber bushings for mounting of pumps to minimize noise and vib...
Chapter 4
Figure A4.1 Body condition score system for koi (
Cyprinus carpio koi
) and si...
Figure A4.2 Body condition score system for southern stingrays (
Hypanus amer
...
Figure A4.3 Body condition score system for reef sharks (
Carcharhinus
sp.) a...
Chapter 5
Figure A5.1 Training a reticulated whipray (
Himantura uarnak
) to feed at a s...
Chapter 6
Figure A6.1 Venom is found under the epithelium of the rigid fin spines in l...
Figure A6.2 Plastic nets that are suitable for catching and restraining fish...
Figure A6.3 Cutting/shearing teeth on a piranha (
Pygocentrus nattereri
).
Figure A6.4 Normal eye of a squirrelfish (
Holocentrus
sp.).
Figure A6.5 Normal gills of a koi (
Cyprinus carpio koi
) (a). Irregular, cong...
Figure A6.6 Normal abdominal pores in a female stingray (
Hypanus
sp.) (*) ei...
Figure A6.7 Claspers (Cl) in a male little skate (
Leucoraja erinacea
) with v...
Figure A6.8 Obtaining a weight on a little skate (
Leucoraja erinacea
) under ...
Figure A6.9 Measuring the total length on a sand tiger shark (
Carcharias tau
...
Figure A6.10 External tag tied loosely onto a leafy seadragon (
Phycodurus eq
...
Figure A6.11 Skin scrape on a sedated orangespine unicornfish (
Naso lituratu
...
Figure A6.12 Gill biopsy being taken from a squirrelfish (
Holocentrus
spp.) ...
Figure A6.13 Cloacal wash on a male sandbar shark (
Carcharhinus plumbeus
)....
Figure A6.14 Sketch of venipuncture from the ventral tail vein and heart (a)...
Figure A6.15 Venipuncture options in elasmobranchs: ventral tail vessel in a...
Figure A6.16 Inflamed abdominal pores in a southern stingray (
Hypanus americ
...
Chapter 7
Figure A7.1 Direct microscopy of a gill clip wet mount demonstrating
Ichthyo
...
Figure A7.2 Postmortem distortion of trichodinids seen on direct microscopy ...
Figure A7.3 Wet mount of an ulcerative skin lesion in a channel catfish (
Ict
...
Figure A7.4 Wet mounts of gill clips that are well‐made with individualized ...
Figure A7.5 Wet mount of a fresh gill clip (a) showing filament epithelium (...
Figure A7.6 Sessile ciliates (
Ambiphrya
sp., arrows) and congestion in a gil...
Figure A7.7 Eosinophilic granular cells (EGCs) in a gill clip from a threadf...
Figure A7.8 Eosinophilic granular cells (EGCs) in the intestinal submucosa o...
Figure A7.9 A normally occurring melanophore in a fin clip from a grass carp...
Figure A7.10 Eggs of the Asian tapeworm (
Schyzocotyle acheilognathi
) in feca...
Figure A7.11
Eimeria southwelli
oocyst, with four sporocysts each containing...
Figure A7.12 Impression smear of exudate from a channel catfish (
Ictalurus p
...
Figure A7.13 Cytologic artifacts include a sample that is too thick (a); poo...
Figure A7.14 In contrast to Figure A7.13f, there is good morphologic detail ...
Figure A7.15 Well‐executed Gram stain showing good differentiation between p...
Figure A7.16 Gram‐positive staining of microsporidian spores (a) and the pol...
Figure A7.17 Mycobacteria are negatively staining, rod‐shaped spaces in the ...
Figure A7.18 Acid‐fast stains also highlight microsporidian spores (a), the ...
Figure A7.19 Histologic section of normal, well‐fixed kidney from an electri...
Figure A7.20 Common histologic artifacts can be caused by placing too thick ...
Figure A7.21 A spun PCV tube should be read at the red cell and white cell i...
Figure A7.22 A hemocytometer with peripheral blood from a channel catfish (
I
...
Figure A7.23 Peripheral blood from a southern stingray (
Hypanus americanus
) ...
Figure A7.24 Peripheral blood from a southern stingray (
Hypanus americanus
) ...
Figure A7.25 Peripheral blood from a channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctatus
) s...
Figure A7.26 Histologic section of cranial kidney from a brown trout (
Salmo
...
Figure A7.27 Peripheral blood from a southern stingray (
Hypanus americanus
) ...
Figure A7.28 Pallor and edema in channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctatus
) gills...
Figure A7.29 Heavy growth of various bacterial colony types following cultur...
Figure A7.30 X‐cell pseudotumor in a histologic section of skin from a slipp...
Figure A7.31 Histologic sections of skin from a giant guitarfish (
Rhynchobat
...
Chapter 8
Figure A8.1 Heavy‐duty plastic bag (a) and radiolucent tunnel (b) to protect...
Figure A8.2 Dorsoventral radiograph of a thornback guitarfish (
Platyrhinoidi
...
Figure A8.3 Lateral radiograph of a parrotfish (
Sparisoma
sp.) showing norma...
Figure A8.4 Lateral radiograph of a blue tang surgeonfish (
Acanthurus coerul
...
Figure A8.5 Dorsoventral radiograph of a longspined porcupinefish (
Diodon ho
...
Figure A8.6 Water droplets creating artifacts (arrows) on a radiograph of a ...
Figure A8.7 Taking a radiograph of a marine angelfish (
Centropyge
sp.) in wa...
Figure A8.8 Standing lateral radiograph of a cownose ray (
Rhinoptera bonasus
Figure A8.9 Positive contrast in the gastrointestinal tract and pouch of a m...
Figure A8.10 Positive contrast injected into the dorsal fin sinus of a bonne...
Figure A8.11 A sand tiger shark (
Carcharias taurus
) with kyphosis and scolio...
Figure A8.12 Recirculating anesthetic bath for computed tomography of a yell...
Figure A8.13 Conventional computed tomography images: transverse section sho...
Figure A8.14 Conventional computed tomography image showing good soft tissue...
Figure A8.15 Custom‐made plastic cover for a portable ultrasound machine.
Figure A8.16 Possible arrangement of time gain compensation (TGC) to smooth ...
Figure A8.17 Ultrasound image of the liver (L), and spleen (S) of a southern...
Figure A8.18 Radiographs of a map puffer (
Arothron mappa
) with a lytic spina...
Figure A8.19 Lateral radiograph of an Atlantic spadefish (
Chaetodipterus fab
...
Figure A8.20 A queen angelfish (
Holacanthus ciliaris
) with negative buoyancy...
Figure A8.21 Lateral radiograph of a striped burrfish (
Chilomycterus schoepf
...
Figure A8.22 Lateral radiograph of a male lined seahorse (
Hippocampus erectu
...
Figure A8.23 Lateral radiograph of horse‐eye jack (
Caranx latus
) that had in...
Figure A8.24 Ultrasound image of a neon goby (
Elacatinus oceanops
) in ventro...
Figure A8.25 Ultrasound of a black‐blotched stingray (
Taeniurops meyeni
) sho...
Figure A8.26 Largemouth bass (
Micropterus salmoides
) with aqueous iodine int...
Chapter 9
Figure A9.1 Skin scrape examined under direct microscopy showing the differe...
Figure A9.2 Wet mount of a gill biopsy and skin scrape (a); normal gills on ...
Figure A9.3 Skin scrapes examined under direct microscopy showing scales fro...
Figure A9.4 Normal fin biopsy examined under direct microscopy with some air...
Figure A9.5 Cavities opened in a cownose ray (
Rhinoptera bonasus
) showing on...
Figure A9.6 Necropsy images with organs in situ from a clinically healthy br...
Figure A9.7 Gastrointestinal tract and rectal gland (*) (a) and erosive lesi...
Figure A9.8 Normal teleost heart showing the four compartments. SV: sinus ve...
Figure A9.9 Gross image of wet mount samples of the spleen and liver under c...
Figure A9.10 Wet mounts examined under direct microscopy: normal liver with ...
Figure A9.11 Abnormalities seen on impression smears: intracellular bacteria...
Figure A9.12 Normal gills from a sheepshead minnow (
Cyprinodon variegatus
) e...
Figure A9.13 Normal liver from a banded killifish (
Fundulus diaphanus
) showi...
Figure A9.14 Abundant lipid vacuoles in a normal liver from a horn shark (
He
...
Figure A9.15 Granulomas in the liver of a rosyside dace (
Clinostomus fundulo
...
Figure A9.16 Normal kidney from a three‐spot angelfish (
Apolemichthys trimac
...
Figure A9.17 Anterior kidney from a glass knifefish (
Eigenmannia virescens
) ...
Figure A9.18 Low (a) and high (b) magnification images of a normal Leydig or...
Figure A9.19 Normal ovary from a black grouper (
Mycteroperca bonaci
) (a) and...
Figure A9.20 Cutaneous phaeohyphomycosis in a four‐spot flounder (
Hippogloss
...
Figure A9.21 Fish parasites in histologic section. Digenes in the ganglia of...
Chapter 10
Figure A10.1 Fish anesthesia using a syringe and red rubber catheter (a) and...
Figure A10.2 Heart rate monitoring using Doppler ultrasound during anesthesi...
Chapter 11
Figure A11.1 A plastic self‐retaining retractor in place for an exploratory ...
Figure A11.2 The VITOM system (video telescopic operating microscope) positi...
Figure A11.3 Ford interlocking suture pattern (a); subcuticular suture patte...
Figure A11.4 Removal of a mass from a goldfish (
Carassius auratus
) (a); post...
Figure A11.5 Enucleation in a channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctatus
): periocu...
Figure A11.6 Pseudobranch ablation in a squirrelfish (
Holocentrus
sp.).
Figure A11.7 Exploratory coeliotomy in a channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctatu
...
Figure A11.8 Guillotine liver biopsy in a channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctat
...
Figure A11.9 Ovariectomy in a spotfin porcupinefish (
Diodon hystrix
) (a); re...
Figure A11.10 Enterotomy in a channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctatus
): a segme...
Figure A11.11 A 2.7 mm telescope system: 2.7 mm 30° telescope housed within ...
Figure A11.12 Handling of the 2.7 mm telescope housed within a 4.8 mm operat...
Figure A11.13 Gill endoscopy in a channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctatus
): a 2...
Figure A11.14 Stomatoscopy in a channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctatus
) using ...
Figure A11.15 Gastroscopy in a channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctatus
) using a...
Figure A11.16 Cloacoscopy in a channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctatus
) using a...
Figure A11.17 A surgical approach is made for a coelioscopy in a channel cat...
Figure A11.18 Coelioscopy in a channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctatus
) using a...
Figure A11.19 Coelioscopy in a channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctatus
) using a...
Figure A11.20 Pneumocystoscopy in a channel catfish (
Ictalurus punctatus
) us...
Figure A11.21 Biopsy sample handling: the biopsy cup is placed in a small vo...
Figure A11.22 Endosurgical ovariectomy in a Gulf sturgeon (
Acipenser oxyrinc
...
Chapter 12
Figure A12.1 Intramuscular injection in the epaxial muscles of a koi (
Cyprin
...
Figure A12.2 Intracoelomic injection in a koi (
Cyprinus carpio koi
).
Figure A12.3 Blood transfusion in the ventral tail vein of an Atlantic sting...
Figure A12.4 Local skin hyperpigmentation in a brook trout (
Salvelinus fonti
...
Chapter 13
Figure A13.1 Formalin degradation rates in saltwater aquariums following seq...
Figure A13.2 Praziquantel degradation rates in saltwater aquariums following...
Figure A13.3 Chloroquine degradation rates in saltwater aquariums following ...
Figure A13.4 This diver is wearing appropriate personal protective equipment...
Chapter 14
Figure A14.1 Vinyl nets used for catching fish.
Figure A14.2 Clear tunnel that can be used to catch and transfer a large sha...
Figure A14.3 A boat‐based recompression chamber.
Figure A14.4 Sketch of a 400 m long, bottom set long‐line system.
Figure A14.5 PVC pipe used to reduce the risk of a hook being swallowed.
Figure A14.6 To fill a fish transport bag with oxygen, the rigid line should...
Figure A14.7 Acclimating fish in floating bags; the bags will be opened and ...
Chapter 15
Figure A15.1 Example of a quarantine system that would be suitable for a sma...
Figure A15.2 Example of a quarantine system that would be suitable for koi (
Figure A15.3 Example of a saddle tank that allows fish within a quarantine g...
Figure A15.4 Large window in the side of a fiberglass tank used for fish qua...
Chapter 17
Figure B2.1 Flared operculi and gaping mouths in two rockfish (
Sebastes
spp....
Figure B2.2 Gill wet mounts under direct microscopy: normal gills (a), incre...
Figure B2.3 Normal dark red gills (seen during venipuncture) (a), moderate g...
Chapter 18
Figure B3.1 Signs of systemic inflammation including generalized hyperemia i...
Figure B3.2 White spots due to
Cryptocaryon irritans
in a smooth trunkfish (
Chapter 19
Figure B4.1 Emaciation in a clearnose skate (
Raja eglanteria
) (a) and foxfac...
Figure B4.2 Coelomic distension in a mullet (
Mugil
sp.) (a) and Dif‐Quik sta...
Figure B4.3 Per cloaca removal of a necrotic fetus in a cownose ray (
Rhinopt
...
Figure B4.4 Mild beak overgrowth in a parrotfish (
Scaridae
).
Figure B4.5 Anal distension in a seabass (
Centropristis
sp.).
Chapter 20
Figure B5.1 Scoliosis and kyphosis in a sand tiger shark (
Carcharias taurus
)...
Figure B5.2 Radiograph showing lordoscoliosis in a spangled perch (
Leiopothe
...
Chapter 21
Figure B6.1 Exophthalmos in a short bigeye (
Pristigenys alta
) due to gas (a)...
Figure B6.2 Cataract and cutaneous ulceration.
Chapter 22
Figure C1.1 Predicting early morning dissolved oxygen levels in a pond using...
Figure C1.2 Gas emboli on a gill wet mount under direct microscopy (a), on t...
Chapter 23
Figure C2.1 Bite wounds to the pectoral fin of a female bullnose ray (
Myliob
...
Figure C2.2 Barrier to prevent fish from jumping out of the system. The pane...
Figure C2.3 Lateral line depigmentation in a northern sea robin (
Prionotus c
...
Figure C2.4 Goiters presenting as a ventral opercular mass in a grunt (
Haemu
...
Figure C2.5 Ultrasound images of cystic ovaries (a) and mucometra (b) in a s...
Figure C2.6 Severe coelomic distension due to egg retention in an oyster toa...
Figure C2.7 Corneal lipidosis in a green moray (
Gymnothorax funebris
).
Figure C2.8 Obese grunt (
Haemulon
sp.) on necropsy showing excess fat throug...
Chapter 24
Figure C3.1 Carp pox (Cyprinid herpesvirus‐1) lesions on the skin and fins o...
Figure C3.2 Koi herpes virus (cyprinid herpesvirus‐3) gill lesions in koi (
C
...
Figure C3.3 Typical necropsy findings of viral hemorrhagic septicemia in rai...
Figure C3.4 Koi (
Cyprinus carpio koi
) recumbent on the substrate due to carp...
Figure C3.5 Plaques due to lymphocystivirus in a blue hamlet (
Hypoplectrus g
...
Figure C3.6 Signs of vacuolation (*) and necrosis (arrowheads) on histology ...
Chapter 25
Figure C4.1 Cytologic appearance of curved Gram‐negative bacilli, consistent...
Figure C4.2 Gross appearance of columnaris lesions on a grouper (
Epinephelus
Figure C4.3 Typical appearance of
Streptococcus
spp. on Gram stain showing c...
Figure C4.4 Severe granulomatous renomegaly due to bacterial kidney disease ...
Figure C4.5 Mycobacterial lesions: cutaneous ulceration in mummichogs (
Fundu
...
Figure C4.6 Long, branching, acid‐fast rods consistent with
Nocardia
sp. on ...
Figure C4.7 Nodules due to epitheliocystis on direct microscopy of a gill bi...
Chapter 26
Figure C5.1 Oomycete infection on a cardinal tetra (
Paracheirodon axelrodi
);...
Figure C5.2 Cytologic appearance of
Exophiala
sp. under wet mount (a) and on...
Figure C5.3 Cytologic appearance of characteristic sickle‐shaped macroconidi...
Figure C5.4 Microsporidial xenoma in the muscle of a shorthorn sculpin (
Myox
...
Figure C5.5
Mesomycetozoea
infection in a cardinal tetra (
Paracheirodon axel
...
Chapter 27
Figure C6.1
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis
infection producing white spots in ...
Figure C6.2
Cryptocaryon irritans
trophont on a gill biopsy under direct mic...
Figure C6.3
Chilodonella
sp. ciliate on skin scrape under direct microscopy ...
Figure C6.4
Brooklynella
sp. ciliates under direct microscopy of a skin scra...
Figure C6.5 Scuticociliates under direct microscopy of skin scrapes at ×40 (...
Figure C6.6 Trichodinid ciliates under direct microscopy of skin scrapes (a ...
Figure C6.7 Direct, bright‐field microscopy of sessile ciliates:
Ambiphrya
s...
Figure C6.8
Cryptobia
(
Trypanoplasma
) sp. on a blood smear; Leishman and Gie...
Figure C6.9
Ichthyobodo
sp. from a gill biopsy under direct microscopy (a) a...
Figure C6.10 Abundant
Hexamita
sp. under direct microscopy of an intestinal ...
Figure C6.11
Amyloodinium
sp. and increased mucus on a gill biopsy under dir...
Chapter 28
Figure C7.1 Prolific egg production by a capsalid monogenean (a) and skin sc...
Figure C7.2 Life cycle of
Neobenedenia
spp.
Figure C7.3
Benedeniella posterocolpa
on the ventrum of a cownose ray (
Rhino
...
Figure C7.4 Life cycle of
Dactylogyrus
spp.
Figure C7.5 Life cycle of
Gyrodactylus
spp.
Figure C7.6
Dendromonocotyle
sp. on direct microscopy of a skin scrape at x1...
Figure C7.7
Dermophthirius penneri
from a blacktip shark (
Carcharhinus limba
...
Figure C7.8 Polyopisthocotyles tightly embedded in gill tissue (a); examinat...
Figure C7.9 Diagram of the life cycle of digenes with fish as the definitive...
Figure C7.10 Eggs from blood flukes on direct microscopy of a gill biopsy at...
Figure C7.11 Turbellarians on direct microscopy of a gill biopsy (a) and fol...
Figure C7.12 Cestodes on direct microscopy of a squash prep of a hake fry (
M
...
Figure C7.13 Leeches visible in the oral cavity of a cownose ray (
Rhinoptera
...
Figure C7.14 Live anisakid larva seen in a monkfish (
Lophius americanus
) fil...
Figure C7.15 Camallanid nematodes on direct microscopy of a coelomic sample....
Figure C7.16 An adult female philometrid nematode being removed from the ret...
Figure C7.17 Anguillicolid nematodes on necropsy (a) and radiography (b) of ...
Figure C7.18 Black linear tracts on the skin of a sandbar shark (
Carcharhinu
...
Figure C7.19 Pentastomid larvae on direct examination of a serosal scrape fr...
Figure C7.20 The acanthocephalan
Pomphorhynchus laevis
in the gastrointestin...
Figure C7.21 Parasitic copepods: unidentified copepods on the skin of a sand...
Figure C7.22 Free‐living copepod on direct microscopy of a gill biopsy.
Figure C7.23 Isopod distending the operculum of a killifish (
Fundulus
sp.); ...
Figure C7.24
Argulus
sp. on a giant gudgeon (
Oxyeleotris selheimi
) on examin...
Chapter 29
Figure C8.1 “Typical” myxozoan spores with two polar capsules seen on impres...
Figure C8.2
Enteromyxum
sp. spores on direct cytology of the gastrointestina...
Figure C8.3 Bright‐field microscopy of
Henneguya creplini
myxospores from a ...
Figure C8.4 Spores from a
Myxobolus
sp. on impression smear using Dif‐Quik® ...
Figure C8.5 Spores from
Ceratonova shasta
on histology of the intestines of ...
Figure C8.6 Polycystic kidneys in a goldfish (
Carassius auratus
) infected wi...
Figure C8.7 Histology image of spores from a
Kudoa
sp. in the muscle of a bu...
Figure C8.8 Proliferative kidney disease (PKD) caused by
Tetracapsuloides br
...
Figure C8.9 Spores from
Eimeria southwelli
sp. on bright‐field microscopy of...
Figure C8.10
Cryptosporidium
oocysts on acid‐fast staining of the gastrointe...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgments
List of Contributors
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Appendix 1 Conversions
Appendix 2 Common Disinfectants
Appendix 3 Fish Diagnostic Laboratories in the United States
Appendix 4 Veterinary Training Programs in Aquatic Animal Medicine
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Clinical Guide to Fish Medicine
Edited by
Catherine A. Hadfield, MA, VetMB, DACZM, DECZM (Zoo Health Management)
Seattle Aquarium1483 Alaskan Way, Seattle, WA 98101
Leigh Ann Clayton, DVM, DABVP (Avian Practice, Reptile and Amphibian Practice), eMBA
New England Aquarium1 Central Wharf, Boston, MA 02110
This edition first published 2021© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Catherine Hadfield and Leigh Ann Clayton to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyThe contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding, and discussion only and are not intended and should not be relied upon as recommending or promoting scientific method, diagnosis, or treatment by physicians for any particular patient. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of medicines, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each medicine, equipment, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Hadfield, Catherine A., editor. | Clayton, Leigh Ann, editor.Title: Clinical guide to fish medicine / edited by Catherine Hadfield, Leigh Clayton.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley‐Blackwell, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references.Identifiers: LCCN 2020024346 (print) | LCCN 2020024347 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119259558 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119259817 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119259848 (epub)Subjects: MESH: Fish Diseases | Fishes | Veterinary MedicineClassification: LCC SF458.5 (print) | LCC SF458.5 (ebook) | NLM SF 458.5 | DDC 639.34–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020024346LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020024347
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Courtesy of Catherine Hadfield
Preface
This is an exciting time to practice fish medicine as the field is growing rapidly, techniques and standards are evolving, and information exchange is easy and fast. Veterinary medicine for public aquariums, pet fish, aquaculture, fisheries, and research are converging as never before, allowing better care across the disciplines. Increased focus on fish welfare and sustainability is helping to refine the care of individuals and populations.
Leigh and I talked for many years about a fish medicine textbook for the busy clinical veterinarian in practice; a book that could serve as a practical reference for those starting out or already active in the field. Companion animal species have textbooks formatted to provide clinically relevant information that is easy to access during a hectic day. Why not something similar for fish vets? Eventually, we moved from talking about it to making it a reality. This is the result.
This text provides practical clinical information to help veterinarians, biologists, technicians, and students manage cases and situations effectively and efficiently. We want to help people quickly understand the information they need to consider when faced with clinical cases. We have tried to cover important topics across disciplines, with a goal of building an integrated fish health program that can be generalized to different situations. While we feel it is applicable across disciplines, we are sure it speaks most to vets working in public display facilities and pet medicine, as that is what we know best.
We are aware that despite our best intentions, we will have inevitably created an imperfect product: overlooked certain aspects of the field; missed valuable information; and suffered from our own biases. Known limitations include the constant emergence of new literature and a focus on trends in the United States. Despite these limitations, we hope this textbook can still act as a framework for integrating new information, and inspiration for others to identify and address needs as the field continues to grow. We encourage each reader to share their knowledge and shape the future of this field. In fish medicine, you are a lifelong learner.
This book is divided into three sections: A, B, and C. Section A has chapters covering clinically relevant aspects of anatomy, husbandry, and case management. Section B covers presenting problems, grouped by system, with possible differentials and suggestions on how to approach cases. Section C covers common diseases seen in clinical practice and is grouped into noninfectious diseases, viruses, bacteria, fungi and fungal‐like organisms, protozoa, metazoa, myxozoa, and coccidia. Four appendices cover unit conversions, disinfectants, commercial laboratories, and veterinary training programs.
In putting this together, we relied heavily on an amazing group of contributors and reviewers, all of them experts in their field. We are indebted to every one of them. We have done all we can to ensure that the information in this text is accurate and up‐to‐date as of submission. If there are any mistakes in this text, the fault is with Leigh and me, not our contributors or reviewers.
To quote the indomitable Douglas Adams: “In cases of major discrepancy, it's always reality that's got it wrong.”
We hope that you can use this information to improve the care provided to these amazing animals and to enjoy many more fishy cases.
Acknowledgments
This book was a collaborative effort. We would like to thank the many authors, whose brilliance, hard work, and patience are greatly appreciated: Ilana Alderman, Shane Boylan, Al Camus, Melinda Camus, Steve Divers, Rolf Gobien, Lisa Hoopes, Liz Koutsos, Stéphane Lair, Lisa Mangus, Mike Murray, Natalie Mylniczenko, Don Neiffer, Allan Pessier, Andrew Pulver, Katie Seeley, Kent Semmen, Izi Sladakovic, Andy Stamper, Jamie Torres, and Claire Vergneau‐Grosset. Your contributions have greatly expanded the depth of information and discussions in this text.
We are grateful to all the additional people who contributed figures: Lance Adams, Jill Arnold, Eleanor Bailey, Pierre‐Marie Boitard, Ash Bullard, Sarah Chen, Tonya Clauss, Ashleigh Clews, Andy Dehart, John Drennan, Sarah Faris, Bob George, Bartolomeo Gorgoglione, David Groman, Angie Hadfield, Sarah Halbrend, Craig Harms, Mike Hyatt, Charlie Innis, Jack Jewel, Kim Knoper, Greg Lewbart, Eva Lewisch, Chris Limcaco, Rubén López, Robert Maclean, Craig Olson, Nick Reback, Aimee Reed, Carlos Rodriguez, Sean Sheldrake, Johnny Shelley, Tianxing Shi, Amanda Slade, Brittany Stevens, Justin Stilwell, Kathy Tuxbury, Joe Welsh, Catharine Wheaton, and Li Yao. You have helped bring the concepts presented here to life.
We would also like to thank the many people who reviewed sections, including Andy Aiken, Julie Cavin, Esteban DeSoto, Ruth Francis‐Floyd, Dan Fredholm, Kim Gaeta, Claudia Gili, Craig Harms, Matt Kinney, Greg Lewbart, Ken Ramirez, Drury Reavill, and Aimee Reed. Your efforts have broadened the perspectives captured here.
And a special thank you to all the staff at the National Aquarium, Seattle Aquarium, and New England Aquarium. It has been our privilege to work beside you and learn with you.
Catherine A. Hadfield and Leigh Ann Clayton
And to Leigh: I am deeply indebted to you for getting this project started and for your guidance throughout. Your leadership and friendship have shaped the vet and the person that I am.To my cousin, Anna Feldweg: Thank you so much for all your reviews and excellent advice. Your contributions have been invaluable and I have learnt so much from you.And I am eternally grateful to my mum and dad, Jane and Peter Hadfield, for their support and encouragement. I owe everything to them.
Catherine A. Hadfield
List of Contributors
Ilana R. AldermanBorn to BehaveBoulder, CO, USA
Shane M. Boylan, DVMSouth Carolina AquariumCharleston, SC, USA
Alvin C. Camus, DVM, PhDCollege of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia Athens, GA, USA
Melinda S. Camus, DVM, DACVPCollege of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia Athens, GA, USA
Leigh A. Clayton, DVM, DABVP (Avian, Reptile/Amphibian), eMBANew England AquariumBoston, MA, USA
Stephen J. Divers, BVet Med, DECZM (Herpetology, ZHM), DACZM, FRCVSCollege of Veterinary Medicine, University of GeorgiaAthens, GA, USA
Rolf P. Gobien, MDClinton X‐Ray SpecialistsClinton, NC, USA
Catherine A. Hadfield, MA, Vet MB, MRCVS, DACZM, DECZMSeattle AquariumSeattle, WA, USA
Lisa A. Hoopes, MA, PhDGeorgia AquariumAtlanta, GA, USA
Elizabeth A. Koutsos, PhDKoutsos Consulting, LLCApex, NC, USA
Stéphane Lair, DVM, DES, DVSc, DACZMFaculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de MontréalSaint‐Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada
Lisa M. Mangus, DVMJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimore, MD, USA
Michael J. Murray, DVMMonterey Bay AquariumMonterey, CA, USA
Natalie D. Mylniczenko, DVM, MS, DACZMDisney’s Animals, Science and EnvironmentLake Buena Vista, FL, USA
Donald L. Neiffer, VMD, CVA, DACZM, MHSNational Zoological Park andWildlife Health Sciences, Smithsonian InstitutionWashington DC, USA
Allan P. Pessier, DVM, DACVPWashington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory Washington State UniversityPullman, WA, USA
Andrew B. PulverNational AquariumBaltimore, MD, USA
Kathryn E. Seeley, DVM, DACZMColumbus Zoo and AquariumPowell, OH, USA
Kent J. SemmenDisney’s Animals, Science and EnvironmentLake Buena Vista, FL, USA
Izidora Sladakovic, BVSc (Hons I), MVS, DACZMAvian and Exotics Service, Northside Veterinary SpecialistsTerrey Hills, New South Wales, Australia
M. Andrew Stamper, DVM, DACZMDisney’s Animals, Science and EnvironmentLake Buena Vista, FL, USA
Jamie M. Torres, DVMAudubon Aquarium of the AmericasNew Orleans, LA, USA
Claire Vergneau‐Grosset, DVM, IPSAV, DACZMFaculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de MontréalSaint‐Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada
Section AFish Medicine Topic Reviews
Introduction
Section A contains chapters on aspects of fish care related to veterinary medicine. The focus is on practical applications to help veterinarians apply their general knowledge to fish patients. Initial topics are anatomy and taxonomy, water quality, life support systems, nutrition, and training and enrichment. These are followed by chapters on clinical examination and diagnostics, including clinical pathology, diagnostic imaging, and necropsy. Anesthesia, analgesia, surgery, and endoscopy are then discussed. The chapter on medical treatment is followed by one focused on immersion medications. This section finishes with discussions on acquisition, transport, and quarantine of fish. Readers are strongly encouraged to review the literature to develop a deeper understanding of these topics.
A1 Anatomy and Taxonomy
Natalie D. Mylniczenko
Disney’s Animals, Science and Environment, Lake Buena Vista, FL, USA
Introduction
Working with patients that live in a fluid environment is both interesting and challenging. Many fish are anatomically and physiologically unique; this chapter will focus on clinically relevant anatomical features. The information will be divided into bony and cartilaginous fish (Box A1.1). The bony fish (Osteichthyes) consist of flesh‐finned fish (lungfish and coelacanths) and ray‐finned fish. The ray‐finned fish group is large and includes teleosts as well as sturgeon and gars. The cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes) are divided up into elasmobranchs (sharks, skates, rays, guitarfish, and sawfish) and chimaeras. Due to the enormous variety across these groups, the level of detail will vary. Other texts provide more detail on order‐ or species‐specific fish anatomy (Gilbert 1973; Harder and Sokoloff 1976; Ashley and Chiasson 1988; Stoskopf 1993; Hamlett 1999; Helfman et al. 2009; De Iuliis and Pulerà 2011; Farrell 2011; Carrier et al. 2012; Roberts and Ellis 2012; Jorgensen and Joss 2016; Nelson et al. 2016).
Anatomy of Bony Fish
Body Plan
Morphologic body shapes of bony fish include fusiform, laterally flattened, ventrally flattened, eel‐like, ribbon‐like, and spheroid (Nikolsky 1963). In these various shapes, different adaptations of common anatomical features are apparent. For example, the coelom of laterally flattened fish (e.g. sole or halibut, Pleuronectiformes) is situated toward the right or left of the animal, ipsilateral to the operculum. When assist‐feeding these fish, the tube is oriented toward the side rather than the midline.
The coelom in most species is found along the ventrum, between the pectoral girdle cranially, vertebrae dorsally, and cloaca or anus caudally. There are exceptions, for example, in electric eels (Electrophorus electricus) and rainbowfish (Melanotaeniidae) the anus has migrated cranially to between the opercula.
Integument
The external layer of mucus is rich in mucopolysaccharides, immunoglobulins, lysozymes, and free fatty acids to create the mucosal defense system (Roberts and Ellis 2012). The epidermis consists of epithelial cells and mucous glands. It is thicker in fish that do not have scales (e.g. true eels, Anguilliformes) (Roberts and Ellis 2012). It differs from mammals in that it lacks keratin and all layers are capable of mitosis, including the squamous layer. The dermis includes scales in most bony fish, as well as chromatophores and mast cells. The chromatophores are clinically important, as color changes in fish can imply different physiologic states (Hoar et al. 1983). Generalized dark coloration may indicate stress or disease, color change on only one side of the body may indicate a visual problem on that side, and color change caudally can help localize the site of a spinal problem such as a vertebral fracture.
The scales are embedded within pockets of the dermal tissue and oriented toward the tail. Scales come in several types that vary in size, shape, and thickness, including placoid, cosmoid, ganoid, cycloid, and ctenoid. Cycloid and ctenoid scales are the most common in teleosts. Some scales are particularly large and thick, such as the ganoid scales of arowana (Osteoglossidae), arapaima (Arapaima spp.), sturgeon (Acipenser spp.), and tarpon (Megalops spp.). Scales can be an impediment for injections, vascular access, and surgical incisions. During injection or venipuncture, care should be taken to pass underneath scales; if a scale is penetrated, it is removed when the needle is pulled out, which can lead to osmoregulatory problems or infections by opportunists such as oomycetes and scuticociliates. For surgical incisions, scales along the incision line may be removed to prevent contamination of the surgical site. Some fish have very fine scales, e.g. some jacks (Carangidae) and tuna (Thunnini), while others are scaleless, e.g. some jacks, true eels (Anguilliformes), catfish (Ictaluridae), and elephantfish (Mormyridae). Scaleless fish may be more vulnerable to toxins in the water, to medications, and to direct trauma from handling (Stoskopf 1993). Some fish have deciduous scales that are shed regularly, e.g. herring and anchovies (Clupeiformes) (Helfman et al. 2009).
Box A1.1Basic Taxonomy of Extant Fish
Class Agnatha (jawless fish)
Subclass
Cyclostomata
(hagfish and lampreys)
Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
Subclass
Elasmobranchii
(elasmobranchs)
Selachimorpha (sharks)
Batoidea (skates, rays, guitarfish, sawfish)
Subclass
Holocephali
(chimaeras)
Class Osteichthyes (bony fish)
Subclass
Sarcopterygii
(fleshy‐finned fish: lungfish, coelacanths)
Subclass
Actinopterygii
(ray‐finned fish)
Order
Acipenseriformes
(sturgeons, paddlefish)
Order
Polypteriformes
(bichirs, reedfish)
Infraclass
Holostei
(gars, bowfins)
Infraclass
Teleostei
(teleosts)
Figure A1.1 Coeliotomy in a porcupinefish (Diodon holocanthus) showing the cut roots of the spines (*).
Source: Image courtesy of Catherine Hadfield, National Aquarium.
Some fish have segmented bony plates within the dermis rather than scales, e.g. seahorses and pipefish (Syngnathidae), shrimpfish (Centriscidae), trunkfish and boxfish (Ostraciidae), and armored catfish or plecostomus (Loricariidae). In these fishes, injections and incisions should be made in softer areas to ensure success, for example on the tail of a seahorse or the peduncle of a boxfish. If plates must be cut, the area should be sealed with a wax product. Pufferfish (Tetraodontidae) have erectable spines derived from scales that have overlapping roots (Helfman et al. 2009); these limit the image quality on radiography and must be cut through for a coelomic incision (Figure A1.1).
Some fish produce copious mucus, including many eels (Anguilliformes), catfish (Siluriformes), and rays (Myliobatiformes). This can be a challenge for handling as they are quite slippery; a chamois or flannel cloth can help restraint without stripping the protective mucus layer. Parrotfish can also create a mucoid casing (cocoon) at night for protection; hand‐net catches of parrotfish are much easier at night than in the daytime.
Epithelial hyperplasia is a common, nonspecific response of fish skin to irritants. This may be multifocal, e.g. the white spots caused by Cryptocaryon irritans. In some fancy goldfish (Carassius auratus), overgrowth of the head epithelium (called the wen or hood) has been genetically selected. This growth can obscure ocular and oral features to the detriment of the animal. It consists of non‐ciliated epithelium with goblet cells covering a mucinous stroma. Surgical management has been described (Angelidis et al. 2009).
The lateral line lies along the body wall of fish. It is a canal within the integument that has pores along its length. In the canal are neuromasts that each have a sensory hair surrounded by gelatinous material. These organs are sensitive to water displacement and vibration (Roberts and Ellis 2012). Lateral line depigmentation (also known as head and lateral line erosion) is a common problem in teleosts.
Transparency is a feature of some fish species. The arrangement of collagen fibers allows light to pass through without reflection. An example that may be seen in the aquarium trade is the glass catfish (Kryptopterus vitreolus).
Bacterial luminescence is seen in the Beryciformes group, e.g. pinecone fish (often Monocentris spp.) and flashlight fish (e.g. Anomalops katoptron) (Hoar et al. 1983). These fish have a single species of bioluminescent bacteria (Photobacterium fischeri) in an organ under the eye (Morin et al. 1975). The bacteria can be obscured by being pulled into or covered by a fold of skin. The biggest clinical implication is that antibacterials can damage the bioluminescent bacteria.
