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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: BPS Textbooks in Psychology
- Sprache: Englisch
COACHING PRACTICED Explore the foundations of evidence-based approaches to coaching A collection of the best papers over the last 15 years from the journal The Coaching Psychologist. In Coaching Practiced: Coaching Psychology Tools, Techniques, and Evidence-Based Approaches for Coaches, a team of distinguished researchers delivers an insightful and complete handbook for practicing coaches. From wellbeing to the workplace, coaches of all stripes will find a fulsome discussion of effective methods, strategies, and frameworks for coaching clients. In the book, the editors include contributions from leading experts that discuss a wide variety of essential topics in the field, including cognitive approaches, motivational interviewing, solution-focused coaching, mindfulness approaches, narrative coaching, and the influence of positive psychology in the field of coaching. In this accessible and comprehensive resource, readers will also find: * A thorough introduction to the psychology of coaching, including available frameworks * In-depth examinations of reflective practice and professional development, including reflective journaling * Comprehensive discussions of wellbeing coaching, including health and life coaching * Fulsome explorations of workplace coaching, including the Lead, Learn, and Grow Model Perfect for organizational and athletic leaders, Coaching Practiced: Coaching Psychology Tools, Techniques, and Evidence-Based Approaches for Coaches will also earn a place in the libraries of professional coaches, managers, executives, and others.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022
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Coaching Practiced
EDITED BY
DAVID TEE & JONATHAN PASSMORE
This edition first published 2022
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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The right of David Tee and Jonathan Passmore to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Passmore, Jonathan, editor. | Tee, David, editor.
Title: Coaching practiced / edited by Jonathan Passmore, David Tee.
Description: First Edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, [2022] | Series: BPS Textbooks in Psychology | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Contents: The Psychology of Coaching: Coaching Psychology - Eclectic Approaches and Diversity in Practice -- Coaching Frameworks: The Role of Frameworks, Models and Approaches in Coaching -- Reflective Practice and Professional Development: Introduction -- Well-being Coaching: Introduction--Workplace Coaching: Introduction--Cognitive Approaches -- Motivational Interviewing: Introduction -- Solution-Focused Coaching: Introduction -- Mindfulness: Introduction -- Narrative Coaching: Introduction -- Positive Psychology: Introduction -- Part 4. Narrative Coaching - Redesigning the GROW Model as the Fourth-Generation Coaching for People and the Planet.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021043982 (print) | LCCN 2021043983 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119835691 (Paperback) | ISBN 9781119835707 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119835714 (eBook)
Subjects: LCSH: Personal coaching. | Counseling.
Classification: LCC BF637.P36 C6345 2022 (print) | LCC BF637.P36 (ebook) | DDC 158.3--dc23/eng/20211207
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021043982
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021043983
Cover image: © Rajeev Sreedharan/Getty Images
Cover design by Wiley
Set in 10/12 and DanteMTStd-Regular by Integra Software Services, Pondicherry, India
All of the royalty proceeds from this title have been gifted to the British Psychological Society by the contributors, authors and editors.
This book is dedicated to Sir John Whitmore, a true pioneer of contemporary coaching, whose teachings exalted the importance of awareness, responsibility and self-belief and who encouraged us – individually and collectively – to embrace our higher values and human potential.
Contents
Cover
Series page
Title page
Copyright
Dedication
About the Editors
Section 1 The Psychology of Coaching: Coaching Psychology – Eclectic Approaches and Diversity in Practice
Section 2 Coaching Frameworks: The Role of Frameworks, Models and Approaches in Coaching
Chapter 1 SPACE: A psychological model for use within cognitive behavioural coaching, therapy and stress management
Chapter 2 PEAK: A model for use within performance coachin
Chapter 3 Is it time to REGROW the GROW model? Issues related to teaching coaching session structures
Chapter 4 A pluralistic approach to coaching
Section 3 Reflective Practice and Professional Development: Introduction
Chapter 5 The scientist-practitioner model as a framework for coaching psychology
Chapter 6 Peer coaching framework: An exploratory technique
Chapter 7 Reflection, note-taking and coaching: If it ain’t written, it ain’t coaching!
Chapter 8 Building reflective capability to enhance coaching practice
Section 4 Wellbeing Coaching: Introduction
Chapter 9 The impact of depression on the coaching process: How to recognise the signs and what to do next
Chapter 10 Anxiety and the coaching relationship: How to recognise the signs and what to do next
Chapter 11 Anxiety and the coaching relationship: How to recognise the signs and what to do next (Part 2)
Chapter 12 The challenges of working with emotion in coaching
Section 5 Workplace Coaching: Introduction
Chapter 13 Growing the ‘I’ and the ‘We’ in Transformational Leadership: The LEAD, LEARN & GROW Model
Chapter 14 Leadership Coaching? No thanks, I’m not worthy
Chapter 15 Can cognitive behavioural team coaching increase well-being?
Chapter 16 Coaching approaches for a lost sense of self – hunt it down or let it be?
Section 6 Cognitive Approaches
Chapter 17 A behavioural approach to BIG problems encountered in coaching: Behaviour Incompatible with Goals
Chapter 18 Rational Coaching: A cognitive behavioural approach
Chapter 19 Searching for shades of grey: Modifying polarised thinking with continuum methods
Chapter 20 The application of the responsibility pie technique in coaching
Chapter 21 Deserted Island technique: Demonstrating the difference between musturbatory and preferential beliefs in cognitive behavioural and rational coaching
Section 7 Motivational Interviewing: Introduction
Chapter 22 Motivational Interviewing – a model for coaching psychology practice
Chapter 23 Motivational Interviewing techniques reflective listening
Chapter 24 MI – Balance sheet techniques
Chapter 25 MI techniques: The Typical Day
Chapter 26 MI techniques: Recognising change talk
Chapter 27 MI techniques: Agenda Mapping
Chapter 28 Motivational Interviewing: Reflecting on ethical decisions in MI
Section 8 Solution-Focused Coaching: Introduction
Chapter 29 ENABLE: A solution-focused coaching model for individual and team coaching
Chapter 30 Steps to Solutions: A process for putting solution-focused coaching principles into practice
Chapter 31 Solution-focused coaching: The basics for advanced practitioners
Chapter 32 Revisiting the ‘P’ in the PRACTICE coaching model
Section 9 Mindfulness: Introduction
Chapter 33 The role of mindfulness in coaching
Chapter 34 Mindfulness in coaching: A model for coaching practice
Chapter 35 Mindfulness in coaching: Identifying environmental distractions
Chapter 36 ‘Mindfulness in Coaching’: STOP
Chapter 37 Mindfulness in coaching: Choosing our attitude
Chapter 38 Mindfulness in coaching: Being the observer
Chapter 39 Coaching through walking
Section 10 Narrative Coaching: Introduction
Chapter 40 Narrative coaching – Part 1: An introduction and the first step
Chapter 41 Narrative coaching – Part 2: Two forms of change structures: re-authoring and remembering
Chapter 42 Narrative coaching – Part 3: Approaches for groups, teams, organisations and community
Chapter 43 Narrative coaching – Part 4: Redesigning the GROW model as the 4th generation coaching for people and the planet
Chapter 44 Using the four gateways to tell new stories and make new choices
Chapter 45 Creating zones of proximal development in coaching: The power of working at thresholds
Section 11 Positive Psychology: Introduction
Chapter 46 Positive Psychology Coaching – a model for coaching practice
Chapter 47 Positive Psychology Techniques – Active Constructive Responding
Chapter 48 Positive psychology techniques – Positive case conceptualisation
Chapter 49 Positive psychology techniques – Random Acts of Kindness and Consistent Acts of Kindness and Empathy
Chapter 50 Positive psychology techniques – gratitude
Chapter 51 Positive psychology techniques – Three Good Things
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Figures
Chapter 2
Figure 1 Performance equation.
Figure 2 The interacting domains of the PEAK model.
Chapter 3
Figure 1 Dimensions of session structure.
Figure 2 Generic model of self-regulation...
Figure 3 The RE-GROW Model.
Chapter 4
Figure 1 A pluralistic framework for coaching.
Chapter 6
Figure 1 A generic peer coaching framework...
Chapter 7
Figure 1 Example of structured note-taking.
Chapter 13
Figure 1 The LEAD, LEARN & GROW...
Figure 2 The ‘I Stool in the LEAD...
Figure 3 The We Stool in the LEAD, LEARN & GROW Model.
Figure 4 Disconnected Thinking.
Figure 5 Partially Aligned Thinking.
Figure 6 Totally Aligned Thinking.
Figure 7 Static - Model of interdependence...
Figure 8 Negative – Model of interdependence...
Figure 9 Positive – Model of...
Chapter 19
Table 1 Sally’s Continuum of Success
Chapter 20
Table 1 Sarah‘s Responsibility pie
Chapter 26
Figure 1 Transpersonal model of change and change talk phases.
Chapter 30
Figure 1 The Ask-Tell Matrix.
Figure 2 The Steps to Solutions process.
Chapter 39
Figure 1 Walking and chatting
Figure 2 Paths that lead to undisclosed destinations.
List of Tables
Chapter 7
Table 1 Summarised rationale for this paper
Chapter 14
Table 1 Time intervals for data collection for coaching and no-coaching groups.
Table 2 Time 1 beliefs scores for the coaching and no-coaching groups
Chapter 17
Table 1 BIG Problems.
Table 2 Micro chain.
Table 3 Conceptualising the intervention.
Table 4 Step 4.
Chapter 19
Table 1 Common cognitive biases
Chapter 22
Table 1 Using MI and other interventions within a Model of Change
Chapter 31
Table 1 Applications of the solution-focused approach
Chapter 32
Table 1 The revised PRACTICE sequence
Chapter 35
Table 1 Exercise – identifying environmental distractions
Chapter 39
Table 1 Some comparisons between walking and sitting coaching techniques.
Chapter 42
Table 1 Procedure of an Agile retrospective meeting (60 minute)
Table 2 Procedure of a definitional ceremony (60 minute workshop)
Chapter 47
Table 1 Six Levels of Listening
Chapter 49
Table 1 Make Yourself smile – some examples of RAKs
Table 2 Random Acts of Kindness – a one-week plan
section 8
Table 1 Henley 8: Eight questions to guide a reflective journaling process
Guide
Cover
series page
Title page
Copyright
Dedicated
Table of Contents
About the Editors
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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About the Editors
David Tee
David is the editor of The Coaching Psychologist, published by BPS. He is a chartered psychologist and practising coach and coach supervisor. David is the Global Director of Science at CoachHuB, a visiting lecturer for University of Worcester and programme director of coaching at the University of South Wales, where he is a visiting fellow. He has published widely, including papers in International Journal of Evidence-Based Coaching and Mentoring, International Coaching Psychology Review and Action Learning: Research and Practice.
Jonathan Passmore
Jonathan is editor-in-chief of the International Coaching Psychology Review and chair of the BPS Division of Coaching Psychology (2021–2022). He is senior vice president at CoachHub, and professor of coaching and behavioural change at Henley Business School. He has published widely, with over 100 scientific papers and 30 books. His latest titles include The Coaches Handbook, Becoming a Coach: The Essential ICF Guide and CoachMe: My Personal Board of Directors. He is one of the most cited coaching researchers worldwide, has won multiple awards for his work and is listed in the Coaching Global Gurus Top 20 Coaches (2021).
Section 1 The Psychology of Coaching Coaching Psychology – Eclectic Approaches and Diversity in Practice
David Tee & Jonathan Passmore
The first two decades of the third millennium have witnessed a proliferation of coaching psychology approaches. These approaches have extended the original modules developed in the 1980s and 1990s such as GROW and co-active coaching into new territories. Many of these new approaches have been drawn from the therapeutic and counselling domain; these initially included cognitive-behavioural coaching, solution-focused coaching and psychodynamic coaching during the 2000–2010 period. This was followed by a more diverse range of models including motivational interviewing, acceptance and commitment coaching, compassion-based coaching and Gestalt, which have each been developed for use in coaching. In the period post-2020, other models are also now being considered as possible frameworks for use with coaching clients in non-clinical relationships, such as dialectical behavioural therapy and meta-cognitive therapy (for a wider discussion of third wave cognitive-behavioural coaching (CBC), see Passmore & Leach, 2022). In addition to the influences from therapy, psychological models have also been translated for use in coaching psychology practice, such as positive psychology and mindfulness. This flow of models from therapy and psychology contrasts with the relative sparse influence from change management and organisational development, with appreciative coaching being a rare exception drawing on appreciative inquiry as a structure to frame positive-focused conversations.
This multiplicity of available frameworks can be confusing for the coach. Some have responded by focusing on a single model or framework as a way to structure all conversations. However, the evidence suggests the majority of coaches have adopted a more eclectic approach and have sought to integrate a range of different models into their work with clients. This follows suggestions from writers in the emerging years of coaching, such as Alison Hardingham (2006) and Jonathan Passmore (2006), who advocated for a more eclectic approach, by which the coach should draw from a number of different streams and, in doing so, would be best able to respond to the unique individual and their specific presenting issue, as opposed to forcing each client to become the round peg required to fit the shape and size of ‘hole’ offered by the coach. These ideas of eclectic approaches have been further developed (Hardingham, 2021; Passmore, 2021), with an emphasis on each coach developing their own distinctive evidence-based approach informed by the cultural context, types of clients and their own personal style to build an approach which is informed by science but which can also be flexed and adapted to meet the client where they are.
Where does this leave coaching? Are coaching and coaching psychology essentially the same, or are there differences? For many clients, and even for practitioners, this is an academic debate. But it matters for three reasons: Firstly, it is important to define something to be able to provide it. If the label on the tin says ‘tomato soup’, but it is crab soup when you open it, you may well be disappointed. A failure to clearly define and manage boundaries can also lead the coach into difficulties and risk causing harm to the client if the coach is not qualified and trained to work with an issue. Secondly, definitions matter for research. If we have not clearly defined our intervention, it is hard to measure the effect. We might be assessing if lunch poisoned the individual; however, if we cannot differentiate between the wholemeal bread and the crab soup, we do not know if the problem is a wheat intolerance or shellfish poisoning. Finally, and possibly most important for practitioners, if it is not clearly defined, we cannot teach it. Knowing the crucial ingredients – and the boundaries – allows for a syllabus and criteria for assessment to be developed: definitions matter.
This is not the place for a deep discussion of definitions, but practitioners should know what they are doing and be able to define, with precision, their intervention. In doing so they may reference one of the many definitions available: John Whitmore’s classic definition of coaching: ‘unlocking a person’s potential to maximise their own performance. It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them – a facilitation approach’ (Whitmore, 1992, p. 8), Laura Whitworth’s definition of co-active coaching, ‘a relationship of possibilities … based on trust, confidentiality’ (Kimsey-House et al., 2011, p. 19), Passmore and Fillery-Travis’s (2011) more process-focused definition ‘… a Socratic-based dialogue between a facilitator (coach) and a participant (client) where the majority of interventions used by the facilitator are open questions which are aimed at stimulating the self-awareness and personal responsibility of the participant’, or one of the professional bodies’ definitions, such as that of the International Coaching Federation.
For us, coaching psychology has a distinctive role to play. “Coaching psychology is ‘the well’ which refreshes the wider coaching profession” (Passmore & Yi-Ling, 2019, p. 79). Coaching psychologists draw on their deeper understanding of research to actively contribute new theories, models, frameworks and, most importantly, evidence, to take forward evidence-based practice. While their practices may be consistent with many other evidence-based practitioners, their understanding of the wider psychological frameworks and the evidence underpinning their approach mark them out as distinctive. The client may witness little of this deeper knowledge in an individual session, but the wider body of coaching will benefit from their contribution, as they challenge and push the boundaries of practice through scientific-led enquiry, engaging in research and sharing their work through journals and other publications. In essence, the coaching psychologist is a scholar-practitioner, constantly crossing and re-crossing the bridge between practice and academia.
The British Psychological Society defines coaching psychology as “the scientific study and application of behaviour, cognition and emotion to deepen our understanding of individuals’ and groups’ performance, achievement and wellbeing, and to enhance practice within coaching” (BPS, 2021).
As we continue to move forward, the definition of coaching and the areas of work in which coaching psychologists engage is likely to continue to change. It is twenty years since this journey of encouraging a focus on evidence-based coaching practice started, marked by the formation of the ‘Coaching Psychology Network’ within the British Psychological Society. Two decades on, that group has evolved into the Division of Coaching Psychology with pathways for accredited training and the pace of change for coaching is quickening. While evidence will continue to grow in importance, digital platforms, artificial intelligence (AI) coaching apps and the blurring of the boundaries between coaching and counselling are likely to continue. The world of coaching in 2050 will be a fascinating place but, whatever changes, psychology, understanding human behaviour, emotion and cognition will be at its heart.
REFERENCES
BPS (2021). BPS Division of Coaching Psychology – Definition of Coaching Psychology. Retrieved on 1 November 2021 from
https://www.bps.org.uk/member-microsites/division-coaching-psychology
Hardingham, A. (2006). The British Eclectic model of coaching,
International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching
IV(1).
Hardingham, A. (2021). The Universal Eclectic model of executive coaching. In J. Passmore (ed.),
The Coaches Handbook: The Complete Practitioners Guide for Professional Coaches
(pp. 167–175). Routledge.
Kimsey-House, H., Kimsey-House, K., Sandahl, P., & Whitworth, L. (2011).
Co-Active Coaching: Changing Business, Transforming Lives
(3rd ed.). Boston: Nicholas Brealey.
Passmore, J. (2006). Integrated coaching model. In J. Passmore (ed.),
Excellence in Coaching: The Industry Guide
(1st ed.). Kogan Page.
Passmore, J. (2021). Developing an integrated approach to coaching. In J. Passmore (ed.),
The Coaches Handbook: The Complete Practitioners Guide for Professional Coaches
(pp. 322–330). Routledge.
Passmore, J. & Fillery-Travis, A. (2011). A critical review of executive coaching research: A decade of progress and what’s to come.
Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice
, 4(2), 70–88.
Passmore, J. & Leach, S. (2022). Third Wave Cognitive Behavioural coaching: Contextual, Behavioural and neuroscience Approaches for Evidence-Based Coaches. Shoreham-by-Sea: Pavilion Publishing.
Passmore, J., & Yi-Ling, Y. (2019). Coaching psychology: Exploring definitions and research contribution to practice?
International Coaching Psychology Review
, 14(2), 69–83.
Whitmore, J. (1992). Coaching for Performance. London: Nicholas Brealey.
Section 2 Coaching Frameworks The Role of Frameworks, Models and Approaches in Coaching
David Tee & Jonathan Passmore
While coaching is similar to other helping-by-talking interventions such as counselling and therapy in the range of ‘approaches’ available (many of these coaching approaches indeed having their conceptual roots within therapy), the ever-growing number of ‘models’ is something that sets coaching apart from related practices. Given this, it is of interest that the term ‘model’ is rarely defined and variously applied in the coaching literature.
Within the context of counselling supervision, Reeves (2013) uses the term ‘models’ to refer to frameworks which bring “…a particular perspective to how the supervisory process might be negotiated and understood” (p. 387). Within the coaching practitioner literature, ‘models’ can be used to refer to any theory, theoretical framework or tool deemed of potential use to coaches in their client work (Bates, 2015). More commonly, however, the term applies to frameworks or structures, often producing acronyms, which suggest a sequence of linear stages to follow within a coaching conversation. As an example, the RADAR model has the steps Rapport, Analyse, Demonstrate, Activity, Review (Giangregorio, 2016) or alternatively Relationship, Awareness, Dream, Action, Results/Review (Hilliard, 2012).
A general point can be made before specific models are considered. Coaching models are often positioned as how coaching practitioners cut their teeth, whether it be through introductory training programmes or texts (e.g., Gilbert & Whittleworth, 2009; van Niewerburgh, 2014) or as a dominant framework for practice: The Work Foundation (2002, as cited in Dembkowski & Eldridge, 2003) found over a third of respondent coaches reported a reliance on the GROW model, while a survey of practitioners within England suggests almost 70% use goal-focused models such as GROW in their work (Tee et al., 2019).
Such coaching models do provide benefits. As Adams (2016) explains, they act as an aide-memoire to the coach using them, as well as providing structure and momentum to the conversation itself. In addition, they can provide a reassurance to neophyte practitioners that they are ‘doing it right’: that, by using a published framework that is providing a route map through a conversation, stating the function of each step and, often, helpfully providing a set of questions to use at each stage, the coach is providing something of value to the client.
However, there are risks and limitations, too. A practitioner using a structured model, such as COACH (Webb, 2019), may take false reassurance that the structure is all-encompassing, covering every element and consideration required of an ethical and effective coach. A coach may also adhere to the model or technique too rigidly, rather than using it as a baseline from which to improvise or deviate (Clutterbuck, 2010). Finally, even if used lightly, the overlaying of one or two familiar models onto a coach’s work with their clients may become repetitive and mechanistic, diminishing the opportunity to maximise insight and learning.
Mindful of these limitations, Clutterbuck (2010) states more experienced practitioners move beyond this mechanistic approach towards a more eclectic drawing upon a range of techniques, and from this to operating within a specific theoretical framework, such as ‘Gestalt’, before finally reaching a stage of ‘liberation’. At this point in the practitioner’s role maturity, their craft is typified more by a way of being than a way of doing. If this is accurate, then it echoes the distinction that the professional body EMCC (2015) makes between foundation and master practitioners, with the latter expected to formulate their own tools, adapt from moment to moment in response to client information and to have a unique approach based upon their own critical evaluation of existing models.
We argue here that there may be a distinction between coaching models and coaching psychology models. While many of the caveats indicated above apply in the use of either category of model, coaching psychology models have a theoretical and conceptual rooting within a psychological approach, drawing upon its associated body of theory and research evidence. While there may be some coaching models for which this is also the case, Passmore (2007) argues that such roots are typically not made overt – or possibly even known – by the authors of such models.
Coaching psychology models, such as those detailed in this volume, explicitly embed specific aspects of evidence-based practice from their respective approaches within their stages. The ENABLE model (Adams, 2016), for example, incorporates the solution-focused practices of scaling questions, working with exceptions and the building of client self-efficacy. The SPACE model includes the cognitive-behavioural focus on cognitions, emotions and behaviours (or ‘A’ctions in the model’s acronym). It could be argued that the transparency of the theoretical roots of coaching psychology models allows a coach to make an informed decision as to whether to integrate it into their way of being with clients and the extent to which it fits in with their own values, preferences and assumptions about what constitutes ‘good’ practice.
This section opens with three coaching psychology models. The first is Nick Edgerton and Stephen Palmer’s (2005) cognitive-behavioural SPACE model. Initially developed in 2002, this model is intended to raise client awareness of the interactions involved in their own or other people’s psychological processes. As such, SPACE is less linear than many other models, with the ACE and PACE variants offered within the paper as options for the coaching psychologist, dependent on the needs of the client at that time.
Garret O’Moore (2012) details the integrative model PEAK, intended for performance coaching and designed to focus coaching session attention on three key performance factors: ability, effort and difficulty. Anthony M. Grant (2011) then offers a variation on GROW: the RE-GROW model. Grant identifies the risk of coaching, as a series of structured conversations, becoming disjointed. This would reduce the focus, momentum and progress towards goal attainment that the client (and their sponsor organisation) may desire. By building in an initial Review and Evaluate (the ‘RE’ in ‘RE-GROW’) at the opening of each session, Grant suggests goal-directed self-regulation should increase.
The section finishes with Zsófia Anna Utry and colleagues (2015) offering a coaching psychology variant of pluralistic counselling and psychotherapy. The paper offers a number of practical steps that coaching psychologists may take in building up the collaborative capacity of their clients, as well as checking their own capacity and alignment to pluralistic principles.
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1 SPACE: A psychological model for use within cognitive behavioural coaching, therapy and stress management
Nick Edgerton & Stephen Palmer
Abstract
This paper introduces ‘SPACE’, a comprehensive psychological model that can be used within cognitive behavioural coaching, therapy and stress management to aid assessment, explain the cognitive model to the client, and assist in the development of a coaching, therapeutic or training programme. Other models, coaching processes and acronyms will be briefly covered to put ‘SPACE’ into a coaching context. For illustrative purposes this paper will focus on coaching.
Over the past couple of decades a number of different coaching models, processes and associated acronyms have been developed by coaching practitioners to enhance and inform their practice, and provide a useful framework. These models are usually shared with the client in a transparent manner and help to facilitate the change and goal-focused process. The next section will highlight a number of the different models including the cognitive model. Then the SPACE model will be illustrated.
Original publication details: Edgerton, N., & Palmer, S. (2005, November). SPACE: A psychological model for use within cognitive behavioural coaching, therapy and stress management. The Coaching Psychologist, 2(2), 25–31. Reproduced with permission of The British Psychological Society.
GROW MODEL
The GROW model of coaching has been popularised by Sir John Whitmore (e.g. 1996) although according to the literature (see Boyle et al., 2005) it was developed by Graham Alexander. It is probably one of the most well used models of coaching.
Whitmore (2004, p.54) describes the sequence for GROW as follows:
G
OAL setting for the session as well as short and long term;
R
EALITY checking to explore the current situation;
O
PTIONS and alterative strategies or courses of action;
W
HAT is to be done, WHEN, by WHOM and the WILL to do it.
The last stage is also known as WRAP-UP by some practitioners. The GROW model appears to be taught by many coaching training centres throughout the UK. It is relatively straight forward and would be at the behavioural end of the coaching spectrum.
ACHIEVE MODEL
The ACHIEVE model was developed by Sabine Dembkowski and Fiona Elridge (2003). They believe that it is a logical progression from the GROW model and follows the development of a coaching relationship in a systematic manner:
A
ssess current situation;
C
reative brainstorming of alternative to current situation;
H
one goals;
I
nitiate options;
E
valuative options;
V
alid action programme design;
E
ncourage momentum. The ACHIEVE model does allow for flexibility and individuality.
LASER: A COACHING PROCESS
Graham Lee (2003) describes LASER, a five-stage coaching process which provides a frame of reference for moving a manager through the journey of leadership coaching. According to Lee it is a flexible framework that indicates the core activities. The five stages are:
L
earning;
A
ssessing;
S
tory-making;
E
nabling;
R
eframing.
Unlike some of the other coaching models Lee does not conceive LASER as a rigid linear journey.
POSITIVE MODEL
Vincenzo Libri (2004) suggested the POSITIVE model developed from the GROW and ACHIEVE and influenced by psychological contributions that produce ‘an optimum coaching relationship’. Examples of key questions in each phase are provided below:
P
urpose, e.g. what is it you want to achieve?
O
bservations, e.g. what have you tried so far?
S
trategy, e.g. what does success look like for you?
I
nsight, e.g. how committed are you in achieving this goal on a scale of 1 – 10?
T
eam, e.g. who will you share your goal with?
I
nitiate, e.g. when will you start to act on this?
V
alue, e.g. how will you celebrate your success?
E
ncourage, e.g. how are you going with your goals?
Libri (2004) provides a useful list of key questions at each stage.
TRADITIONAL PROBLEM-SOLVING MODELS
Wasik (1984) proposed a seven-step problem-solving sequence and accompanying questions that practitioners and more importantly their clients can ask themselves at each step of the process as below.
Steps
Questions/Actions
1. Problem identification
What is the concern?
2. Goal selection
What do I want?
3. Generation of alternatives
What can I do?
4. Consideration of consequences
What might happen?
5. Decision making
What is my decision?
6. Implementation
Now do it!
7. Evaluation
Did it work?
Even though it does not have a convenient acronym, this seven-step model has been adapted to coaching, therapy, training and stress management (Palmer $ Burton, 1996; Palmer, 1997a, b; Neenan $ Palmer, 2001a, b). Once the client becomes adept at using the seven-step model, Neenan and Palmer (2001a, b) suggest that the client may want to use a shorter model to quicken the problem-solving process. For example, STIR and PIE:
Select a problemTarget a solutionImplement a solutionReview outcomeProblem definitionImplement a solutionEvaluate outcome
They assert that shorter models of problem-solving are usually used for rapid processing of a problem in order to deal with a crisis or make a quick decision. However, with these shorter models, deliberation is exchanged for speed, so a less satisfactory outcome may be experienced by the client.
ABCDE COGNITIVE MODEL
The problem-solving models or frameworks described above form an integrated part of the cognitive or cognitive behavioural coaching approach. If the issue or problem can be addressed by focusing on the practical aspects of the problem then the problem solving models are sufficient. However, if the client experiences a psychological or emotional block largely caused by unhelpful, goal-blocking or performance interfering thoughts (PITs), then the practitioner uses the well known ABCDE model (Ellis et al., 1997). Often this need becomes apparent when the client cannot successfully complete Step 5 of the seven-step problem-solving model:
A – Activating event – stops working on the solution chosen at step 5.
B – Beliefs or PITs, e.g. ‘I can’t stand all this hard work. I’ll never reach the deadline.’
C – Consequences: emotion – anxiety; behaviour – procrastinates; physiological palpitations.
D – Disputing – ‘I don’t like it but in reality I can stand it. If I start work NOW then I’m more likely to reach the deadline.
E – Effective new approach – reduction in of anxiety. Starts to focus on the tasks involved which would assist in reaching the project deadline with the proposed solution at step 5. Cognitive Coaching or Cognitive Behavioural Coaching or Rational Emotive Behavioural Coaching can all be considered as dual systems approaches focusing on the practical and/or psychological aspects of a client’s problem or issue as and when required. Palmer (1997a, b) described the integration of the ABCDE and problem-solving models as ‘an intrinsically brief integrative approach’.
INTRODUCING THE SPACE MODEL – AN OVERVIEW
The SPACE model was developed in 2002 and is an attempt to portray the interactions involved in psychological process in a manner that is more graphical than the two or five column worksheets that are commonly used in cognitive behavioural approaches. It is also an easy to remember acronym:
Social contextPhysiologyActionCognitionEmotion
The model has two further components which are also referred to when in use with clients:
A
ction
P
hysiology
C
ognition
A
ction
E
motion
C
ognition
E
motion
The literature relating to cognitive behaviour coaching and therapy deals largely with the importance of the Cognitions as determinates of Emotional states and the resultant Behaviours or Actions (see Beck, 1995; Ellis et al., 1997; Neenan & Palmer, 2001a, b). The ‘ABCDE’ model is one of the most widely used in cognitive behavioural approaches. Implicit in the model is the belief that Cognitions largely determine Emotions.
This can be depicted as:
As cognitions can lead to an emotional response, a person with anger provoking thoughts is likely to experience anger as an emotion. Cognitions include images or pictures a person may also experiences in their mind’s eye. An example is provided below of a teacher in a specific situation:
However, if someone is already in an angry mood, a mood being a longer lasting emotional state, then the mood is likely to result in a tendency to have further angry cognitions in the next situation.
Since the angry cognitions will again result in anger as an emotion we could depict it better:
There is clearly an interaction between cognitions and emotions and this is indicated by the two-way arrow.
In the example above, the thought, ‘I’ve got to stop him’ clearly relates to potential Actions. Adding an A to the diagram would give us:
This ACE model can be seen as a basic psychological model depicting a three way interaction between Actions Cognitions and Emotions. A similar model ACE has also been described by Lee (2003). Taking our example a step further we can see that a person in this Emotional state with these Cognitions and Action tendencies would also experience sensations in their bodies relating to Physiological arousal.
Adding a ‘P’ for Physiological would give us a PACE model that (see below) would depict Biological/Psychological interactions for an individual.
To further understand a person’s reaction to a situation it is often helpful to understand the Social Context that the person is operating in. This can be displayed as a circle surrounding the PACE model.
With the addition of the Social Context to our model it becomes a Bio – Psycho – Social model that will help practitioners and their clients to understand a person’s reaction in a Social Context. The Social Context can include sets of beliefs about social roles, customs and rules.
SPACE: FROM ASSESSMENT TO INTERVENTION
In the first or later session with a client, a particular situation, problem or mood can be analysed using the ACE, PACE and finally the SPACE models. This helps provide a quick assessment, illustrates to the client the interaction between the five key modalities, and provides an opening for possible interventions. For example, a client who experiences presentation nerves could consider modifying cognitions such as, ‘I must perform well. It will be awful if I make a mistake’, replacing catastrophic imagery with helpful coping imagery (C), stopping procrastinating behaviour and learning new presentation behavioural skills (A), using techniques such as relaxation to reduce stress and anxiety (P), feeling identification to help the client identify anxiety (E), and increase the awareness of the social context and others’ expectations of the client’s performance e.g. they may want an acceptable performance, not ‘perfect’ performance (S). These possible interventions can also be inserted onto the SPACE diagram using a different colour ink. (Or a new SPACE diagram can be used instead.) Thus the SPACE diagram shifts from assessment tool into the coaching programme. SPACE is used in a similar way in counselling, psychotherapy and training settings.
USE OF TIME
Some clients experience difficulties remembering the very nature of cognitions. When using cognitive models including SPACE it is important that clients can recall what the ‘C’ stands for. Another aide memoire, TIME, can assist:
Thoughts
Images
Memories
Expectations
This helps clients complete the ‘C’ part of the SPACE diagram outside of the coaching session.
CONCLUSION
This article highlighted a number of different coaching models and introduced the comprehensive SPACE model that can be used within cognitive behavioural approaches. SPACE can also be used in parallel the other models such as GROW or POSITIVE described above, to aid clients understand how to overcome the psychological blocks that are sometimes associated with their problems or issues. So often with performance-related issues, cognitions, imagery, emotions and physiological reactions need to be addressed in coaching and SPACE provides the framework for both assessment and the subsequent development of an individual coaching programme.
REFERENCES
Beck, J.S. (1995).
Cognitive therapy: Basics and beyond
. New York: Guilford Press.
Boyle, C., Callaghan, A. & Stokes, C. (2005). Coaching, commitment and collaboration. Downloaded on 9 October 2005.
http://www.uk.hudson.com/documents/uk_article_coaching.pdf
First published in the
Law Society Gazette
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Dembkowski, S. & Eldridge, F. (2003). Beyond GROW: A new coaching model.
The International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching
, 1(1), November.
Ellis, A., Gordon, J., Neenan, M. & Palmer, S. (1997).
Stress counselling: A rational emotive behaviour approach
. London: Cassell.
Lee, G. (2003).
Leadership coaching: From personal insight to organisational performance
. London: CIPD.
Libri, V. (2004). Beyond GROW: In search of acronyms and coaching models.
The International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching
, 2(1), July.
Neenan, M. & Palmer, S. (2001a). Cognitive behavioural coaching.
Stress News
, 13(3), 15–18.
Neenan, M. & Palmer, S. (2001b). Rational emotive behaviour coaching.
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapist
, 9(1), 34–41.
Palmer, S. & Burton, T. (1996).
Dealing with people problems at work
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Palmer, S. (1997a). Problem-focused stress counselling and stress management: An intrinsically brief integrative approach. Part 1.
Stress News
, 9(2), 7–12.
Palmer, S. (1997b). Problem-focused stress counselling and stress management training: An intrinsically brief integrative approach. Part 2.
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Wasik, B. (1984).
Teaching parents effective problem-solving: A handbook for professionals
. Unpublished manuscript. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina.
Whitmore, J. (1996).
Coaching for performance
(2nd ed.). London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Whitmore, J. (2004).
Coaching for performance: GROWing people, performance and purpose
(3rd ed.). London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
2 PEAK: A model for use within performance coaching
Garret O’Moore
Abstract
This paper introduces ‘PEAK’, a model suitable for use within performance coaching. PEAK is an acronym formed from the four interacting domains that are considered to underpin performance: Purpose, Engagement, Ability, and Know-how. The aim is to present an overview of the model and the theory that underpins it as well as providing a brief example of the model in practise.
Keywords
PEAK;performance coaching;coaching model.
Over the years a number of general purpose coaching models have been developed (see Grant, 2011, p.120, and Edgerton & Palmer, 2005, p.21, for useful overviews), to aid practitioners working across a range of coaching topics. With the London 2012 Olympic Games fast approaching it seemed fitting to introduce ‘PEAK’, a model developed for performance coaching. The paper will provide a brief overview of what is meant by performance. It will then seek to outline the model and theory that underpins it before illustrating it in practise with a coaching example.
Over the years a number of general purpose coaching models have been developed (see Grant, 2011, p.120, and Edgerton & Palmer, 2005, p.21, for useful overviews), to aid practitioners working across a range of coaching topics. With the London 2012 Olympic Games fast approaching it seemed fitting to introduce ‘PEAK’, a model developed for performance coaching. The paper will provide a brief overview of what is meant by performance. It will then seek to outline the model and theory that underpins it before illustrating it in practise with a coaching example.
OVERVIEW OF PERFORMANCE
Performance in a coaching context is usually understood ‘as a task or operation seen in terms of how successfully it is performed’ (Oxford Dictionaries, 2012). For concision it has been conceptualised as comprising three interconnected factors: (1) ability, the extent to which an individual can successfully undertake the task; (2) effort, the degree of physical and mental power directed to the task; and (3) difficulty, the degree of challenge inherent in the task. Visualised as an equation (see Figure 1) performance is considered as the sum of the multiplication of task ability and task effort divided by task difficulty.
Figure 1 Performance equation.
Simply put, to increase performance one should strive to enhance ability and effort whilst, reducing difficulty. In situations where the level of difficulty is inextricably linked with the performance goal (e.g. running a sub four-minute mile) it may be more useful to consider difficulty as the factor/s that are increasing the challenge, for example, poor training facilities or an uninspiring coach. Attention will now turn to providing an overview of PEAK.
INTRODUCING THE PEAK MODEL – AN OVERVIEW
PEAK is an integrative model that draws on concepts from a number of established coaching paradigms; cognitive behavioural coaching (CBC; Palmer & Szymanska, 2007), solution focused coaching (SFC; O’Connell & Palmer, 2007) and motivational interviewing (MI; Passmore & Whybrow, 2007; Passmore, 2011). The model is intended to be clear and accessible and its conceptualisation was influenced by the interrelated phases of earlier models such as GROW (Alexander, 2010) and models with reciprocal interactivity between domains such as SPACE (Edgerton & Palmer, 2005). Whilst influenced by existing coaching paradigms and coaching frameworks, PEAK also draws on a body of interrelated theory and field research that has identified psychological factors that underpin performance and wellbeing. In particular: self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1997), goal setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990, Locke & Latham 2002), The transtheoretical model of behavior change (TTM; Di Clemente & Prochaska, 1998), the self-determination theory of motivation (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985, Ryan & Deci, 2000) and the self-concordance model of healthy goal striving (Sheldon & Eliot, 1999). Within the model performance is conceptualised (see Figure 2) as resulting from the reciprocal interaction of four domains that are considered to underpin performance within a given environment: Purpose, Engagement, Ability, and Know-how, together forming an easy to remember acronym: PEAK. Each of the four domains can be visualised on a continuum that ranges from low to high and which has a bearing on overall performance. The domains are understood to act synergistically so if the coachee considers the purpose to be clear and meaningful, is actively engaged, utilises their ability and has the know-how to succeed then performance is likely to occur.
Figure 2 The interacting domains of the PEAK model.
PEAK is considered a collaborative model whereby the coach strives to facilitate attainment of the coachee’s goals through increasing the coachee’s self-directed motivation as well as their actual and perceived task ability.
PURPOSE
Purpose refers to understanding what it is that the coachee wishes to achieve and why they want to achieve it. Whilst the ‘what’ is an explicit focus of many coaching models, the ‘why’ that underpins the goal, known as the locus of motivation (type of motivation) is often assumed. It is useful to recognise that the locus of motivation can be distinct from the level of motivation. For instance, two people may be equally motivated to succeed at an exam but for differing reasons, for example, enjoying the challenge of the exam versus requiring the necessary grades to get into a desired course.
Within SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2000) intrinsic goals (goals that are internally motivating) and extrinsic goals (goals pursued because of external motives) are considered to exist on a spectrum model of self-regulation in which behaviour is guided by intrinsic motivation and several types of extrinsic motivation that exist on a continuum of internalisation from external motives that are passively or reluctantly accepted to external motives that have been integrated as personally meaningful.
Gaining insight into the coachee’s locus of motivation is considered significant given the findings that intrinsic goals are more likely to be attained than extrinsic goals (Sheldon, 2002) and have also been associated with enhanced well-being (Sheldon & Kasser, 1998). The benefits of goal setting have also been found to depend on a person’s commitment and determination (Hollenbeck, Williams & Kline, 1989) with difficult goals having been found to lead to higher performance than simple goals provided they have been accepted (Locke & Latham, 2002). Finally ensuring goal clarity and a degree of challenge is important given the strong relationship between goal specificity, difficulty and high performance (Locke & Latham, 1990).
ENGAGEMENT
Engagement refers to how invested the coachee is in realising their goal. The TTM (DiClemente & Prochaska, 1998) which strongly influences MI (Miller & Rollnick, 2002) conceptualises change as a cyclical process involving a number of stages from pre-contemplation through contemplation, planning, action and change maintenance. Within PEAK the TTM stages can be used to gauge ‘how bought in’ the coachee is to realising their goal. For instance, a client who is still weighing up the pros and cons of committing to a performance goal would be considered to be less engaged than a client who was already planning how to increase their performance.
The TTM also usefully recognises the difficulty in sustaining change and recognises that relapses to earlier stages and spiralling through stages can occur. Gaining insight into the stages of change is useful as a smooth transition through stages (e.g. moving from goal planning to action) would suggest that engagement is likely to be high with corresponding levels of goal oriented motivation and effort. In contrast a coachee who does not appear to be progressing through the stages or has become stuck in a particular stage may experience a reduction in engagement with the consequence that motivation and effort may decrease. In such instances a number of causal factors could be involved such as: problems inherent in the performance goal, competing demands for resources, efficacy beliefs or tangible barriers such as skill deficits or time constraints.
ABILITY
Ability is a broad concept and refers to the interplay of knowledge (what you have to do and how you do it) and skill (your proficiency at doing it). Ability within PEAK considers both objective and subjective ability, namely the coachee’s perception of their capacity to achieve their goal, known as their self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Identifying a coachee’s self-efficacy which can be both general and domain specific is considered to be crucial to performance improvement as motivation to change will be undermined unless there is a corresponding belief that one has the ability to change. Individuals possessing high self-efficacy have been shown to increase goal directed effort and to persist longer than those with low self-efficacy who may be prone to overestimating task difficulty (Bandura, 1977).
KNOW-HOW
Within PEAK Know-how can be conceptualised as the strategy or approach that is required to realise the performance goal. It is within this domain that a plan of action is generated so that the coachee’s skills and knowledge can be harnessed and enhanced to initiate and maintain goal striving towards their performance goal. The focus will vary according to the degree and complexity of the challenge, how motivated the coachee is, how engaged they are in the change process, their objective ability and their subjective sense of it.
COACHING EXAMPLE
Attention will now turn to providing a straightforward coaching example of PEAK involving a fictitious coachee, Chris, who works in sales. Suggested steps and example questions for each domain are outlined in Table 1.
Table 1 Domain specific steps and example questions for use within PEAK.
Useful steps within each domain
Example questions
Purpose
Have a broad discussion about the goal
What would you like to achieve?
Explore type of motivation
What’s important to you about achieving that?
Increase self-directed motivation
Have you considered how achieving X may help you realise Y?
Clarify the goal (e.g. SMART)
Do you consider your goal to be achievable/realistic?
Engagement
Check commitment level
How committed are you feeling? Rating: 0 – 10/ What makes it a 7?
Identify stage of change
Are you still considering or already working towards your goal?
Increase engagement
What are the pros/cons of achieving X?
Ability
Identify challenge
What has to change to move from your current to your desired performance?
Identify relevant skills and knowledge
What skills or knowledge do you have that could help you do that?
Identify self-efficacy beliefs
How confident are you in your ability to use what we’ve identified?
Leverage skills and knowledge/strengths
Can you think of ways you could develop that?
Know-how
Develop actionable strategy
Let’s consider the best way to realise X
Encourage solution finding
Imagine you’re already performing at your desired level, now describe it?
PURPOSE
The session should start with a focus on understanding what the coachee wishes to achieve and the context in which it would occur. The coach should then seek to explore the coachee’s motives to better understand the degree to which the performance increase has been accepted and is valued.
Coach: What is it that you’d like to achieve?
Chris: I’d be keen to increase my sales targets by 20 per cent.
Coach: Can you give me a sense of why increasing your sales by 20 per cent is important to you?
Chris: Sure, I’m really keen to get the end of year bonus. It’s a lot of money!
Coach
