Cultural, Training and Educational Spaces E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
For two centuries, the school system has been a central point around which other players have gravitated: local authorities, voluntary organizations and the world of work. Over the course of the 20th century, this school centric configuration underwent a transformation, with local authorities tending to become integrated into the vertical culture of the school system. This was only the beginning of a process that brought schools and socio cultural players into constant contact. Cultural, Training and Educational Spaces first examines the relationships with knowledge generated by the links between the school system and other cultural, training and educational spaces, taking a historical, pedagogical and philosophical perspective. Easy access to learning materials creates different relationships with knowledge than those observed in schools. The book then looks at the pedagogical practices in these different cultural educational spaces, such as libraries and media libraries, museums and historical sites, places of heritage, history and entertainment, social networks and other multimedia formats.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Dedication Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Presentation of the Authors
Introduction
General problem
The temptation of a school-centered approach
Diversity issues at the risk of the school form
Expanding the education market in times of crisis
Challenges of hypermodernity: literacy and empowerment
Knowledge and methods: educational concepts to be clarified
Structure of the book
References
Part 1: The Cultural Spaces of Knowledge
Introduction to Part 1
1 Local Educational Community and New Knowledge
1.1. Working together: local resources to mobilize
1.2. Collaboration in action: initiating new know-how
1.3. Effects of collaborative work
1.4. Conclusion: towards the construction of a local educational community
1.5. References
2 Expanding Roles for Community Institutions: US Public Libraries as Community Health Partners
2.1. Background
2.2. US public libraries and health
2.3. Shifting missions and responsibilities
2.4. Final thoughts
2.5. References
3 Regarding the School Form: Critical Reflections
3.1. Thinking about the school form
3.2. Historicity of the school form
3.3. Transhistorical continuity
3.4. School form and democratic form of socialization, historicity versus continuity?
3.5. Conclusion: the concept of school form, a useful concept?
3.6. References
Part 2: Museums and the School Form: What are the Interactions?
Introduction to Part 2
4 The Transmission of Technical Culture in France in the 19th Century via Collections of Objects
4.1. Crossed histories
4.2. Conservatoire des arts et métiers
4.3. Musée naval
4.4. Collections and audiences: outline of a differentiated transmission
4.5. Conclusion
4.6. References
5 The Musée de la Corse and the Citadelle de Corte, Experimentation of Museum Mediation in the Service of a Shared Future
5.1. Museum geography in Central Corsica
5.2. Landscape inscription
5.3. Change of destination
5.4. Patrimonial territory
5.5. Impacts
5.6. Example of active and citizen museology
5.7. References
6 Institutionalization of Passion Instead of Competence
6.1. Introduction: leave your pupils to a guide
6.2. Competence of the guides in addition to that of the historians
6.3. Passing an anti-scientific discourse on history
6.4. Institutionalization of passion instead of competence
6.5. Conclusion: visiting a place of history in an age of mistrust of science
6.6. References
7 The Contribution of Museums in Non-formal Education and Cultural Transmission
7.1. Places of autonomy and hypermodern mediations
7.2. Teachers: mediators in search of appropriate mediations?
7.3. Conclusion
7.4. References
8 Cultural Space, Digitization and Training in the Museum
8.1. Context of the case study
8.2. Presentation of the experimental project at the museum
8.3. References
Part 3: Reading and Cultural Mediation
Introduction to Part 3
9 Developing New Teaching Practices for Reading and Writing in French Elementary Schools Involving Book Mediators
9.1. What professional skills are expected?
9.2. State of the art in initial training
9.3. Cultural mediation practices in the master’s program
9.4. Looking back on the experience: the students’ point of view
9.5. New innovative pedagogical device to be tested: Fabulathèque
9.6. Appendix
9.7. References
10 Making Books Resonate: A Cultural Mediation Exercise Offered to Trainee Schoolteachers
10.1. Reading aloud in literature
10.2. School practice
10.3. Putting in resonance
10.4. Conclusion
10.5. References
Part 4: Informal Learning, Formal Learning, Hybrid Training
Introduction to Part 4
11 Informal Adult Learning in Libraries: Between School Form and Popular Education?
11.1. Library between school form and popular education
11.2. Methodology of the narrative survey
11.3. Findings
11.4. Discussion and conclusion
11.5. References
12 The Construction of Boundary Objects: A Lever for the Transformation of the University Form
12.1. Introduction: higher education at the heart of change
12.2. Projet DESIR: contextual elements
12.3. Theoretical framework
12.4. Methodology
12.5. Research findings and highlights
12.6. Discussion and conclusion
12.7. References
13 Cultural, Curricular and Axiological Challenges of Training for the Education Profession in the Era of Globalization
13.1. Introduction: the challenges of education and training in a globalized world
13.2. Educating and training in a multilingual and multicultural world
13.3. Training trainers for democratic education
13.4. Conclusion: a plurilingual and pluricultural paradigm in teacher and trainer training to meet the democratic challenges of globalization
13.5. References
14 The Emergence of Patrimonial Education in the Arganeraie Biosphere Reserve (ABR) in Morocco
14.1. History of the school form
14.2. Introduction of patrimonial education in the Moroccan school system
14.3. Poorly integrated patrimonial education
14.4. New school form to be tested
14.5. Discussion
14.6. References
Conclusion: From the Emerging Concept of a Cultural Space of Training to the Design of a Label
Problems
Genesis of a concept
Borders as common spaces
Portrait of cultural spaces of training
References
Appendix: Counterpoint “Hungry for Expeditions”
References
Postface
References
List of Authors
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 12
Table 12.1. Boundary objects and brokers’ roles in the co-situation stage...
Table 12.2. Boundary objects and brokers’ roles in the cooperation stage
Table 12.3. Boundary objects and the roles of the brokers during the co-produc...
Table 12.4. Classification of brokers’ tasks
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1. Potential health outreach collaborators
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1. Entrance of the Musée de la Corse
Figure 5.2. Aerial view of the Citadelle de Corte
Figure 5.3. Model of the house of Polidoro, Pietro Salvago Della Chiesa, 1541;...
Figure 5.4. Anonymous, map of the city, citadel, and castle of Corte, to serve...
Figure 5.5. Graphic identity Citadella XXI
Figure 5.6. Master Plan Display Panel
Figure 5.7. Interior view immersive installation A Citadella di Corti
Figure 5.8. Exhibition for young people, Derrière les murailles
Figure 5.9. Outdoor photographic installation In terra d’Omi
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1. Learning continuum and characteristics of the informal
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1. Projet DESIR’s temporality
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Dedication Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Presentation of the Authors
Introduction
Begin Reading
Conclusion: From the Emerging Concept of a Cultural Space of Training to the Design of a Label
Appendix: Counterpoint “Hungry for Expeditions”
Postface
List of Authors
Index
End User License Agreement
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Cet ouvrage est dédié à la mémoire de notre ami le Professeur Maurice Tardif
This book is dedicated to the memory of our friendProfessor Maurice Tardif
Education Set
coordinated byAngela Barthes and Anne-Laure Le Guern
Volume 15
Cultural, Training and Educational Spaces
A Renewal of Relationships with Knowledge
Edited by
Theodora BalmonBruno Garnier
First published 2023 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUKwww.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USAwww.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2023The rights of Theodora Balmon and Bruno Garnier to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2023942097
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-902-0
Presentation of the Authors
Theodora Balmon is a researcher in educational sciences at the Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM) and the Université de Corse Pasquale Paoli and a library curator. She is interested in adult education, learning, emancipation, lifelong and life-wide capacitation, inclusive education and educational public policies that are, in particular, beyond the school form.
Géraldine Barron is a curator of libraries and has a doctorate in history. She is assistant director of the library of the Université du Littoral Côte d’Opale (France) and a researcher associated with the ICT (Identités-Cultures-Territoires) (Identities-Cultures-Territories) laboratory at the Université de Paris. Her research focuses on maritime history, the history of techniques and museum collections of the 18th–20th centuries.
Corinne Baujard is a university professor in education and training sciences, director of the Proféor research team of the Centre interuniversitaire de recherche en éducation de Lille – CIREL (Interdisciplinary Center for Research in Education) laboratory and pedagogical director of the master’s degree (equivalent to master’s degree of the Quebec system) in educational work research (Université de Lille). She conducts scientific work on the transmission of cultural knowledge and educational learning in the digital environments of public and private organizations. Her recent research on museums, visitors’ access to exhibition spaces and professional identities in the cultural professions has been published in numerous scientific journals and in her own personal work and regularly presents at international conferences. She is regularly invited to foreign universities as a lecturer (Russia, Ukraine, Belgium, Morocco, Tunisia, Senegal).
Nathalie Bertrand is a certified teacher of literature and a field trainer in French for primary and secondary schools. Nathalie Bertrand has been teaching since 2009 at the Institut national supérieur du professorat et de l’éducation of the Université de Strasbourg, providing the initial training for students of the master’s degree in teaching, education and training. She is particularly interested in the links between schools and cultural partners in order to develop strong acculturative practices and to promote a new and engaging approach to reading and writing.
Rana Challah is a doctor in educational sciences. She is a postdoctoral researcher specialized in higher education pedagogy at the Université Gustave Eiffel in Paris and is also a professor in the Department of Education Sciences at Université Rennes 2. She is an associate member of CREAD (Centre de recherches sur l’éducation, les apprentissages et la didactique) (Center for Research on Education, Learning, and Didactics).
Sylvie Condette is a teacher-researcher in educational sciences at the Université de Lille (France), a member of the CIREL laboratory (EA 4354) and a researcher associated with LACES (EA 7437) (Laboratoire cultures, éducation, sociétés) (Culture, Education, and Societies Laboratory) at the Université de Bordeaux. Her work focuses on the ways in which the various actors of the educational community are involved in the life of the institution and the life of the city, in the French context and, more broadly, in a comparative approach. She is interested in school democracy and media education issues, mediation and non-violent conflict management, forms of collaboration and relational quality between educational actors and the development of human resources in the educational environment.
Denise Gisele de Britto Damasco teaches French as a foreign language at the Institute of Letters at the University de Brasilia (UnB) (Central Institute of Sciences – University of Brasilia). She holds a PhD in Education and is currently carrying out her post-doctoral research at the Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo – PUC-SP (Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo). Denise Gisele de Britto Damasco served as president of the Fédération brésilienne des professeurs de français – FBPF (Brazilian Federation of French Teachers) between 2018 and 2022. Currently, she is vice president of the FBPF.
Martine Derivry-Plard is a university professor of English studies and language sciences at the Université de Bordeaux. She is deputy director of the ECOr (Évaluation, comportements et organisations) (Evaluation, Behavior, and Organizations) Research Department, to which the LACES is attached. She is president of the association Transit-lingua (a network of researchers on plurilingualism and pluriculturalism) and co-ordinates the first bilingual network on intercultural mediation in language didactics of the Association internationale de linguistique appliquée – AILA (International Association of Applied Linguistics). Her areas of research and teaching include plurilingualism and pluriculturalism, language ideologies (native and non-native), the intercultural dimension of language teaching/learning and intercultural (tele)collaborations.
Mary Grace Flaherty is professor emeritus in the School of Information and Library Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She holds a PhD. in Information Science from Syracuse University, for which she was awarded an Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) Fellowship. She holds a Master of Library and Information Science (MLS) from the University of Maryland and a Master of Science (MS) in Behavioral Science from Johns Hopkins University. She was also a Fulbright Scholar in Malawi. Mary Grace Flaherty has extensive experience in a variety of information science fields and has published widely on the topic of libraries and health.
Bruno Garnier is a professor of education and training sciences, a researcher at the Unité Mixte de Recherche – UMR (Joint Research Unit) Centre national de recherche scientifique – CNRS (National Center for Scientific Research) Lieux, Identités, eSpaces et Activités – LISA (Places, Identities, eSpaces and Activities) 6240 at the Université de Corse Pasquale Paoli and an international researcher at Centre de recherche interuniversitaire sur la formation et la profession enseignante – CRIFPE (Interuniversity Research Center for Training and the Teaching Profession) in Montreal. He first studied literary translation before taking an interest in the history of political rhetoric in education at the UMR éducation et politiques (Louis Lumière Lyon 2), and then in the democratization of education and the relationship between diversity and equality in education.
Pascale Gossin is a lecturer in information and communication sciences. Pascale Gossin is assigned to a national teacher training institute. Her research interests include reception theory, children’s literature, reading didactics and librarianship.
Salma Itsmaïl is currently the director of a school in Marrakech, and has a PhD in education sciences from the Université de Corse Pasquale Paoli and the Université Cadi Ayyad in Marrakesh.
Alain Jaillet is a university professor at the Université de Cergy-Pontoise. His research focuses on educational technologies. He has developed several software programs for distance learning and digital environments in the school and university system (Liberscol, Audio-videocours, Acolad, E-Space, etc.).
Pierre Kahn is a professor emeritus at the Université de Caen Normandie. His research focuses on the cultural, social, epistemological and pedagogical issues of the history of education, and on secularism in and out of school.
Geneviève Lameul, a university professor, is co-director of the CREAD research laboratory at the Université of Rennes 2. A teacher-researcher in education and training, she is responsible for the Master 2 SIFA (Strategies and training engineering) and co-ordinates the Living Lab (research division) project Développement d’un enseignement supérieur à Rennes – DESIR (Development of higher education in Rennes).
Isabelle Lebrat is an associate professor of literature, with a doctorate in French literature, Institut national supérieur du professorat et de l’éducation – Inspé (National Institute for Higher Professorship and Education), Université de Strasbourg. Her research focuses on the didactics of poetry, on the use of voices and on reading aloud.
Régis Malet is a university professor in education and training sciences at the Université de Bordeaux. After having co-administered and then directed the LACES for more than six years, he was appointed in 2018 as a senior member of the Institut universitaire de France. Régis Malet is also president of the AFEC (Association francophone d’éducation comparée) (Francophone Association of Comparative Education) and editor-in-chief of the international research journal Éducation comparée since 2006. His areas of research and teaching include comparative and international education, educational policy analysis, teacher training, social inclusion and citizenship education, identity dynamics and educational and social management in intercultural settings.
Anik Meunier is a full professor in museology and education at UQAM, where she directs the GREM (Groupe de recherche sur l’éducation et les musées) (Education and Museum Research Group). She is interested in the field of cultural mediation, that is, in the analysis of the professional practices of the actors, the methods they use and their effects on the different categories of public. She is particularly concerned with mediation in heritage and museums, known as museum education. She leads numerous research projects funded by Canadian, Quebec and international research granting agencies, among others. She is also involved in various activities in the educational and museum fields, including the design and evaluation of museum education programs for teachers and students. The expertise she has developed over the years is reflected in her extensive list of scientific papers and publications.
Camille Roelens is a researcher at the Centre interdisciplinaire de recherche en éthique (Interdisciplinary Center for Research in Ethics) at the Université de Lausanne, an associate researcher at the CIREL Laboratory (Proféor team) at the Université de Lille, at ECP laboratory (Éducation, Cultures, Politiques/Education, Cultures, Policies) at the University of Lyon, at LIRFE laboratory (Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire de Recherche sur les Questions Vives en Formation et en Éducation/Interdisciplinary Research Laboratory on Live Issues in Training and Education) at the University of Angers, and a scientific collaborator of the CREN (Centre de Recherche en Éducation/Educational Research Center) in Nantes. Secretary of the French-speaking Société francophone de la philosophie de l’éducation. Co-secretary of the Association des enseignants et chercheurs en sciences de l’éducation, Membre du Rhodes (Francophone Network of Philosophy of Education in Praxis) and of the Ethical Research Group in Education and Training (Montreal). Recent publications are Manuel de l’autorité. La comprendre et s’en saisir, Chronique Sociale, Lyon, 2021; L’Autorité bienveillante dans la modernité démocratique,, Presses universitaires de Rouen et du Havre, Mont-Saint-Aignan, 2022.
Maurice Tardif † was a full professor in the Faculty of Education at the Université de Montréal. Maurice Tardif was at the origin of the creation of the Centre de recherche interuniversitaire sur la formation et la profession enseignante (CRIFPE) (Interuniversity Research Center for Training and the Teaching Profession) in 1993 and he directed it until 2005, then again from 2021 to 2022. For many years, he was interested in the evolution and working conditions of school personnel and teachers, as well as their training, interactions and professional knowledge. He published 30 books on these subjects. His work has been disseminated in 30 countries in French, English, Portuguese, Spanish, German, Arabic and Farsi. He was a visiting professor at several universities in Europe and Latin America. He was vice president of the CSSE (Canadian Society for the Study of Education), rector of the La Haute Ecole Pédagogique-BEJUNE, president of the research sector of the Commission des recteurs et directeurs des hautes écoles pédagogiques et des universités en Suisse romande (Commission of Rectors and Directors of Pedagogical Higher Education Institutions and Universities in French-speaking Switzerland), and a member for 10 years of the Canadian Commission on Education of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). He regularly intervened as an expert in educational organizations. He received several scientific awards, including the 2016 Whitworth Award from the Canadian Education Association and the 2008 Association francophone pour le savoir – ACFAS (Francophone Association for Knowledge) Marcel-Vincent Award. He was a fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences of the Royal Society of Canada from 2010. Recently on March 29, 2023, Professor Maurice Tardif was named member emeritus of the Ordre de l’excellence en éducation du Québec (Quebec Order of Excellence in Education).
Marion Trannoy Voisin is the head of mission for the requalification of the site of the citadel of Corte (Corsica). After having been responsible for the Americas and Polar Circle collections at the Muséum de Lyon, which became the Musée des Confluences from 2003 to 2009, she joined the Guiana Amazonian Park, one of the cultural development, before being appointed director of the Musée de la Corse until December 2020. Trained in anthropology and geography at the universities of Lyon (France), Fortaleza (Brazil) and Bordeaux (France), her work focuses on the processes and issues of heritage, as well as the modes of collaboration between institutions and local actors. She is also interested in questions of intercultural mediation, mechanisms of recognition of intangible heritage, Indigenous claims, forms of territorialization and museography.
Nathanaël Wadbled is a researcher associated with the Université de Lorraine, holds a doctorate in information and communication sciences, a master’s degree in history and philosophy and a professional license as a guide-lecturer.
Introduction The Cultural Spaces of Training, Danger or Opportunity for the School Form?
General problem
“When the frontier is well drawn, and there is no disputed ground between the two domains, no one is tempted to cross it,” said Jules Ferry in 1881 at the pedagogical congress, speaking of the necessity for the public school institution, to define its own space in distinction to the space occupied by Catholic education1. But as Jacqueline Gautherin commented, the frontier of which Jules Ferry spoke was to separate other geographical and symbolic territories, in accordance with the principle of secularism conceived “as a great division: on the one hand, the Republic, public institutions, the school, teachers, students, learned knowledge, and universal culture; on the other, the Churches, communities, families, children, vernacular knowledge, and particular cultures” (Gautherin 2005: 137, authors’ translation). Between these various bodies, Jules Ferry intended to draw a bitterly disputed border, economically and politically, supported by a State charged with emancipating the citizen from “particular and local groups that tended to absorb them, family, city, corporation” (Durkheim 1975, p. 177). Later, this boundary and these competing worlds in the vast terrain of education were fortified by sociology and the sciences of education, which from their inception reduced them to the categories of common sense (Elias 1991, p. 9), erecting their objects of study into essentially distinct categories: sociology of religions, of the family, of the school and political sociology.
The aim of this book, like the symposium from which it stems2, is to rethink these categories in a critical and comparative way on an international scale, in relation to the spaces of education and training, with a resolute emphasis on the cultural spaces of training outside the school institution as a whole, but not without interactions with it. This introduction is intended to present the key concepts and to recall the cross-cutting issues in a dialogical approach highlighting the links between the chapters that deal with different objects, methods, actors and audiences in a desire for thematic networking. Indeed, this book brings together, in various configurations, the problematic of the relationships to knowledge that the “cultural spaces of training” (Le Marec 2006, authors’ translation) authorize for the publics concerned and measures their effects in terms of emancipation and development of the people’s power to act. The international opening is intended to submit to comparison the French framework that is known to be particularly impregnated with the separation between the public school institution and other educational bodies, in the wake of the aforementioned frontier promoted by Jules Ferry at the end of the 19th century.
The temptation of a school-centered approach
The choice to escape the prism of a focus on the school can be based on the recent work of certain historians and sociologists of education who have resisted the still dominant tendency to systematically confuse the history of education with the history of the school, as, in fact, has long been the case in French historical publications on education3. There are two reasons for the prevalence of the school-centered approach in socio-historical studies. The first reason is the political importance of the school in France, which, since the French Revolution, has become a matter of State and a matter of school (Nique 1990). In addition, the construction throughout the 19th century of the educating State, which Jules Ferry completed in the 1880s, led to the undermining of the autonomy of non-school forms of education. The importance of school in education has since emerged as a historical reality (Garnier and Kahn 2016, p. 7).
A second reason can be given to account for the prominence of the school institution in historical, and also sociological studies of education, which helps to give this book its raison d’être, in reaction against this distorting prism: it is the construction of the concepts of school form and school culture.
It was Guy Vincent who first defined the school form in a landmark work (1980), based on the search for what is common in the school’s relationship with all students, at different times and in different countries, not only in France, but also throughout the modern West, from Europe to America, and even in China (Vincent 2009), drawing on the Weberian typology of the three forms of domination (legal-rational, traditional and charismatic) (Vincent 2000). In doing so, Guy Vincent noted the invariant characteristics of the school form since its origin in the classes of the Christian schools of the 16th century, theorized by Jean-Baptiste de La Salle in the following century. These invariant characteristics are of various kinds and reside in particular in a whole series of tools appropriate to the profession of schoolgirl and schoolboy, such as textbooks, notebooks, pens, chalk, slates, blackboards, desks, etc. Other characteristics are related to the methods used. Jean-Baptiste de La Salle enjoined us to proceed in our studies with a calculated slowness, to say only what was necessary and to avoid “haste and promptitude” in all things (La Salle 1951). However, much later, the organization of the three successive courses (elementary course, middle course, higher course) of the French public school, which are age classes, did not have as its meaning the deepening and extension of knowledge, but to come back again and again to the same questions, letting the principle of the Lassallian pedagogy persist: repetition and slowness (Vincent 1980, p. 41).
Cut off from the commercial world, in the school form, writing is no longer a merchant’s technique or a copyist’s art, but a means of learning to behave according to written rules, in contrast to the more ancient methods of learning by seeing and by hearsay, which are still dominant in societies that are not mainly concerned by the scriptural forms of socialization and by the centralization of political power. Through the school form, according to Guy Vincent, the child, by reading and writing, learns obedience, through rules that apply to all, to the teacher themself, for the teachers of Christian schools must speak as little as possible (Ariès 1973). The school form separates school times and spaces from those of personal, family and economic life. In its pure form, it sanctuaries the school space and transmits teaching content that is removed from the socioeconomic context of its environment and blind to the territories of life or origin of children and young people. Tending to conquer new domains, the school form spreads in higher education and even in learning linked to leisure activities, such as riding or skiing schools, which borrow its degrees, its qualifications and its planning according to age groups. Later, Guy Vincent observes that in several European countries, in the 19th century, with the elimination of the forms of education born with industrialization, notably mutual teaching, a school developed whose main function was political, and he concludes that the school form reinforced the norms of social life advocated by the political power in place (1995). This scrutiny allows us to define the school form as “the set and configuration of the constituent elements of what we call the school and, on the assumption that it is neither eternal nor universal, to investigate when and how this form was constituted” (Vincent 1980, p. 10, authors’ translation).
This temporal continuity of the school form is not, however, unanimously accepted by historians, some of whom have seen against it a series of radical breaks, in France, with the period of the Ancien Régime, in the reform projects of the Age of Enlightenment (Lelièvre 1990), in the French Revolution (Julia 1981), in the establishment of a State school (Chapoulie 2010), and, more recently, in the opening of the school to its environment, against the backdrop of the globalization of the economy. In order to reconcile the points of view, it must be admitted that the school form is rich in variations, over the centuries, but that it has remained a specific form of socialization, linked to a dedicated place and time, during a period that corresponds to the modern era of education and whose structure has not changed functionally, from Jean-Baptiste de La Salle to Jules Ferry, even in spite of the secularization of the public school that took place in the last quarter of the 19th century in France4, and perhaps even in part to the present day. It also remains true that the school form has become a normative model, despite its internal mutations under the impulse of the social and economic transformations of the 19th and 20th centuries, as well as the beginning of the 21st century. The notion of the school form has thus greatly contributed to reinforcing the tropism exercised by the school on educational issues.
Developed by André Chervel (1988), the concept of school culture also contributes to reinforcing the normative model of the school institution in terms of education, in two respects: first, the self-production by the school of the knowledge it teaches, and second, the social importance of this knowledge, which defines the very idea that we may have at a given moment of what general culture should be. In other words, “school culture” should be understood to mean not only access to the knowledge produced by the school, but knowledge produced by the school, and, more profoundly, its capacity to define, according to Octave Gréard’s famous formula (1882, pp. 63–64) what it is not permitted to ignore5.
Diversity issues at the risk of the school form
However, there are several indications and reasons that lead us today to move away from the tropism of the school form in order to study the policies and places of education. The first reason has to do with the differences that exist in the countries of the Western world in the relationship between the school form and other modalities of education and training outside or on the periphery of the school, such as families, religious, professional and associative communities, museums, libraries, places of leisure and the virtual spaces offered by the Internet and social networks, to which the coronavirus pandemic has given a considerable boost since 2020. It is certainly accepted, in most countries of the world, that school has two missions, and that these two missions are placed under the imperative need for justice: to provide everyone with the knowledge indispensable for life in our societies and to prepare individuals to assume specialized functions or, to put it more succinctly, functions of integration and differentiation (Touraine 1997; Sen 2000; Rosanvallon 2008; Maulini and Mugnier 2012). But the differences in the fulfillment of the school’s missions between countries are considerable and are based on different conceptions of the school’s relationship with training spaces outside it.
Many of the most significant differences are revealed by the way in which educational systems treat cultural minorities in the territories where they are located, and more specifically the place they give, in the students’ relationship to knowledge, to ethnic, cultural, linguistic, social and religious identities acquired outside the school. The importance given by the school institution to the teaching of children’s mother tongues or languages of origin in relation to that of the majority language or language of instruction is one of the markers of the degree of openness of the school to cultural knowledge acquired outside the school, within the family, in daily and social life, or in associations and religions. In this respect, the degree of porosity between the school form and other forms of learning by impregnation, osmosis and immersion of the person in their life setting describes great differences according to the regions of the world and their cultural, philosophical and political traditions. As a result of the harm caused by certain extreme positions of this cursor, sociolinguists have called “linguistic insecurity” the result produced on children by the lesser consideration given by the school to the language spoken in their family, in the street or in places of worship and collective life when it differs from the language of instruction, for example, for Maghrebian children living on both shores of the Mediterranean (Garnier 2014).
However, before school can form a social being in the individual (Durkheim 2006, p. 102), the individual’s territory of origin or residence has already forged cultural references that structure their identity and that require recognition and development through education in all its forms. In the French tradition of indifference to differences stemming from a holistic conception of citizenship, which has strongly colored the notion of school form in France, schools have long taken into account the different identities of students only within the framework of a patrimonial conception of the nation, which sees in the diversity of the territories of the Republic (including the colonies in the past) so many “small homelands” that favor the formal integration of the subject into the unitary national whole (Chanet 1996). But in the United States and Canada, and more generally, in the English-speaking world, the communities that make up the national fabric have become aware of the specificity of the identities they represent and are demanding “recognition” of them, particularly in terms of the right to an education in diversity, in and out of school. In these regions of the world, citizenship is much less formal and much more experiential, the citizen being a person capable of social action, of freely affiliating with collectives and of enjoying all the individual and collective freedoms related to their affiliations. This spread of personal and citizen identity, which goes back at least to the Anglo-Saxon philosophers Hobbes6 and Locke7, has reappeared noisily on the occasion of the fights led in the United States in the years 1950–1960 by the Black minorities or minority cultural groups. The common issue is the recognition of the identity of disadvantaged cultural minorities. Charles Taylor has attempted to theorize this claim to identity, beginning with the argument that “our identity is partly formed by recognition, or by the lack of it, or by the misperception of it by others” (Taylor 1994, p. 41, authors’ translation).
Expanding the education market in times of crisis
From then on, the school will have to reckon with this process undertaken outside it. Several authors have studied it, showing the diversity of territorial scales to which individuals can refer to find invariant characteristics, founders of their own identity (Soundjock 1981; Tiemele 2011). There are subnational territories, such as the neighborhood, the village, the region, or foreign national territories (especially for populations of immigrant origin), or supranational territories (e.g. religious territories, such as Islam, which is, however, a religion with a universalist vocation), not to mention identities that are not necessarily territorialized.
All identities attached to real or symbolic territories have their own dimension, the nature of which can be described as “cultural” (Průcha 2004, p. 121). All the places and environments of education outside the school form constitute the educational ecosystem of a person from birth, and they induce modalities of apprehension of the world and of relationship to knowledge – as to savoir-être – which structure their individual and collective identity and their capacity to act in the society where they live.
Once they have freed themselves from the tentacular grip of the school form in order to understand the facts and policies of education, the researcher concerned with the cultural spaces of training cannot, however, evacuate the question of the relationships between education in and out of school. Now, if the school form, according to Guy Vincent, is synonymous with uniformity throughout the territory of a nation and with formal equality of education for all school-going publics, this equation is, historically, quite recent. Compared to other educational spaces, it is not impossible that the school form finally constitutes a parenthesis of only a few centuries, so to speak. Since the economic crisis due to the oil shocks of 1973 and 1980, followed by a whole series of economic and social crises up to the time of writing, for different reasons, it could well be that the school form has begun to lose its luster. The governments of the Western democracies have had to change the relationship between schooling, labor market integration and territorial scales. The Rapport sur l’insertion professionnelle et sociale des jeunes (report on the professional and social integration of young people), drawn up in France by Bertrand Schwartz in 1981, was already based on the observation that the unemployment rate of young people exceeded that of adults, that the jobs they held were of short duration, that the number of young people having to deal with the law was increasing, as was the number of suicides. The report recommended restoring the pedagogical function of the training-production alternation, through a process of validation of school achievements for those who did not obtain a diploma and through the implementation of the individualized training project which should lead to a “professional and social qualification contract” (Schwartz 1981, authors’ translation). Bertrand Schwartz denounced the fact that the school form had conferred a central point on the school, on the periphery of which other educational actors gravitated without any real cohesion (local authorities, the world of work and the associative sector), and he considered that this configuration was about to mutate into “a complex set-up showing numerous contradictions, but also very forward-looking innovations”. The associative and local bodies that previously operated horizontally had to be fully integrated into the vertical culture of the school system through the establishment of territorial partnerships.
This was the initial point of a process of change in the school form, which gradually brought together, through the search for complementarity and partnerships, schools and public educational establishments, on the one hand, and sociocultural and economic actors, on the other hand (Van Zanten 2004). This was only the beginning of a process that brought into interaction the actors of the school and the sociocultural and economic actors of its environment. Breaking with a centuries-old tradition, teachers found themselves required to interact at the interface between several worlds (Derouet 2000).
The logic of the educating city is a new step. It is the city itself and the cultural, social and professional training bodies that it houses, subsidizes or supervises that become the framework of experience, being henceforth the place, and also the instance of socialization. According to the observations made in the United States in the 1980s, the leeway acquired by the various actors in defining cooperation and communication strategies responds to an “order of interaction”, which is a normative order. Since the early 2000s, the logic of the territorial educational project has been deployed, of which the city of education is a further step. Under these conditions, education is not only carried out in the city, it is carried out through the city and its cultural spaces, in particular museums and libraries (Vilarrasa et al. 2007), but also through virtual spaces, such as media libraries and multimedia supports: working on education means working on the city, with those in charge of urban and social policies, urban planners and the cultural, associative and economic fabric in all its diversity.
All of these training spaces, now multiplied by digital resources, are enough to make one dizzy and give the observer the impression of being placed in front of a nebula whose training objectives and democratic dimension are difficult to discern, in view of the extent of the educational market and the magnitude of the financial stakes that are hidden behind its innumerable actors. This proliferation leads, by feedback, to the reinvigoration, in the eyes of leading political forces, of the sanctuary of the school form preserved from the incursions of mercantile and ideological pressure groups of all kinds. A little clarity is needed as to the criteria of educational and democratic validity of cultural training spaces, which could give rise to criteria for labeling, and this is not the least of the objectives of this book. This objective requires an effort to clarify some key concepts, or rather families of systemic concepts that are closely linked to one another. Here are two of them, among, no doubt, a few others to be discovered in the body of the book.
Challenges of hypermodernity: literacy and empowerment
First, the requirements for “literacy” are multiple and constantly increasing. It should be specified here that, among the fundamental components of any capacity to act (or empowerment), the ability to understand and use information in everyday life, at home, at work, in the community, is in first place. It is information that is most often written, perhaps even more often than in the past through the mediation of the Internet, that we must apprehend and interpret, assimilate, that is, make one’s own in order to appropriate it and make a controlled and constructive use of it. This ability is called “literacy”, because it goes beyond the ability to read and write that is usually called “literacy” and can also be applied to the omnipresent audiovisual languages. However, the territories of life or origin, as well as the temporal axis – life paths, school paths, professional paths, paths in society – are producers of inequalities in the learning acquired, particularly in the level of “literacy” of the person. It is not just a question of differences, but of inequalities in access to audiovisual information and scriptural knowledge. Since Pierre Bourdieu’s and Jean-Claude Passeron’s justly famous work on the reproduction of social inequalities by the school (1970), whose continuators now fill entire libraries, very little has been written about the resilience, or even the reparation, that non-formal educational spaces are likely to offer to those defeated by meritocratic selection, in order to restore a relationship with knowledge that is useful for the development of their “social and professional action”. This democratic imperative seems all the more imperative as lifelong learning modalities, outside the time of initial training, and the validation of acquired experience are now advocated throughout the world.
These other modalities of learning concern individuals of various statuses, as much pupils and students as teachers, professionals and, in reality, any citizen, and they are crossed by hypermodern mediations.. This expression, used in this book by Anik Meunier and Camille Roelens (section 7.1), designates a set of complex resources, ruptures, and also perhaps autonomy, creativity and solidarity, which itself is part of hypermodernity:
The hypermodern world is thus characterized by the exponential multiplication both of the type of mediations necessary to construct oneself as a human subject in a world of culture, and of the diversity of the proposals of mediations that an individual can be led to meet and to seize. In other words, when individual autonomy becomes the keystone of the functioning of societies, it affects both the matter and the way of mediation understood as an essential activity of the human being as a cultural being. It affects in fine the way in which authority [...] can be exercised, certainly in the professions of cultural mediation, in the school or in the museum, in particular, but also more widely across the whole broad spectrum of formal and non-formal education today (Roelens 2021, authors’ translation).
Let us specify here that the postmodern current conveyed tendencies towards disenchantment, pessimism, and skepticism with regard to the values inherited from the Enlightenment. Habermas spoke of “entering the anarchist clearing of postmodernity, where everything is unraveled and where the refusal of univocal representations of the world, of totalizing visions, of dogmas, of imputations of meaning is affirmed” (Habermas 1988, authors’ translation). On the contrary, the current that can be called hypermodern represents, if not an overcoming, at least a new impulse towards a modernity more liberated from ideological, psychological, aesthetic inhibitions; this is true both in individuals and in the global society (Tapia 2012, p. 7).
In this conceptual framework, the present times are characterized by ways of feeling and thinking here and at a distance, which reflect a state of the conditions of the individual’s relationship to the world within a sociocultural collective. Linked to the mode of existence of the objects and the men and of their relations, the forms of sensory perception and intellectual apprehension reveal the processes of subjectivation: they are shaped by the economic, technological and cultural transformations of an era now marked by the globalization of connections, and also by the threat that this globalization poses to humanity in its diversity (Haroche 2012, p. 6) and to the possibility of a social bond between citizens who increasingly think of themselves as individuals with special needs. Can the school form remain indifferent to such changes, and should it not incorporate the ways of relating to knowledge that non-formal training spaces offer to their users?
Thus, education, in all its forms, is supposed to put each person, at their level, with their resources, networks, and also constraints, in a position to face this new configuration. Now, according to the democratic requirement, each person must be able to interact with it, to contribute to it. Faced with this observation, how can we think of a system that is sufficiently inclusive, that favors knowledge and capacitation, that effectively contributes to socialization? The school and university form, an undisputed success that has conquered many fields of society, is struggling to respond to these new dynamics, not because of reluctance or disapproval, but because of its very structure. Could cultural institutions, museums, libraries, historical and environmental sites, long-time partners of the school, have a role to play in initiating and assisting substantial transitions?
Knowledge and methods: educational concepts to be clarified
Second, the study of cultural spaces of training outside the school form requires a clarification of the methods of acquiring knowledge and of the status of this knowledge itself, insofar as this book envisages new paradigms of education and learning, theoretical and experiential; empirical and reflexive.
A series of definitions have been proposed for at least the last 50 years. Informal education has been described as “the process by which a person acquires and accumulates knowledge, skills, attitudes, and concepts during their lifetime, through daily experience and relationships with the environment”; while in contrast, formal education is an “institutionalized, chronologically graded, and hierarchically structured system of education that extends from elementary school to university”. In between, non-formal education is presented as “all educational and systematic activity conducted outside the formal system to provide different types of learning to particular groups of the population, both adults and children” (ACCT 1985, authors’ translation).
There are a multitude of problems with these definitions. The texts of UNESCO and other international bodies provide such definitions according to the programs that member countries intend to fund, not according to research of scientific truth. From these fluctuating economic orientations, it follows that formal and non-formal education are sometimes processes, sometimes programs or institutions, while the adjective “informal” sometimes qualifies a modality of access to knowledge, sometimes the knowledge itself. However, if we define the first two terms as programs or institutions, it is clear that they are mutually exclusive concepts. On the contrary, if we consider formal, non-formal and informal education as modes of learning, it becomes possible to see them functioning simultaneously or alternatively rather than as separate entities. This is what has made it possible, for example, to associate formal learning with informal learning in a search for complementarity in lifelong learning programs (La Belle Thomes 1982). One of the semantic difficulties in using the word informal is that it cannot be applied equally to the process and to the products (knowledge or learning as outcome). It is questionable to assimilate these two meanings by considering that informal learning can only produce informal knowledge (Maulini and Montandon 2005). Considered as a result of learning, knowledge resulting from informal processes can thus claim a cognitive status equivalent to knowledge resulting from formal learning. Is knowledge only self-aware, in other words, inscribed in a metadiscourse (Bier et al. 2010, p. 201)?
This is also what has made it possible to think that in school, there is the formal teaching of the teacher, and also non-formal education through organized cultural activities or “education for” which aim at knowing how to be as much as knowing how to do (Barthes and Alpe 2012, authors’ translation) and an informal education through interpersonal contacts. The porosity between this new modality of the school form (but is it still the “school form”?) and the cultural spaces of non-school training is perhaps one of the criteria for the validity of such spaces to nourish, enrich and repair certain dysfunctions that appeared in the last quarter of the 20th century, during the transformations of the school form. First, successive education policies have led to the juxtaposition of two organizational systems, one bureaucratic (with steering by a hierarchical center), and the other post-bureaucratic (where professionals are incited to take responsible initiatives at the local level) with the concern to modernize the relationship with “users”, parents and students, by considering their individual characteristics and their personal claims Second, developments linked to certain problems of students (absenteeism, indiscipline, school failure, dropping out of school). Finally, the school form has become more porous to the injunctions of society (Derouet and Dutercq 2004, p. 1).
Ultimately, it appears that inclusion and capacitation are key drivers of these different paradigms that call for inter-institutional (school/cultural), inter-professional (teacher/mediator) and sometimes hybridization collaboration. These orientations are taking shape through research and educational experiments conducted in places and environments with a high community and epistemic value: museums, libraries, and also primordial actors today, even more than yesterday, such as historical and environmental sites. There is also a change of perspective where the school is no longer systematically at the center of the educational dynamic. Thus, the center–periphery distribution is not fixed and follows the path of the educational project of each and everyone.
Structure of the book
The primary purpose of this book is to study the relationships to knowledge induced by the articulations between the school form and the cultural spaces of training, as well as their effects on the professional identity of the actors concerned, through a historical, pedagogical and philosophical perspective. The book has received critical contributions opened by Jürgen Habermas’ definition of the library as a space of inter-comprehension for political dialogue (1987), here applied to other cultural spaces of training. Other questions are raised here: if Daniel Urrutiaguer was able to apply the concept of “third place” to libraries (2018), under what conditions can such a criterion be applied to other informal or non-formal training places and settings? How can we verify and evaluate that the ease of access to knowledge supports in such spaces implements different relationships to knowledge than those practiced in school?
The second purpose of the book is the critical study of pedagogical practices, in a comparative approach between different cultural training spaces, such as libraries, media libraries, museums and historical sites, places of heritage, history and entertainment and even virtual spaces, such as social networks and multimedia supports. What new pedagogical practices are made possible by the school’s contact with cultural training spaces? For what purposes and in what ways can these spaces be places of teacher training?
In order to deal with the multiple aspects of the problem, this book is made up of four parts, in which researchers from France, Canada, the United States, Brazil, Morocco and Switzerland have worked. Each part is briefly introduced by the coordinator who has accepted the responsibility for it.
The first part, entitled “The Cultural Spaces of Knowledge”, coordinated and introduced by Régis Malet, deals with the new ways of sharing knowledge between different training spaces and groups of actors from an educational community perspective. These considerations allow for a critical review of the very notion of the school form and its capacity to describe the new issues at stake in the relationship between the school and its educational environments.
The second part, coordinated by Anik Meunier and entitled “Museums and the School Form: What are the Interactions?” This part also takes into consideration the sometimes biased relationships between actors of non-school training spaces and teachers of school disciplines.
The third part, coordinated by Denise Damasco, under the title “Reading and Cultural Mediation”, focuses on the status of reading and the acquisition of literacy skills through book mediators in schools.
Finally, Sylvie Condette coordinates the fourth part of the book entitled “Informal Learning, Formal Learning, Hybrid Training”. This part emphasizes the combination, and even the intertwining, of learning modalities, from elementary school to higher education, in particular.
In addition to these four main parts, the critical points of view and counterpoints by Maurice Tardif and Alain Jaillet are appended, offering some perspectives to be explored in greater depth, as well as a conclusion summarizing the results. Finally, the authors’ notes complete this book.
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