Culture and Crisis Communication E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: IEEE PCS Professional Engineering Communication Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 712

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

A collection of case studies from nonwestern countries that offers an analysis of the significant role culture plays in crisis communication Culture and Crisis Communication presents an examination of how politics, culture, religion, and other social issues affect crisis communication and management in nonwestern countries. From intense human tragedy to the follies of the rich, the chapters examine how companies, organizations, news outlets, health organizations, technical experts, politicians, and local communities communicate in crisis situations. Taking a wider view than a single country's perspective, the text contains a cross-cultural and cross-country approach. In addition, the case studies offer valuable lessons that organizations that wish to operate or are operating in those cultures can adopt in preparing and managing crises. The book highlights recent crisis events such as Syria's civil war, missing Malaysia Flight MH370, andJapan's Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant disaster. Each of the case studies examines how culture impacts communication and responses to crises. Authoritative, insightful, and instructive, this important resource: * Analyzes how nonwestern cultures respond to crises * Covers the role of culture in crisis communication in recent news events * Includes contributions from 18 international authors who provide insight on nonwestern culture and crisis communication Written for communication professionals, academics, and students, Culture and Crisis Communication presents an insightful introduction to the topic of culture and crisis communication and then delves into illustrative case studies that explore intra-cultural and trans-boundary crisis communication.

Leseprobe

Copyright © 2017 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

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ISBN: 978-1-119-00975-7

To our students of global and crisis communication, who, spanning many cultures and boundaries, yearn for an understanding of, and emphasis on, culture in crises. And to communication practitioners everywhere who constantly contend with crisis and conflict situations that challenge their abilities and professional deontology. We hope that the cases and tips provided in this book will bring some welcome reprieve!

Amiso M. George & Kwamena Kwansah-Aidoo

CONTENTS

A Note from the Series Editor

Author Biographies

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Part I: Introduction

Setting the Scene 1: Communication, Culture and Crisis in a Transboundary Context

Chapter Preview

Introduction: An Ever-Intertwining World

Culture, Crisis, and Transboundariness

Crisis, Communication, and Culture

Paying Attention to Cultural Specificities

Organization of This Volume

Conclusion: The Value of Transboundary Crisis Case Studies from Nonwestern Societies

References

Part II: Africa

Egypt 2: Dealing with Political and Cultural Crisis in a Troubled Middle East Region

Chapter Preview

Introduction: Overview of Egypt

Situation Analysis: 2011: A Year of Hope and Despair

Research on Crisis in Egypt

The Case of the Ousted Morsi, the Last Caliph-President of Egypt

Official Response of the Egyptian Government

Outcome of the Government’s Response and Initiatives

Practical Suggestions or Action Plans for Resolving the Crisis

Lessons to be Learned for Crisis Communication

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

References

Ghana 3: Embarrassing the Nation to Pay Brazil: The Ghana Black Stars Player Revolt at the 2014 FIFA World Cup

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Ghana: The People and Relevant Cultural Dimensions

Ghanaian Culture and Crisis Communication

“Show Us the Money or We Won’t Play”: When Trust Evaporates

Situational Analysis

Response to the Crisis

Dancing to the Cultural Tune: How Culture Influenced the Response

Outcome of the Crisis

What Should Have Been Done: Learning for the Future

Practical Suggestions for Interested Parties

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Notes

References

Nigeria 4: Containing Ebola in Nigeria: Lessons in Effective Risk and Crisis Communication

Chapter Preview

Background on Nigeria

Background of Crisis Communication Research/Practice

Role of Culture in Crisis Communication Practice in Nigeria

Case Study: The Ebola Crisis

Stakeholders

Nigerian Government Response

Culture’s Influence on the Response

Outcome of the Ebola Crisis Communication Campaign

Positive Lessons

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

References

South Africa 5: Killing in the Name of “Stolen” Jobs: The April 2015 Xenophobic Attacks in South Africa

Chapter Preview

Introduction: South Africa and Its Culture

Culture and Crisis Communication

Case Study: Pack Your Bags and Go Home

Situational Analysis

Xenophobia or Not? How the South African Government Responded to the Attacks

Enter King Goodwill Zwelithini, the Zulu Chief

Outcome of the Government’s Response

Transboundary Reactions

How Culture Influenced the Government’s Response

Xenophobia in South Africa: A Disconnect Between Perception and Reality?

The Reality on the Ground

Lessons Learned and Practical Suggestions

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

References

Part III: Asia/Euro-Asia

China and Taiwan 6: One Crisis, Two Responses: A Transboundary Analysis of the Melamine-Tainted Milk Powder Crisis in China and Taiwan

Chapter Preview

Background and Purpose

A Brief Background of Mainland China and Taiwan

Chinese Culture and Crisis Communication

Background to the Melamine-Tainted Milk Powder Crisis

Case Study

Responses to the Crisis

Power Relations that Influence the Practice of Crisis Communication

Practical Implications

Discussion Questions

Acknowledgment

References

India 7: They Came by Boat: The 2008 Terrorist Attack on Mumbai

Chapter Preview

Background: India and Its Immediate Neighbor, Pakistan

Culture and Crisis Communication

Case Study: 2008 Mumbai Terrorist Attacks

Stakeholders

Responses of the Indian Government

Relationship Between Culture and Crisis Response

Positive and Negative Lessons Learned

Practical Suggestions

Discussion Questions

References

Indonesia 8: Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Rukun: Managing the Transboundary Haze Crisis in Indonesia

Chapter Preview

Brief Overview of Indonesia and Its Culture

Background of Crisis Communication in Indonesia

Role of Culture in Crisis Communication Practice in Indonesia

Case Study: The 2013 Transboundary Haze Crisis

Response by the Local and National Governments

How Culture Influenced the Indonesian Government’s Response

Outcome of the Transboundary Haze Crisis

Lessons Learned and Practical Suggestions

Discussion Questions

References

Japan 9: Culture as Crisis Communication: Tokyo Electric Power Company and the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Disaster

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Culture and Crisis Communication

Opportunity and Problem Statements

Outcomes of the Crisis

Outcomes Assessment

Lessons Learned

Discussion Questions

References

Kazakhstan 10: Understanding the Zhanaozen Crisis Through the Intercultural Lenses of Eurasianism in Kazakhstan

Chapter Preview

A Brief Overview of Kazakhstan and Kazakhstani Culture

Culture and Crisis Communication: The Concepts of Eurasia and Eurasianism

Crisis Time: The Zhanaozen Uprising

Situational Analysis: The Different Voices

The Official Response to the Zhanaozen Crisis

Outcome of the Crisis: Oralmans’ Problem

Conclusion: Lessons Learned

Practical Suggestions

Discussion Questions

Notes

References

Malaysia 11: “Almost Without a Trace”: Missing Flight MH370, Culture and Transboundary Crisis Communication in the Era of Social Media

Chapter Preview

Introduction and Background

Cultural Context and Crisis Communication

Crisis Communication in Malaysian Culture

Background of Malaysia Airlines

Into Thin Air: The Disappearance of Flight MH370

Crisis Stakeholder Audience

Dealing with an Unprecedented Event: How the Government and MAS Responded

MAS Strategies and Tactics

Some Early Communication Mistakes

What MAS Did Right (After the Initial Missteps)

The Role of Culture in the Response

Doing a Few Things Differently Could Have Helped

Valuable Lessons for the Future

Practical Suggestions for Interested Parties

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

References

Singapore 12: Cultural Impediment or Reflection of Global Phenomenon: State of Social Media Crisis Preparedness in Singapore

Chapter Preview

Brief Overview: Singapore and Its Working Culture

Background of Crisis Communication Research

Role of Culture on Crisis Communication Practice

Case Study: The 2011 Subway Crisis

Situational Analysis

Response of the Organizations

Culture’s Influence on Response

Lessons Learned and Practical Suggestions

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

References

South Korea 13: Going Nuts Over Nuts: The Korean Air Ramp Return Crisis

Chapter Preview

Overview of Korea and Its Culture

South Korean Chaebol and Its Culture

Role of Culture in Crisis Communication Practice

The Crisis: Korean Air “Nut Rage” Case

Objectives of the Crisis Communication

Response from Korean Air: From Bad to Worse

Consequences: Losing It All

Effect of Culture on Korean Air’s Crisis Communication Practice

Lessons Learned

Practical Suggestions

Discussion Questions

References

Part IV: Middle East

Syria 14: A Battle for Hearts and Minds: Dealing with Syria’s Intractable Humanitarian Catastrophe

Chapter Preview

Introduction: Overview of Syria and Its Culture

Researching and Communicating the Syrian Crisis

The Syrian Crisis: Child of the Arab Spring?

People on the Move: A Forced Migration of Epic Proportions

Situational Analysis

Response to the Refugee Situation

Media and the Refugee Crisis

Some Emerging Matters of Concern

Charting a way Forward Through This Maze of a Crisis

Conclusion: Battling for Hearts and Minds in a Crisis Beyond Borders

Discussion Questions

References

Turkey 15: “Nothing Will Ever Be the Same”: The Borusan Case and the Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Crisis in Turkey

Chapter Preview

Overview of Turkish Cultural Identities

Crisis Communication in Turkey: Reflections from Academia and Practice

The Role of Turkish Culture in Crisis Communication Practice

The Borusan Crisis: Nothing Will Ever Be the Same Again

Apologetic Response from Borusan

The Influence of Culture on Borusan’s Response

Assessment of Outcome in Borusan Crisis

Lessons Learned

Remarks on the Borusan Crisis Communication Process

Practical Suggestions

Discussion Questions

Acknowledgments

References

Part V: Latin America

Brazil 16: Gone with the Mud: Learning from the Niterói Disaster in Brazil

Chapter Preview

Brazilian History and Political System

Brazilian Cultural Dimensions

Culture and Politics: Being a Politician Has Its Privileges

Home Ownership and Politics

Culture and Crisis Communication

The Case: Bumba Hill, Niterói—Gone with the Mud

Bumba Hill: Decades-Old Problems

Crisis: Government Response

Outcome of the Crisis

What Should Have Been Done and Potential Outcomes

Lessons Learned

Discussion Questions

References

Colombia and Guatemala 17: When Conflict Shifts: An Analysis of Chiquita Brandsʼ Transnational Crises in Colombia and Guatemala

Chapter Preview

Introduction

Cross-National Conflict Shifting Theory (CNCS)

Case Study—Chiquita Brands and Its Transnational Crisis Originated in Colombia

Case Study—Chiquita Brands and Its Transnational Crisis Originated in Guatemala

Chiquita’s Responses to the Crises

How the Chiquita Crisis Fits as a CNCS

A Glocal Response to Chiquita’s Crises

Practical Suggestions/Actions Plans

Discussion Questions

References

Part VI: Conclusion

Looking Ahead 18: Planning for Crisis Communication Across Cultural and Transboundary Contexts

Chapter Preview

Introduction: The Certainty of Crisis and the Need for Planning

Crisis Defined

The Crisis Communication Plan

Conclusion: The Value of Planning

Acknowledgements

References

Appendix A: Sample Crisis Plan

Appendix B: Public Relations Crisis Tool Kit

Appendix C: Administrative Crisis Response Scenario: Internal Facility Disaster

Appendix D: Incident Report Form

Appendix E: Holding Statement

Appendix F: Initial Media Statement

Appendix G: Crisis Communications Roles and Responsibilities

Appendix H: Sample Media Contact Log

Appendix I: Media Statement

Appendix J: Key Message

Index

EULA

List of Tables

Table 4.1 Key Dates in the Ebola Crisis in Nigeria

Table 6.1 Comprehensive Typology of Crisis Communication Strategies (CCSs) Developed by Huang, Lin, and Su, with More Chinese Characteristics.

Table 6.2 Major Events in the Melamine-Tainted Milk Powder Crisis Tabulated Against the Crisis Communication Strategies (CCSs) Adopted by Sanlu.

Table 6.3 Major Events in the Melamine-Tainted Milk Powder Crisis Tabulated Against the Crisis Communication Strategies (CCSs) Adopted by KingCar.

Table 8.1 Key Players in the Crisis

Table 13.1 Stakeholder Breakdown

Table 18.1 Audiences, Stakeholders, and Partners in a Crisis Situation

List of Illustrations

Figure 4.1 Ebola poster, English version. Posters such as this were released in affected countries. This photo came to the author courtesy of Dr. Ngowari Okara, Braithwaite Memorial Hospital, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. Similar versions for download can be found online at the United States’ Center for Disease Control, where many versions of Ebola posters and outreach can be located (http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/resources/posters.html). UNICEF also has a version of this poster (https://www.unicefusa.org/stories/how-unicef-helps-prevent-ebola-liberia/19036).

Figure 6.1 Graphic depiction of the Crisis Communication Strategies (CCSs) adopted by Sanlu. Sanlu’s strategies started off with denial, provocation, bolstering, defeasibility, before ending up with an apology. Sanlu’s first strategy was to deny the accusation leading to inconsistency in their crisis response. This diminished both the credibility of Sanlu’s arguments and the public’s trust. Overall, Sanlu’s reaction to the crisis was typically passive.

Source

: Lyu 2012 [4]. Reproduced with permission of Springer.

Figure 6.2 Graphic depiction of the Crisis Communication Strategies (CCSs) adopted by KingCar. KingCar’s strategies moved from accommodation to defense in contrast to Sanlu. KingCar began handling the crisis by being proactive and holding an emergency media conference. This was viewed by the public as taking ownership of and responsibility for the crisis, with the company’s performance being praised by the media and recognized by the public.

Source

: Lyu 2012 [4]. Reproduced with permission of Springer.

Figure 6.3 Relationships among government, media, and corporations in Taiwan. In Taiwan (the government) seldom directly interferes with corporations or the media. Taiwanese media are more independent and play a role in monitoring both the government and corporations. The Taiwanese government tends to give corporations implicit support when they face crises rather than direct them or take charge of the situation.

Figure 6.4 Relationships among government, media, and corporations in Mainland China. Media outlets in Mainland China lack independence and autonomy and often function as government mouthpieces. Corporations also tend to be tightly controlled by the government, which means that during times of crisis, they tend to wait for the government to take the lead or to direct them in how to respond to the crisis, making it impossible to be proactive.

Figure 11.1 First media statement, published on the MAS website confirming the loss of flight MH370 [25]. At 7:24 a.m., on Saturday, March 8, about 6 hours after the last communication with the plane, Malaysia Airline’s made its first public acknowledgement of the aircraft’s disappearance. This was in the form of a media statement posted on its website, Facebook, Twitter account, and Weibo. Although the time of the statement was 7:24 a.m., the actual post time was much later at 8:12 a.m. This was a basic incident report published in English and Mandarin. Screenshot by Melissa Agnes, Crisis Management Strategist, in her 2014 analysis of Malaysia Airline’s crisis response to MH370 which can be found at: http://melissaagnes.com/malaysia-airlines-crisis-communications-flight-mh370/ [27]. Used with permission.

Figure 11.2 MH370 Facebook page (left) and Twitter+Hashtag (right). Once MH370 was confirmed lost, the airline activated its “dark site,” and removed all appearances of business as usual, in order to convey the severity of the crisis. All the company’s social media, Twitter (hashtag #MASalert) and Facebook, that provided updates and responded to media stories and corrected innuendoes and rumors, reflected the seriousness of the situation. Screenshot by Melissa Agnes, Crisis Management Strategist, in her 2014 analysis of Malaysia Airline’s crisis response to MH370 which can be found at: http://melissaagnes.com/malaysia-airlines-crisis-communications-flight-mh370/ [27]. Used with permission.

Figure 11.3 Image of text message from Malaysia Airlines to families of flight passengers and crew from the

Daily Mirror

of London [33]. Sixteen days after Flight MH370 disappeared, MAS sent official communication to the family members of the 238 passengers through text message, notifying them that their loved ones were presumed dead. This mode of communication was heavily criticized as being insensitive. Screenshot from CNN Breaking News on Twitter (@CNNbrk) on March 24, 2014.

Figure 11.4 Image of Malaysian women writing messages on the MH370

Wall of Hope

at the Airport in Kuala Lumpur. One of the things that MAS did in the early days after the disappearance of MH370, was to create a

Wall of Hope

at the airport with the hashtag #MH370. While there was no evidence that connected the Wall communication to online conversation streams about the tragedy, the Wall was seen as one of the positive steps that MAS took in the aftermath of the initial announcement. Picture purchased from Alamy.com. Used with permission.

Figure 13.1 A bow of apology. Bowing EVP Cho. Former Korean Air Vice President Cho Hyun-ah bows in apology after she appeared for questioning at the West Seoul branch of the Supreme Prosecutors’ Office on December 17, 2014.

Source

: Kim 2014 [14]. Reproduced with permission of The Hankyoreh.

Figure 13.2 Korean Air apology. Here is the direct wording, in Korean, for the apology advertisement placed in most Korean newspapers by Korean Air [17] and its English translation. Translation provided by the authors.

Figure 16.1 Cleanup efforts after the slide. The devastating mud slide buried neighborhoods, houses, and families without remorse. The efforts to clean up the debris from the slide can be seen here. Reproduced with permission of Evaldo Fernandes.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

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A Note from the Series Editor

The IEEE Professional Communication Society (PCS), with Wiley-IEEE Press, continues its book series titled Professional Engineering Communication with a volume collected guided and shaped by Amiso M. George and Kwamena Kwansah-Aidoo titled Cultureand Crisis Communication: Transboundary Cases from Nonwestern Perspectives. In the field of risk communication, there are few sustained, focused collections about practices from a nonwestern perspective. This book aims to fill that gap and show everyone how communication is, foremost, always contextualized and never inert.

With the knowledgeable and steady vision provided by the book's editors, who also contributed to writing chapters, this tome will help anyone unpack assumptions and presumptions about appropriate actions to take while (sometimes literally) in the eye of the storm. From intense human tragedy to the follies of the rich, these chapters examine how companies, organizations, news outlets, health organizations, technical experts, politicians, and local communities communicate in crisis situations.

As with other books in this series, we aim to do more than theorize. Thus, each chapter provides lessons learned, discussion questions for interactive training, and some expert opinions. Use these resources to enrich your own thinking about the complexity of international and intra-national communication when an emergency is at hand.

When this book series began, we were looking for a collection that could address these issues, and here it is. The series has a mandate to explore areas of communication practices and application as applied to the engineering, technical, and scientific professions. Including the realms of business, governmental agencies, academia, and other areas, this series has and will continue to develop perspectives about the state of communication issues and potential solutions when at all possible.

While theory has its place (in this book and this series), we always look to be a source where recommendations for action and activity can be found. All of the books in the fast-growing PEC series keep a steady eye on the applicable while acknowledging the contributions that analysis, research, and theory can provide to these efforts. You will see Brewer's active synthesis between on-site realities and research coming together. There is a strong commitment from the Professional Communication Society of IEEE and Wiley to produce a set of information and resources that can be carried directly into engineering firms, technology organizations, and academia alike.

For the series, we work with this philosophy: at the core of engineering, science, and technical work is problem solving and discovery. These tasks require, at all levels, talented and agile communication practices. We need to effectively gather, vet, analyze, synthesize, control, and produce communication pieces in order for any meaningful work to get done. This book, like others in the series before it, contributes deeply to that vision.

Traci Nathans-Kelly, Ph.D.

Author Biographies

 Dila Beisembayeva (M.A., Unitec, New Zealand) is a lecturer at the Department of Computing in the Unitec Institute of Technology, New Zealand. Originally from Kazakhstan, Beisembayeva's interests include social media, national identity, and censorship in authoritarian states such as China, Russia, and Kazakhstan. Her international communication master's thesis explored the impact of online political activism on political process in Kazakhstan. She has presented papers at conferences in Ireland, Japan, and Canada. Email: [email protected]

 Ronald Carr (M.F.A., University of California, Los Angeles) is an associate professor and director of the Communication Studies Department, with specialization in broadcasting and documentary filmmaking, at Temple University, Japan. He is also executive producer of Global Lives, Asia, and of Urban Villages, a recent Temple University-funded project that brings awareness and solutions to serious issues plaguing Asian urban communities. Professor Carr has produced stories on disaster relief in Manila, Philippines, and the struggles facing informal settlers, and on nuclear energy crisis following the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. His projects have taken him to far-flung places such as Beirut, Sapporo, Damascus, and Varnasse. He resides in Tokyo with his family. Email: [email protected]

 Christabel Reena David (BComms (Hons), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore) is a senior consultant at DeVries Global. To date, she has worked on several accounts, including Head & Shoulders, SK-II Local and Global, Prestige Fine Fragrances, Samsonite, and CÉ LA VI Singapore. She has experience in both regional and local work such as media relations, traditional and social media communication strategy, event execution, and regional toolkit creation. David graduated from Nanyang Technological University's Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information in 2014, specializing in public relations. She worked on creating awareness among youths for social enterprises for her final year project and on a paper on social media crisis communication in Singapore. Email: [email protected]

 Uttaran Dutta (Ph.D., Purdue University) is an assistant professor in the Hugh Downs School of Human Communication, Arizona State University, USA. His research interest includes intercultural communication, communication for social change, indigenous and folk culture, and visual communication. He has published in several peer-reviewed journals including Qualitative Health Research, Journal of International Communication, and Communication Design Quarterly. Email: [email protected]

 Amiso M. George (Ph.D., Ohio University; Accredited in Public Relations by the Public Relations Society of America [PRSA]; Fellow, PRSA) is an associate professor of strategic communication at Texas Christian University (TCU), Fort Worth, Texas. She is former chair of the Strategic Communication Department and former director of the graduate program at TCU, where she coaches the award-winning PRSSA Bateman team. George also directed the Public Relations program at the Reynolds School of Journalism, University of Nevada, Reno, where she developed and taught the first course in crisis communication. She was a visiting professor of strategic communication at Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia, in 2012. Before entering academia, George worked as a journalist and freelance broadcaster in radio and television at Nigerian Television Authority, Voice of America international radio network (Africa Service), and WOUB Radio in Athens, Ohio. She also served as a consultant for C-SPAN-Television, Washington, D.C. In addition to journal articles and book chapters on crisis communication, she is the co-editor of Crisis Communication: An International Perspective on Hits and Misses (Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 2012) and Race, Gender and Other Minorities: Readings for Professional Communicators (Cognella, 2012). She consults in risks and crisis communication. Email: [email protected]; Twitter: @tampriye

 Yi-Hui Christine Huang (Ph.D., University of Maryland) is a professor at the School of Journalism and Communication in the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Previously, she taught at School of Communication in National Chengchi University in Taiwan and as a visiting professor in the Negotiation Program at Harvard University Law School. Her research interests include cross-cultural communication and relationship management, crisis communication, conflict and negotiation, public relations management, and communication studies in China. She has received distinguished public relations research awards from the National Communication Association, USA; National Science Council, R.O.C.; and Research Chair Professorship Award by the National Chengchi University in Taiwan. A recipient of numerous top paper awards and teaching awards at various international conferences, including the International Communication Association, Dr. Huang has also served on the editorial boards of major international SSCI journals in communication and public relations, including Journal of Public Relations Research, Asian Journal of Communication, and International Journal of Strategic Communication. She is associate editor-in-chief and editorial board member of major Chinese TSSCI scholarly publications, including Chinese Journal of Communication Research. She has also served as the vice president and the secretary-general of the Chinese Communication Society as well as a board member and consultant for the Foundation of Public Relations of the Republic of China. Email: [email protected]

 Jangyul Robert Kim (Ph.D., University of Florida; Accredited in Public Relations by the Public Relations Society of America [PRSA]; Fellow, PRSA) is the director general of Customer Risk Prevention Bureau at the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety of South Korea. A former associate professor in the Department of Journalism and Media Communication at Colorado State University, USA, he is the first Korean awarded the professional designation of Accredited in Public Relations (APR) by the Public Relations Society of America. He is also the first Korean to be inducted into the prestigious Public Relations College of Fellows. He was a visiting professor at Ewha Womans University in Seoul, South Korea, in 2013–2014. Prior to joining academia, he was the founder of KorCom Porter Novelli, a full-service public relations firm based in Seoul, and has consulted numerous domestic and multinational firms, governments, and non-profit organizations. Kim's research interest includes issues and crisis communications, public diplomacy, corporate social responsibility, international public relations, and strategic and marketing communications. His manuscripts are published in top peer review journals including Journal of Public Relations Research, Public Relations Review, Asian Journal of Communications, Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal, and Journal of Public Relations (Korean). Email: [email protected]

 Elena Kolesova (Ph.D., University of Auckland) is a senior lecturer and programme leader for postgraduate programmes at the Department of Communication Studies in the Unitec Institute of Technology, New Zealand. She developed and teaches courses in Asian studies and in international and intercultural communication. Her research interests include the re-emergence of nationalism in Japan and Russia, media and multiculturalism in New Zealand, and East Asian popular culture in a local context. In 2011, she organized a “Cool New Asia” international symposium followed by the ePublication Cool New Asia: Asian Popular Culture in Local Context. In 2014, she co-organized an Ethnic Media Forum. Elena is also involved in research on international/transnational education and international students, and has published in the area of the history of Japanese education, international students and also a comparative analysis of history textbooks in Japan and Russia. She is the reviews editor for New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies. Email: [email protected]

 Kwamena Kwansah-Aidoo (Ph.D., Queensland University of Technology, Australia) is an associate professor of marketing/public relations at Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia. In the early 2000s, he established Monash University, Gippsland's Public Relations Program before moving to Swinburne in 2007, as head of Academic Group of Communication, Marketing and Tourism, and Associate Dean, International from 2011 to 2013. He has been a consultant for Ghana Social Marketing Foundation, visiting professor of marketing communication at the Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration, visiting scholar at Texas Christian University, and consultant for AusTraining in cross-cultural communication/issues in Africa. He is experienced in leading course and curriculum development in public relations, advertising, and communication studies. Dr. Kwansah-Aidoo has authored two books on media communication and crisis communication. He has also published several refereed journal articles and book chapters on public relations, communication and media, with emerging streams on Ghanaian film and also the African diaspora in Australia. Email: [email protected]

 Joanne Chen Lyu (Ph.D., The Chinese University of Hong Kong) is an assistant professor at the School of Communication in Hang Seng Management College, Hong Kong. Prior to joining academia, she served in the Public Relations Department of a transnational media corporation for years. In her doctoral study, she won Top Student Paper in the public relations division of the annual conference of International Communication Association (2012). Lyu's research interest includes public relations, crisis communication and management, relationship/guanxi studies, and Chinese communication. She has published in Public Relations Review, Communication & Society, and many English and Chinese scholarly books. Email: [email protected]

 Heba Metwali (M.A., American University of Cairo) is a researcher, English translator, and media specialist at the Egyptian State Information Service since 1997. Metwali has previously worked as an expert and media coordinator at the Population and Migration Department, League of Arab States. She obtained a B.A. in English literature from Ain Shams University, a Diploma in Journalism from Cairo University, M.A. in Journalism and Mass Communication from the American University in Cairo, and a postgraduate studies in anthropology and visual anthropology from the African Institute, Cairo University. She is a Ph.D. candidate in the Faculty of Mass Communication at Cairo University. Metwali's research interests include media and journalism, image of women, children, countries, and peoples in the media, the role of media in shaping perceptions, and effects of media on developmental issues. Email: [email protected]

 Juan-Carlos Molleda (Ph.D., University of South Carolina) is a professor and the Edwin L. Artzt Dean of the School of Journalism and Communication, University of Oregon. He was the former chair of the Department of Public Relations and director of the Online Master's in Public Relations and Communication Management at the University of Florida's (UF) College of Journalism and Communications. He is also an affiliated faculty of the UF Center for Latin American Studies. Molleda is academic trustee of the Institute for Public Relations, member of the board of directors of the LAGRANT Foundation, Latin American liaison of the Public Relations Society of America's Certification in Education for Public Relations, and co-director of the Latin American Communication Monitor, a multinational study organized by the European Public Relations Education and Research Association. Dr. Molleda introduced to the international academic community the concept and theory of cross-national conflict shifting (Journalism Studies, Public Relations Review), the Latin American School of Public Relations (Journalism Studies), as well as the social roles of public relations in Brazil (Journal of Public Relations Research) and Colombia (PRSA Educators Academy and Anagramas, a peer-reviewed publication from Universidad de Medellin, Colombia). Dr. Molleda has a national and international record of conference papers, lectures, and publications in Europe, the Americas, and Asia. Email: [email protected]

 Augustine Pang (Ph.D., University of Missouri) is an associate professor and program director of Master of Mass Communication at Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He specializes in crisis management and communication, image management and repair, media management, and corporate communication management. His chapters have appeared in leading communication books like the Handbook of Crisis Communication (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), SAGE Handbook of Public Relations (2010), Handbook of Communication and Corporate Social Responsibility (Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), and Handbook of Research on Crisis Leadership in Organizations (Edward Elgar, 2013). He has also published in many top journals, including Journal of Public Relations Research, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, International Journal of Strategic Communication, Australian Journalism Review, and Asia Pacific Media Educator, amongst others. Dr. Pang has won top research awards at leading international conferences such as the International Communication Association, Corporate Communications International, the Association of Educators in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC), and the International Public Relations Research. He won a highly commended paper published in Corporate Communication: An International Journal for 2014. A member of the Arthur W. Page Society (US), he was appointed Honorary Fellow by Hong Kong Polytechnic University in 2015 in recognition of his expertise in the field. Email: [email protected]

 Cornelius B. Pratt (Ph.D., University of Minnesota at Twin Cities; Accredited in Public Relations by the Public Relations Society of America [PRSA]) is a professor in the Globalization and Development Communication Program and in the Department of Strategic Communication at Temple University, Philadelphia. He also teaches at Temple University Japan. Pratt is an honorary visiting professor of mass communication at Bingham University, New Karu, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Widely published in top communication and public relations journals, he is the co-editor of Crisis Communication: An International Perspective on Hits and Misses (Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 2012). Additionally, he serves on the editorial-review boards of six journals, including the South East Asian Journal of Management, Public Relations Review, and the Journal of Public Relations Research. His research interests include international communication, ethics, public relations and communication for national and regional development, particularly in emerging economies. Email: [email protected]

 Ibrahim Saleh (Ph.D., Cairo University) is an associate professor of political journalism and mass communication at Future University in Egypt, chair of Political Mass Media Department, and director of Future Public Opinion Polling Centre (FPOPC). Saleh is Fulbright scholar, a senior media expert on the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), and an indexed scholar in the Media Sustainability Index (MSI). Saleh is the chair of Journalism Research and Education (JRE) section at the International Association of Media and Communication Research (IAMCR). Saleh is the linchpin editor of the Journal of Transnational ‘Worlds of Power': Proliferation of Journalism and Professional Standards, book series on Visual Politics of War, and Global Media Journal, African edition. He is the author of the following books: Unveiling the Truth about Middle Eastern Media—Privatization in Egypt: Hope or Dope? (2003), Prior to the Eruption of the Grapes of Wrath in the Middle East (2006), and Visual Politics of War (2015). Email: [email protected] and [email protected]

 Soumitro Sen (Ph.D., Purdue University) is an assistant professor of public relations in the Department of Journalism and Mass Communication at California State University, Long Beach. Prior to joining the academe, he was a public relations practitioner, performing media relations for Purdue University. He also is a former print journalist. His research interests include new media and public relations, coverage of news in the neoliberal press, and health communication. His research has appeared in peer-reviewed journals such as Journal of Creative Communications and Health Communication. Email: [email protected]

 Regina Coeli da Silveira e Silva(Ph.D., Ohio University) is a professor in the Department of Social Communication at Universidade Salgado de Oliveira in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. She is the coordinator of the Núcleo de Estudos em Comunicação e Pesquisa – NECP (Nucleus of Communication Research Studies). Dr. Silva has taught at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, University of Connecticut in Storrs, and Ohio University. She has conducted seminars in Brazil and Argentina. Among her extensive publications on communication and new technologies is one focused on R&D quality in Brazilian universities and research centers. Professor Silva is the recipient of Cátedra Interamericana de Pesquisa 2000 (Interamerican Research Chair 2000) from College of the Americas—COLAM/UN, for her research on women's rights. She is the chief editor of her university interdisciplinary research journal, Cadernos de Estudos e Pesquisas. A member of the International Communication Association (ICA) and the Brazilian Studies Association (BRASA), Dr. Silva is also the current president of the International Association for Journals and Conferences—IAJC—Latin America Chapter. In 2011, she was elected a voting member of Niterói City Council for Women's Rights. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro State Government awarded her the title of Citizen Woman as a tribute for her contribution to women's human rights. Email: [email protected]

 Gabriel C. Stephen(M.A., Maryville University of St. Louis) is a public relations doctoral student and instructor at the University of Florida. In addition, Stephen is an account supervisor for a strategic communications agency in Gainesville, Florida. He obtained a Master of Arts in Strategic Communication and Leadership from Maryville University and a double bachelor's degree in Advertising and Public Relations from Southeast Missouri State University. Stephen worked as marketing assistant at Maryville University and a media relations specialist at Saint Bernard & Associates of St. Louis. Email: [email protected]

 Selin Türkel (Ph.D., Ege University, Turkey) is a lecturer in the Faculty of Communication, Public Relations and Advertising Department at Izmir University of Economics since 2005. She received a B.A. degree in Public Relations and Advertising (Istanbul Bilgi University, 2004) and an M.A. degree in Business Administration (Izmir University of Economics, 2007). Her research interests are corporate communication, corporate social responsibility, and marketing communication research. Dr. Türkel is a co-author of the SSCI journal article, “A Strategic Approach to CSR Communication: Examining the Impact of Brand Familiarity on Consumer Responses” (Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, doi:10.1002/csr.1373) and the international book chapter “Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Communication: A Turkish Industry Example.” Dr. Türkel has also attended many international conferences to present her studies. Email: [email protected]

 Ebru Uzunoğlu (Ph.D., Ege University, Turkey) is an associate professor and the head of the Public Relations and Advertising Department at Izmir University of Economics (IUE). Currently, she is acting dean of the Communication Faculty at IUE. She teaches courses on marketing communications, campaign design in integrated marketing communications (IMC), IMC projects, principles of public relations, and brand management. Her research interests include integrated marketing communications, brand communications, and social media implementations. She is a co-editor of the book Integrated Communications in the Post-Modern Era (Palgrave MacMillan, 2014). She has published in many journals, including Journal of Marketing Communications, Public Relations Review, Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, International Journal of Information Management, International Journal of Human Sciences, and the Global Media Journal. She worked in several national and international companies as a public relations and advertising specialist, marketing communication specialist, and product manager for 12 years. She is a member of the Izmir Public Relations Association and was a board member for three terms. Email: [email protected]

 Reidinar Juliane Wardoyo (MMassComm, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore) is a communications coordinator at the World Resources Institute, Indonesia. She was a research associate at the Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore. Her research interests include communication for development (e.g., maternal health, the use of information and communication technology for education and the use of digital interventions in health communication) and strategic communication. Prior to joining the master's degree program at NTU, she worked as a consultant for Edelman Indonesia, specializing in corporate and public affairs practice, with issues revolving around crisis management, government engagement, and corporate communication. She holds a bachelor's in humanities from the University of Indonesia and a master's degree in mass communication from NTU. Email: [email protected]

 Kyung-Hyan Yoo (Ph.D., Texas A&M University) is an associate professor and graduate director of Communication Department at William Paterson University of New Jersey, USA. Prior to pursuing her academic career, she worked as a public relations specialist at KorCom Porter Novelli, a full-service public relations firm based in Seoul, Korea. Her research interests focus on online communication, online trust, electronic word-of-mouth, persuasive technology, online information search, and decision-making. She has worked on research projects on online travel reviews and social media use by travelers funded by TripAdvisor, Travel Industry Association of America, and several local destination marketing organizations. Yoo has authored journal articles and book chapters on social media marketing, consumer-generated media, and online trust. Her manuscripts have been published in top peer review journals including Public Relations Review, Computers in Human Behavior, and Journal of Information Technology & Tourism. Email: [email protected]

Foreword

The global nature of crises foregrounds the importance of communication scholarship that takes culture seriously and theorizes pathways, processes, mechanisms, and message characteristics that are deeply rooted in cultural contexts. Within the crisis communication literature, there is a dearth of scholarly work that addresses culture seriously, especially from the frameworks of multiple global cultures. Often missing from the overarching concepts of crises are cultural worldviews, contextual understandings, and engagement with the anchoring values that drive the theorizing of crises. To take culture seriously and to create conceptual maps for theorizing crisis communication from cultural worldviews calls for communication scholarship that roots itself in the diversity of worldviews, approaching the theorizing of culture from within these worldviews. The refreshing part of this collection, Culture and Crisis Communication, lies in its treatment of culture as an anchor for the development of communication theories of crises. In doing so, the book adopts a polymorphic approach to the theorizing of crisis communication, depicting the multitude of ways in which meanings are assigned to crises, crises are constructed, and processes of communication are constituted around crises. In the chapters that follow, the reader is offered a conceptual map for journeying through a plethora of understandings of crises and communication, thus offering different pathways for addressing the questions of theory, methodology, and practice.

One of the key contributions of the book is its theorizing of crisis communication from nonwestern contexts, thus opening up the possibilities of theorizing from cultural vantage points that reside outside of the western mainstream of communication theorizing. In doing so, the cases presented in the book bring forth analyses of communication strategies in crises contexts in often under-represented and globally salient contexts such as the Nigerian response to the Ebola virus, the crisis response in the context of the conflict between the workers, the KazMunaiGaz oil company, and local government authorities that took place between May and June 2011 in Kazakhstan, the response of European countries to Syrian refugees amidst the broader Syrian civil war, the crisis negotiations of the US-based transnational corporation Chiquita Brands International® in Colombia and Guatemala, crisis management in the context of the Niterói landslide in Brazil, the response of the Chinese political and media institutions in the context of the melamine-tainted milk powder crisis in China, the response of the Indian government to the terrorist attacks in Mumbai in November 2008, the layers of Indonesian government response to the forest fires that led to the transboundary haze crisis of 2013, and the Singapore government's crisis response strategy in the context of the large-scale penetration of social media. This impressive array of case studies from diverse nonwestern contexts depict the interplay of cultural context and communication in crisis response. The very nature of what is communication and how to conceptualize the role of communication in the realm of crises is polymorphic, thus rendering as evident the various culturally constituted taken-for-granted assumptions that go into how we come to understand “what is communication?” and “what is the role of communication in crises?” Moreover, the contextual location of the authors of the chapters in relationship to the Western mainstream of communication scholarship offers unique vantage points for theorizing crisis communication practices.

Crises are socially constructed. They are constituted in relationships and in relationship to the structures within which we come to experience them. The ways in which we respond to these crises thus are rendered meaningful through our values, identities, and relationships. Whereas a large number of examples covered in the book result from human actions, others originate naturally from the environments within which we live, although contemporary writings on the Anthropocene depict the ways in which these crises too often result from aggregating human action over an extended period of time. Even as we consider the immediate responses that are constituted as solutions to the crises, the chapters in the book also point toward long-term and big picture questions we ought to be asking in theorizing crises and in conceptualizing responses to crises. Particularly salient are notions of global dialogues, conversations, and collaborations across cultural boundaries in the articulation of solutions that require collective efforts, especially in the realm of problems that are global in nature. How then can organizations and institutions, situated within particular and local meaning communities, come to create common communicative entry points for mutual collaboration and problem solving? What are the challenges to collaboration and how can these challenges be meaningfully addressed?

Another key contribution of the book is in the treatment of the multiple layers and levels of cultures in the conceptualization of communication. The notions of transboundary and within-boundary crisis communication attend to the criss-crossings and cross-boundary movements in the negotiation of stakeholder groups and contexts. The concept of boundary raises important theoretical questions about the constitution of cultural boundaries, the textures of boundaries, and the intersections and demarcations of boundaries. How then is communication negotiated as crises cross boundaries, engaging with stakeholders that are globally dispersed and globally connected? The chapters depict the constitutive role of communication in the maintenance and reproduction of relationships in crisis situations. They also pay careful attention to the nuances of the very definition of crisis and the ways in which communities come to be formed around a crisis. That crises are situated within broader social, political, and economic contexts, weaved into intricate local–national–global relationships is a thematic lesson that emerges across the chapters. In the array of examples depicted in the chapters, we are drawn into the complexities that constitute crises and the challenges of cultural understanding. That the risks, vulnerabilities, and responses to crises are constituted through the lens of culture is an invaluable lesson that emerges across the chapters. As you read through these chapters, consider the ways in which our practices of communication are shaped by the institutions, structures, and cultures within which we reside. What values do we take for granted when we come to define crises and map out specific solutions? What other values are backgrounded or erased? The tentative conceptual maps offered in these pages are excellent seeds for crisis communication that is attentive to the cultural diversities and differences within which crises are constituted.

Mohan J. Dutta Provost's Chair ProfessorDepartment of Communications and New MediaNational University of Singapore

Preface

The frequency, intensity, and transboundary reach of crises have increased steadily for more than three decades. More corporations, countries, and continents experience crises of a significant magnitude than could have been imagined by earlier generations. Current crises defy regional, national, and cultural boundaries as they impact the lives of diverse publics in unforeseeable ways. Simply put, the growing complexity, severity, and interconnectivity of crises defy long-standing expectations for effective crisis communication.

Current scholars who hope to generate best practices for mitigating and managing these events must do so from a transboundary perspective. Crises may begin locally, but they rarely end there. Instead, diseases spread internationally in days. Natural disasters impact food security for multiple nations. An unfortunate incident in one country can impact an organization's reputation world-wide. Economic and political crises in one nation result in mass dislocations of populations to others. These are only a few examples of how crises expand and compound in their impact.

The evolving nature of crises has demanded innovative outlooks in theory-building and crisis communication consulting. The fact that much of the original research on crisis communication was done from a western perspective and bias has created a gap in understanding how various crises evolve and how publics respond in other parts of world. In short, our current body of work on crisis communication fails to fully account for the impact of culture on crisis and crisis communication.

Kwamena Kwansah-Aidoo and Amiso M. George and the authors of their edited text take a bold step forward in bridging this gap in their edited text, Culture and Crisis Communication: Transboundary Cases from Nonwestern Perspectives. Their book captures the distinct characteristics of crises initiated in nonwestern contexts. The cases selected by the authors are diverse, compelling, and thought provoking. Combined, the cases reveal the pattern through which crises begin locally and extend to international levels, impacting seemingly unrelated audiences with devastating consequences.

Most importantly, the authors adopt and adapt theories with a cultural focus to crisis communication contexts. This theory-building effort provides a much-needed expansion of the crisis communication literature. The case studies are designed to both expand our understanding of transboundary crises and to provide explicit strategies for managing them. Thus, the book contributes to crisis planning on multiple fronts.

The authors and editors have succeeded in finding the consistency that weaves through diverse crisis types in a variety of nonwestern cultures. Crises stemming from political revolution, national sports teams, pandemics, xenophobia, food fraud, terrorism, natural disasters, nuclear disasters, worker unrest, inept crisis planning, reputational threat, homeless refugees, violations of cultural expectations, and cross-national conflict are analyzed through a consistent lens emphasizing cultural nuances.

The authors also recognize that, although crises are expanding in both their reach and consequences, we are also living in a time of unprecedented access to information and communication. Publics once considered remote now have immediate access to vital information. Audiences that once had little understanding of one another are now intertwined in commerce. The sprawling networks created by new media can exacerbate crises, particularly those involving reputation, but they can also introduce new ways of collecting and distributing information that aids in crisis mitigation. The authors of Culture and Crisis Communication: Transboundary Cases from Nonwestern Perspectives recognize this paradox and offer new insight into how the shifting landscape of communication technology is influenced by cultural differences.

Crises will always bring danger and disruption. And, unfortunately, the scope and scale of crisis will continue to expand. This book, however, offers a degree of optimism. The authors recognize the crucial role of culture in managing crises. The understanding and advice offered in this text advances our capacity for more effectively managing these transboundary crises. In doing so, these authors make a valuable contribution to the crisis communication literature.

Timothy L. Sellnow and Matthew W. Seeger Authors of Theorizing Crisis Communication and Narratives of Crisis: Telling Stories of Ruin and Renewal

Acknowledgments

This book is a reflection of two things: the state of interconnectedness of the world in the latter years of the second decade of the 21st Century, and the collaborative nature of academic work. Given the nature of the subject of this book, it stands to reason that the final product could not have been achieved without the cooperation of many, and we want to express our gratitude to them. First, we would like to thank all the authors who responded to our call for contributions to this volume. Without their input, this book would never have seen the light of day and we deeply appreciate the time and effort they put into their chapters.

Next, we would like to thank Dr. Traci Nathans-Kelly, the Series Editor, for her professionalism, support, and guidance throughout the preparation of this manuscript. Our sincere thanks also goes to the publisher, John Wiley & Sons, for sticking with us throughout the entire process, in spite of some changes and delays. Many other people, whose names we cannot mention for lack of space, provided moral and other forms of support for which we are also eternally grateful.

Finally, we wish to extend our immense appreciation to our families, for their patience and understanding.

Amiso M. George & Kwamena Kwansah-Aidoo

Part IIntroduction

Setting the Scene 1Communication, Culture and Crisis in a Transboundary Context

Kwamena Kwansah-Aidoo and Amiso M. George

Chapter Preview

As international crises increasingly dominate the news headlines, it is imperative to examine how crises are communicated and perceived from a viewpoint that is often ignored in most crisis literature—the nonwestern perspective. This book, Culture and Crisis Communication: Transboundary Cases from Nonwestern Perspectives, attempts to fill that gap by examining the role that culture plays in crisis communication in nonwestern settings. Considering the emergence of new spheres of power in the form of the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) and other emerging economic powers that are not western countries, this book is timely.

Also, the responses to major crises that have rocked different parts of the world in the last few years—including the disappearance of Malaysia Airline (MH370), the Boko Haram kidnapping of nearly 300 school girls in Nigeria, the mass migration of refugees from the ongoing Syrian war and others, by both western and nonwestern societies—illustrate the importance of examining crisis communication from standpoints that are nonwestern. The responses also reinforce the assertion that crises are becoming more transboundary than in the past.

After reading this chapter, you will be able to

Understand what crisis is, as well as the definition of crisis that we have adopted in this book

Define more deeply what culture is, and the definition of culture that we have adopted in this book

Review our definition of transboundary, as applied in this book

Comprehend the argument for understanding the role of culture in crisis communication

Assess the importance of looking at cases from a transboundary perspective

See an overview of all the chapters and how the rest of the volume is organized

Introduction: An Ever-Intertwining World

In a world where there is increasing interdependence of countries, and one in which globalization and technological advancements have made it possible for almost anyone to witness, report on, and/or experience what is happening elsewhere irrespective of location and time, local issues can instantly become internationalized and international issues can become localized in the same way. An issue or crisis that might seem to be a problem for one country or local setting can become a matter of global concern and spawn serious consequences for many who at first glance may have thought themselves far removed from the particular issue or crisis. This situation is exemplified by events that have happened in different parts of the world over the past decade, and how various countries have responded. In some cases, countries have responded in a certain way, only to be forced later to deal with unforeseen consequences, usually borne out of the deeply entrenched differences that are a function of different worldviews or cultural positioning.

The wave of Syrian and other refugees moving to Europe in 2015 was initially welcomed by most countries—Germany alone took in 800,000 in 2015; Sweden accepted 160,000; and Austria, Hungary, and Denmark also took in tens of thousands. While the numbers keep fluctuating based on the numbers that apply for asylum or turned back at original entry countries, the welcome carpet is being withdrawn as news reports indicate a clash of cultures. At a 2015 traditional New Year’s Eve event in Cologne for instance, police reported that about 80 German women were sexually assaulted and robbed by men who were allegedly of Arab or North African extraction [1]. Other reports of assault at the city’s central train station were also recorded. Swedish media reported an unprecedented onslaught