Desalination E-Book

Jane Kucera

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1114

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019

Beschreibung

This all-new revised edition of a modern classic is the most comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of the "green" process of desalination in industrial and municipal applications, covering all of the processes and equipment necessary to design, operate, and troubleshoot desalination systems. This is becoming increasingly more important for not only our world's industries, but our world's populations, as pure water becomes more and more scarce. "Blue is the new green." This is an all-new revised edition of a modern classic on one of the most important subjects in engineering: Water. Featuring a total revision of the initial volume, this is the most comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of the process of desalination in industrial and municipal applications, a technology that is becoming increasingly more important as more and more companies choose to "go green." This book covers all of the processes and equipment necessary to design, operate, and troubleshoot desalination systems, from the fundamental principles of desalination technology and membranes to the much more advanced engineering principles necessary for designing a desalination system. Earlier chapters cover the basic principles, the economics of desalination, basic terms and definitions, and essential equipment. The book then goes into the thermal processes involved in desalination, such as various methods of evaporation, distillation, recompression, and multistage flash. Following that is an exhaustive discussion of the membrane processes involved in desalination, such as reverse osmosis, forward osmosis, and electrodialysis. Finally, the book concludes with a chapter on the future of these technologies and their place in industry and how they can be of use to society. This book is a must-have for anyone working in water, for engineers, technicians, scientists working in research and development, and operators. It is also useful as a textbook for graduate classes studying industrial water applications.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Preface

Chapter 1: Introduction to Desalination

1.1 Introduction

1.2 How Much Water is There?

1.3 Finding More Fresh Water

1.4 Desalination: Water from Water

1.5 Desalination: Water from Water Outline

Abbreviations

References

Chapter 2: Thermal Desalination Processes

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Mass- and Energy Balances

2.3 Performance of Thermal Desalination Processes

2.4 Recent Developments in Thermal Desalination Processes

2.5 Future Prospects

References

Chapter 3: Basic Terms and Definitions

3.1 Reverse Osmosis System Flow Rating

3.2 Recovery

3.3 Rejection

3.4 Flux

3.5 Concentration Polarization

3.6 Beta

3.7 Fouling

3.8 Scaling

3.9 Silt Density Index

3.10 Modified Fouling Index

3.11 Langelier Saturation Index

References

Chapter 4: Nanofiltration – Theory and Application

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Defining Nanofiltration

4.3 History of Nanofiltration

4.4 Theory

4.5 Application

4.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 5: Forward Osmosis

5.1 The Limitations of Conventional Desalination

5.2 Forward Osmosis

5.3 The Draw Solution

5.4 The Membrane

5.5 Process Design and Desalination Applications

5.6 Future Directions

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 6: Electrodialysis Desalination

6.1 Principles of ED

6.2 Preparation and Characterization of Ion Exchange Membranes

6.3 ED Equipment Design and Desalination Process

6.4 Control of Fouling in an ED Desalination Process

6.5 Prospects for ED Desalination

6.6 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 7: Continuous Electrodeionization

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Development History

7.3 Technology Overview

7.4 CEDI Module Construction

7.5 Electroactive Media Used in CEDI Devices

7.6 DC Current and Voltage

7.7 System Design Considerations

7.8 Process Design Considerations

7.9 Operation and Maintenance

7.10 Applications

7.11 Future Trends

Nomenclature

References

Chapter 8: Membrane Distillation: Now and Future

8.1 Introduction

8.2 MD Concepts and Historic Development

8.3 MD Transport Mechanisms

8.4 Strategic Development for An Enhanced MD System

8.5 Energy and Cost Evaluation in MD

8.6 Innovations on MD Application Development

8.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects

References

Chapter 9: Humidification-Dehumidification Desalination

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Thermal Design

9.3 Systems with Mass Extraction and Injection

9.4 Bubble Column Dehumidification

9.5 Effect of High Salinity Feed on HDH Performance

Acknowledgements

Nomenclature

References

Chapter 10: Freezing-Melting Desalination Processes

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Background or History of Freezing-Melting Process

10.3 Principles of Freezing-Melting Process

10.4 Major Types of Freezing-Melting Process

10.5 Direct-Contact Freezing

10.6 Gas Hydrate Process

10.7 Direct-Contact Eutectic Freezing

10.8 Indirect-Contact FM Process

10.9 Pressure and Vacuum Processes

10.10 Applications

10.11 Future Challenges

Acknowledgment

Abbreviations

References

Chapter 11: Ion Exchange in Desalination

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Early Ion Exchange Desalination Processes

11.3 Life After RO

11.4 Ion Exchange Softening as Pre-Treatment

11.5 Softening by Ion Exchange

11.6 Boron-Selective Ion Exchange Resins as Post-Treatment

11.7 New Vessel Designs

11.8 New Resin Bead Design

11.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 12: Electrosorption of Heavy Metals with Capacitive Deionization: Water Reuse, Desalination and Resources Recovery

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Experimental Methods

12.3 Results and Discussions

12.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 13: Solar Desalination

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Solar Desalination

13.3 Direct Solar Desalination

13.4 Indirect Solar Desalination

13.5 Non-Conventional Solar Desalination

13.6 Solar Integration and Environmental Considerations

Nomenclature

References

Chapter 14: Wind Energy Powered Desalination Systems

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Basic Wind Technology Concepts

14.3 Particular Characteristics of Wind Energy

14.4 Classification of Wind-Driven Desalination Systems

14.5 Off-Grid Wind Energy Systems for Desalination

14.6 Wind-Diesel Systems for Desalination

14.7 Conclusions and Future Trends

List of Symbols

References

Chapter 15: Geothermal Desalination

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Renewable Energy Powered Desalination

15.3 Geothermal Energy Utilization Around the World

15.4 The Rationale – Why Geothermal Desalination?

15.5 Global Geothermal Desalination Potential

15.6 Geothermal Desalination – State of the Art

15.7 Desalination Process Selection

15.8 Challenges and Considerations for Geothermal Desalination Implementation

15.9 Techno-Economics of Geothermal Desalination

15.10 Summary

References

Chapter 16: Future Expectations

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Historical Trends in Fresh Water Supply Development

16.3 Emerging Trends and Directions in Alternative Water Supply Development

16.4 Desalination for Oil and Gas

16.5 The Future of Desalination Technologies

16.6 Summary

References

List of Contributors

Index

End User License Agreement

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1

Allocation of the world’s water resources.

Figure 1.2

Global baseline water stress, 2015.

Courtesy of World Resources Institute.

Figure 1.3

Global water stress in 1995 and predicted for 2025.

Courtesy of Philippe

...

Figure 1.4

Projected water stress by 2040.

Courtesy of World Resources Institute.

Figure 1.5

Global demand for water and World Health Organization basic water requirements...

Figure 1.6

Terrevieja, Spain, 240,000 m

3

/day seawater reverse osmosis desalination...

Figure 1.7

Water sources for Los Angeles, California, USA [15].

Figure 1.8

Claude “Bud” Lewis Carlsbad (California) Desalination Facility...

Figure 1.9

Seawater disalination by country 2015 [25].

Figure 1.10

United States Geological Survey map of depth to saline ground water in United...

Figure 1.11

Observed minimum depth to brackish or highly-saline groundwater in the United States...

Figure 1.12

Growth of cummulative (a) and new (b), on-line desalination capacity...

Figure 1.13

Annual new contracted desalination capacity by feed water type [33]...

Figure 1.14

Total, global installed capacity by feed water source as of 2012 [37]...

Figure 1.15

Total, 2015 global installed capacity by type of user [35].

Courtesy of Global...

Figure 1.16

Global installed desalination capacity by technology for 2010(a) and 2016(b)...

Figure 1.17

Growth of installed membrane and thermal desalination capacity.

Courtesy of Global...

Figure 1.18

The Ras Al Khair desalination and power generating facility in Saudi Arabia...

Figure 1.19

The 636,000 m

3

/day Jebel Ali MSF desalination plant and power...

Figure 1.20

MSF Desalination plant (110,000 m3/day capacity) combined with power plant - Doha...

Figure 1.21

Sidney Loeb (a and b) and coworker (b) with Loeb’s “Big Dripper”...

Figure 1.22

UCLA Team at Rain Tree facility, Coalinga, California, USA.

Courtesy of Julius...

Figure 1.23

Cost distribution reduction as a function of time for MSF (a) and RO (b)...

Figure 1.24

The change in power consumption for RO in SWRO plants from the 1970s to 2008...

Figure 1.25

Annual and cumulative global desalination capacity as a function of time as calculated...

Figure 1.26

Relationship between renewable energy source and disalination technologies.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1

Schematic of a single-stage evaporation.

Figure 2.2

Schematic of a single-stage evaporation process with seawater preheating.

Figure 2.3

Flow diagram of a single-stage evaporation process with energy recovery.

Figure 2.4

Temperature vs. area diagram for the condenser and the preheater.

Figure 5.2

Simplified process flow diagram of a multiple-effect distillation plant (MED)...

Figure 2.6

Specific heat consumption of a Multiple-Effect-Distillation plant.

Figure 2.7

Annual specific energy and capital cost vs. number of stages of an MED plant.

Figure 2.8

Schematic representation of a counter-current MED plant.

Figure 2.9

Enthalpy-entropy (h-s) diagram of a flash evaporation process.

Figure 2.10

Schematic representation of the flashing process.

Figure 2.11

Ideal temperature profile of an MED plant (counter-current flow).

Figure 2.12

Temperature vs. heat transfer area for a preheater in an MED plant (counter-current flow).

Figure 2.13

Simplified flow sheet of the final condenser.

Figure 2.14

Specific heat consumption and specific area of an MED plant as a function of number of stages.

Figure 2.15

Schematic of a multiple-effect distillation (MED) as parallel feed flow.

Figure 2.16

Flow sheet of a Multi-Stage-Flash (MSF) evaporation plant. (Once-through mode).

Figure 2.17

Ideal temperature profile of a Multi-Stage-Flash evaporation plant. (Once-through mode).

Figure 2.18

Comparison of specific heat consumption of MSF vs. MED.

Figure 2.19

Schematic of a Multi-Stage-Flash evaporation plant as brine-recycle mode.

Figure 2.20

Ideal temperature profile of a Multi-Stage-Flash evaporation plant. (Brine-recycle mode).

Figure 2.21

Gained Output Ratio of an MSF plant vs. specific condenser area (parameter: number of stages N).

Figure 2.22

Flow sheet of an MED evaporation plant with thermal vapour compression (Gross balance).

Figure 2.23

Flow sheet of an MED evaporation plant with thermal vapour compression (Net balance).

Figure 2.24

Scheme of a thermal vapour compressor.

Figure 2.25

Schematic representation of a diffuser.

Figure 2.26

Pressure and velocity profile in a thermal vapour compressor.

Figure 2.27

Enthalpy vs. entropy (h-s) - diagram for the TVC process.

Figure 2.28

Performance diagram for a thermal vapour compressor [2].

Figure 2.29

Flow sheet and picture of an evaporation plant with mechanical vapour compression...

Figure 2.30

Mechanical vapour compression process in an h-s diagram.

Figure 2.31

Schematic of an MED plant and definition of GOR.

Figure 2.32

Flow chart of a single-purpose plant (Steam Boiler + Desalination).

Figure 2.33

Schematic of the pressure reduction station with injection for de-superheating...

Figure 2.34

Dual purpose plant/Case 1: Back Pressure turbine.

Figure 2.35

1) Condensation power station for electricity generation. 2) Steam generator as...

Figure 2.36

Dual purpose plant - Case 2: Controlled extraction steam turbine.

Figure 2.37

Dual purpose plant - Case 3: High pressure turbine + low pressure turbine.

Figure 2.38

Dual purpose plant - Case 4: Gas turbine + Exhaust Recovery Boiler.

Figure 2.39

Specific exergy and primary energy consumption vs. number of stages...

Figure 2.40

Block diagram of an Nanofitration (NF) - Multi-Stage-Flash (MSF) hybrid plant.

Figure 2.41

Block diagram of Tri-hybrid plant comprising Nanofiltration (NF) –...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1

Concentrate and instantaneous permeate concentration as functions of recovery.

Figure 3.2

Concentration of ammonia gas and ammonium ion as functions of pH.

Figure 3.3

Hydraulic boundary layer formed with fluid flow in a pipe.

Figure 3.4

Concentration polarization, where C

b

is the bulk concentration and...

Figure 3.5

Fouling on membrane surface creates an additional barrier to permeate transport...

Figure 3.6

Cracked outer module casing (a) and telescoped membranes and spacers (b) due to...

Figure 3.7

Silt density index test apparatus and ancillary equipment.

Figure 3.8

Silt density index pads taken before and after a filter treating RO influent...

Figure 3.9

Ratio of filtration time to volume as a function of total volume of filtered...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1

Number of publications per year since 1990 with ‘nanofiltration’...

Figure 4.2

NaCl rejection by an NF membrane for a NaCl solution as a function of permeate...

Figure 4.3

Rejection of nonionic organic solutes by a NF membrane as a function of Stokes...

Figure 4.4

Rejection of negatively charged (top) and positively charged (bottom) organic...

Figure 4.5

Comparison of rejection performance (left) and pressure requirements...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1

Schematic of the generalized forward osmosis desalination process.

Figure 5.2

Flux performance of 2 commercially available RO membranes from GE Water (AG, CE)...

Figure 5.3

Scanning electron micrographs of a representative RO TFC membrane (left) and the...

Figure 5.4

Illustration of concentration polarization phenomenon near the active (selective)...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1

Schematic diagram of the typical arrangement in an ED process. (CEM: Cation...

Figure 6.2

Schematic diagram of the structure of an anion exchange membrane structure.

Figure 6.3

Concentration polarization occurring on the surface of an anion exchange membrane...

Figure 6.4

Determination of the limiting current density in a graph between supplied potential...

Figure 6.5

ED desalination cost as a function of the current density. (

i

op

...

Figure 6.6

Graph for the membrane fouling in ED process in the presence of an organic foulant...

Figure 6.7

Principle of the fouling mitigation by the periodical change of the polarity.

Figure 6.8

Integration of RO and ED for seawater desalination.

Figure 6.9

Integration of ED and CDI for seawater desalination.

Figure 6.10

Low energy ED system and process for seawater desalination.

Figure 6.11

Schematic diagram of stand-alone PV-ED process.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1

Ion transport and electrochemical regeneration in a CEDI cell.

Figure 7.2

Plate-and-frame CEDI device.

Figure 7.3

Spiral-wound CEDI device.

Figure 7.4

Removal mechanism in thick-cell, layered-bed CEDI cell.

Figure 7.5

Removal mechanism in thick-cell, separate-bed CEDI cell.

Figure 7.6

Dilute spacer from thick cell, layered bed CEDI module.

Figure 7.8

Flush up of RO system after standby.

Figure 7.9

Salt and CO

2

concentrations in an RO/CEDI system.

Figure 7.10

Co-flow and counter-flow pressure example.

Figure 7.11

Typical CIP apparatus.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1

Basic working principles of MD (redrawn from [8]).

Figure 8.2

Configurational variations of MD [9].

Figure 8.3

A surge of interest in MD from 2008 to 2017 (data obtained from Scopus).

Figure 8.4

Temperature- and concentration-polarization effects in MD (redrawn from [36]).

Figure 8.5

Mass- and heat-transfer analogs in MD (redrawn from [4]).

Figure 8.6

Net-type spacer design in flat-sheet membrane module [163].

Figure 8.7

Working principles of (a) Memstill [34] and (b) Memsys [161] MD modules.

Figure 8.8

Conceptual design of PGMD module developed by Fraunhofer Institute for Solar...

Figure 8.9

Novel module design and fabrication: (a) curly-fiber module; (b) spacer-knitted...

Figure 8.10

Concept of cascade module design (a) with inter-stage heating; (b) without...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1

Simplest embodiment of HDH process [3].

Figure 9.2

Classification of HDH systems based on cycle configurations [1].

Figure 9.3

Performance of the older HDH systems in the literature [3].

Figure 9.4

Schematic diagram of a water-heated closed-air open-water HDH cycle [17].

Figure 9.5

Effect of relative humidity on performance of the WH-CAOW HDH cycle [17].

Figure 9.6

Effect of component effectiveness of humidifier on performance of the WH-CAOW HDH...

Figure 9.7

Effect of component effectiveness of dehumidifier on performance of the WH-CAOW...

Figure 9.8

Effect of top brine temperature on performance of the WH-CAOW HDH cycle [17].

Figure 9.9

HCR of dehumidifer versus GOR at various top brine temperatures [17].

Figure 9.10

Effect of feedwater temperature on performance of the WH-CAOW HDH cycle [17].

Figure 9.11

HCR of dehumidifer versus GOR at various feedwater temperatures [17].

Figure 9.12

Variation of the performance of a single-stage HDH system with HCR

d

[36].

Figure 9.13

Variation of entropy generation with HCR

d

[36].

Figure 9.14

Variation of the average of the driving forces with HCR

d

[36].

Figure 9.15

Variation of the variance of the driving forces with HCR

d

[36].

Figure 9.16

Effect of top temperature on performance for fixed or variable mass flow rate...

Figure 9.17

Schematic diagram of a water-heated, closed-air, open-water humidification-dehumidification...

Figure 9.18

Temperature-enthalpy profile of a balanced single-stage system with feed at...

Figure 9.19

Temperature profile representing the HDH system with a single extraction...

Figure 9.20

Variation of GOR with enthalpy pinch, Ψ, and number of extractions...

Figure 9.21

Water-heated, closed-air, open-water HDH system with a single extraction [36].

Figure 9.22

Variation of GOR with HCR

d

,1

and HCR

d,

2

[36].

Figure 9.23

Variation of GOR with HCR

d,

1

and HCR

d,

2

[36].

Figure 9.24

Variation of GOR with RR [36].

Figure 9.25

Effect of mass flow rate of air extracted on the performance of the HDH system...

Figure 9.26

Schematic diagram of the bubble column dehumidifier [82].

Figure 9.27

Schematic diagram of multi-stage bubble column dehumidifier [3].

Figure 9.28

Comparison of the performance of a single-tray bubble column and a five-tray...

Figure 9.29

Effect of multistaging the bubble column on energy effectiveness of the device...

Figure 9.30

Schematic diagrams of a coil-free dehumidifier implementation for an open-air...

Figure 9.31

Variation of seawater specific heat capacity at constant pressure with salinity...

Figure 9.32

Boiling point elevation and osmotic pressure of typical produced water samples...

Figure 9.33

Process paths of feed (f), brine (b), and moist air (ma) streams in a zero...

Figure 9.34

Energetic figures of merit for HDH over the salinity domain: (a) GOR, benchmarked...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1

Freezing-Melting Process with Ice Crystallization, Separation and Melting.

Figure 10.2

Direct Freezing-Melting System Including Refrigerant Cycle, Ice Nucleation and...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1

Figure 11.2

Basic ion exchange softening.

Figure 11.3

Strong and weak acid cation exchange resin.

Figure 11.4

Merry-Go-Round System.

Figure 11.5

Active group in boron-selective resins.

Figure 11.6

Central drum with internal valve rotation.

Figure 11.7

Conventional vessel and packed bed vessel.

Figure 11.8

Hetero-disperse and mono-disperse or uniform particle size (UPS) resins.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1

Photograph of the CDI treatment system.

Figure 12.2

Voltage and current profiles during the treatment cycles of metals experiments.

Figure 12.3

Variation of conductivity of the electrolyte during experimental Runs #5–9...

Figure 12.4

Removal percentage of the heavy metals from electrolytes during experimental...

Figure 12.5

Variation of conductivity and metal concentrations in the treated electrolyte...

Figure 12.6

Variation of conductivity and cyanide in feed and treated water solutions at different...

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1

Global physical and economic water scarcity [1].

Figure 13.2

Global horizontal solar radiation in the world [3].

Figure 13.3

Development status and capacity range of renewable energy driven desalination [7].

Figure 13.4

Different configurations of solar stills [12].

Figure 13.5

A simple solar still producing 1.5 liter/day in Yemen [7].

Figure 13.6

Solar-assisted multi-effect CAOW system [12].

Figure 13.7

Solar-assisted seawater greenhouse.

Figure 13.8

Solar-assistedmulti-stage flash desalination [12].

Figure 13.9

Solar-assisted multi-effect desalination [12].

Figure 13.10

Different configurations of heat pumps [12].

Figure 13.11

Possible configurations of solar-assisted heat pumps systems [12].

Figure 13.12

Solar-driven reverse osmosis systems [12].

Figure 13.13

PV assisted electro-dialysis desalination [12].

Figure 13.14

Solar-driven membrane distillation [12].

Figure 13.15

Single-stage solar flash desalination system (adapted from [87]).

Figure 13.16

Multi-stage solar flash desalination system (adapted from [87]).

Figure 13.17

Possible solar desalination arrangements [12].

Figure 13.18

Vertical cross section of a solar pond (adapted from Goswami [92]).

Figure 13.19

Photovoltaic cell schematic (adapted from Goswami [92]).

Figure 13.20

Schematic of a stand-alone photovoltaic system(adapted from Goswami [92]).

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1

Some wind machine classifications.

Figure 14.2

Rotor power coefficients of various types of wind machine.

Figure 14.3

On the left, windmills in Campo de Criptana (Spain) used to grind grain [52]...

Figure 14.4

On the left, a multi-blade wind machine on Fuerteventura island (Spain) and, on...

Figure 14.5

On the left, a Darrieus wind turbine and, on the right, three-bladed horizontal-axis...

Figure 14.6

Classification of wind turbines according to their rated power.

Figure 14.7

Configuration of a horizontal-axis wind turbine.

Figure 14.8

Types of wind turbine rotor.

Figure 14.9

Power curves of wind turbines with different rotor power control.

Figure 14.10

Components generally used in a standard mechanical drive train.

Figure 14.11

Devices and mechanisms for stopping a rotor.

Figure 14.12

Other transmission system options.

Figure 14.13

Yaw systems.

Figure 14.14

Classification of electric generators used in wind turbines.

Figure 14.15

Classification of electrical system configurations of wind turbines.

Figure 14.16

Wind turbine with squirrel-cage rotor induction generator and smooth conventional...

Figure 14.17

Wind turbine with multi-pole synchronous generator and converter, rectifier and...

Figure 14.18

Wind turbine with asynchronous generator and condenser self-excitation squirrel-cage...

Figure 14.19

Wind turbine support structures.

Figure 14.20

Mean minute electrical power output over the course of a randomly chosen day of a...

Figure 14.21

Overall process of wind resource assessment.

Figure 14.22

Diurnal pattern of the wind speed at Gran Canaria (Spain) airport, constructed...

Figure 14.23

Monthly average wind speeds at Gran Canaria (Spain) airport, calculated using...

Figure 14.24

Mean annual wind speed data at Gran Canaria (Spain) airport, calculated using...

Figure 14.25

Wind speed frequency histogram constructed using thirteen years of mean hourly...

Figure 14.26

Wind rose constructed using thirteen years of mean hourly wind direction data...

Figure 14.27

Classification of wind-driven desalination systems.

Figure 14.28

Schematic representation of the structure of an electrical power system.

Figure 14.29

Desalination plants in Australia indirectly powered with wind energy (Source...

Figure 14.30

Desalination plants in the Canary Islands (Spain) indirectly powered by wind...

Figure 14.31

Location of the reverse osmosis desalination plant and the wind farm on the island...

Figure 14.32

Micro-grids interconnected to the conventional grid on the island of Gran...

Figure 14.33

Wind energy converter and self-contained desalination plant installed by Petersen...

Figure 14.34

Schematic representation of the prototype installed by Petersen

et al.

...

Figure 14.35

Schematic representation of the AEROGEDESA project. Prototype for the production...

Figure 14.36

Schematic representation of the system proposed by Carta

et al.

[66] to...

Figure 14.37

Schematic representation of the prototype proposed by Cabrera

et al.

[92]...

Figure 14.38

Schematic representation of the wind-driven RO system for brackish water desalination...

Figure 14.39

Mechanical system developed by Heijman

et al.

[45] showing the high-pressure...

Figure 14.40

Basic schematic representation of the medium-scale wind-driven desalination...

Figure 14.41

Location on the island of Syros of the 500 kW wind turbine and the RO desalination...

Figure 14.42

Basic schematic representation of the wind-driven desalination system of the SDAWES...

Figure 14.43

Location of the different elements of the wind energy driven desalination system...

Figure 14.44

Location on the island of Rügen (Germany) of the wind energy driven desalination...

Figure 14.45

Basic outline of the wind-driven desalination system installed on the island...

Figure 14.46

Location of the MVC

desalination plant and wind turbine on the island

...

Figure 14.47

Basic configuration of the Freshwatermill system proposed by SolteQ Energy...

Figure 14.48

Location of a wind-diesel system, one of whose loads is an SWRO desalination plant...

Figure 14.49

Basic schematic representation of the wind-diesel system installed on the island...

Figure 14.50

Large-scale desalination system configuration.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1

Renewable energy applications for desalination including geothermal energy.

Figure 15.2

General schematic of geothermal energy source utilization.

Figure 15.3

Capacity factors (in percent) reported for various renewable energy sources.

Figure 15.4

Comparison of the electricity prices derived from renewable and non-renewable...

Figure 15.5

Integrated configurations for geothermal energy sources – poly generation...

Figure 15.6

Hottest geothermal energy sources around the world which are suitable for...

Figure 15.7

Geothermal energy applications in desalination and cogeneration (water and power production).

Figure 15.8

Major constituents of geothermal waters in the U.S. [24].

Figure 15.9

Multi-effect evaporation desalination system driven by geothermal sources.

Figure 15.10

Relationship between the permeate flow and the feed water temperature in a SWRO...

Figure 15.11

Schematic of a double stage RO process for recovering spent geothermal waters...

Figure 15.12

(a) Geothermal energy capital cost comparison with other renewable energy sources...

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1

U.S. fresh surface water withdrawal capacity 1920-2000 (from Sandia National...

Figure 16.2

Major ground water aquifers impacted by overpumping (from Sandia National Laboratories 2009).

Figure 16.3

Expected water supply shortages by 2013 under average conditions (from Sandia National....

Figure 16.4

Growth in waste water reuse and desalination in the U.S. since 1990 (from Sandia....

Figure 16.5

Depth to saline groundwater (from Stanton et al., 2017).

Figure 16.6

Historical usage of saline groundwater by industry (from Stanton

et al.,

2017).

Figure 16.7

El Paso desalting operation (from Hutchinson 2009).

Figure 16.8

Inhibition of silica precipitation at low pH.

Figure 16.9

Oklahoma earthquakes over time (Source: USGS...

Figure 16.10

Electrostatic bonds between oil and kaolinite edges (from Brady and Krumhansl...

Figure 16.11

Electrostatic bonds between calcite surfaces and oil (from Brady and Thyne, 2016).

Figure 16.12

OU.S. Gas plays and basins (from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2011).

Figure 16.13

Schematic of hydrofrack process (from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Figure 16.14

Salt levels in Bakken Play fluids (from Energy & Environmental Research...

Figure 16.15

Concentrate management costs (After Mickley, 2006).

Figure 16.16

Schematic of SAGD process (source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs070-03/fig3.jpg).

Figure 16.17

Warm lime softening treatment for SAGD.

Figure 16.18

Cost breakdown for seawater reverse osmosis (from Miller 2003).

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1

Actual and projected water sources for Los Angeles Department of Water and Power...

Table 1.2

Classification of source waters as a function of total dissolved solids (TDS).

Table 1.3

Sample water composition of seawater, well water, surface water, and grey water...

Table 1.4

Advances in brackish water reverse osmosis membrane performance [45].

Table 1.5

Decline in membrane cost relative to 1980 [55].

Table 1.6

Sample desalination technologies. Technologies covered in this volume are noted...

Table 1.7

Renewable energy sources (RES) and CO

2

-free technologies used...

Table 1.8

Key data for renewable energy desalination, 2013 [72].

Table 1.9

Cir. 2010 airborne emissions per cubic meter of water generated by various...

Table 1.10

Emissions for desalination processes powered by RES [82].

Chapter 2

Table 2.1

Typical values of thermal and RO desalination plants as a basis for Figure 2.39.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1

Concentration factor as a function of recovery.

Table 3.2

General rejection capabilities of most polyamide composite membranes at room...

Table 3.3

Recommended flux as a function of influent water source.

Table 3.4

Generally-accepted water quality guidelines to minimize RO membrane fouling.

Table 3.5

Generally-accepted water quality guidelines to minimize RO membrane scaling.

Table 3.6

Langelier Saturation Index.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

List of commercially available NF membranes with select properties...

Table 4.2

List of water treatment facilities employing NF in the U.S. (data obtained from...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1

Comparison of properties and FO performance (at 20 – 25 °C) of...

Table 5.2

Comparison of properties and FO performance (at 20 – 25°C)...

Chapter 6

Table 6.1

Advantages and disadvantages of membrane desalination processes [3].

Table 6.2

Characteristic properties of commercial homogeneous ion exchange membranes.

Table 6.3

Characteristic properties of commercial heterogeneous ion exchange membranes...

Table 6.4

Summary of guideline for desalting selection [27].

Table 6.5

Cost estimation of desalination processes [27].

Table 6.6

Candidate foulants in an ED process [30].

Chapter 7

Table 7.1

Cell thickness vs. performance for a CEDI-MB device.

Table 7.2

Resin Particle size distribution vs. performance for a CEDI-MB device.

Table 7.3

Required Controls & Instrumentation.

Table 7.4

Optional Controls & Instrumentation.

Table 7.5

Typical CEDI Feed Water Requirements.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1

Summary of currently used commercial membranes for MD (information extracted...

Table 8.2

Lab-scale MD membrane fabrication.

Table 8.3

Cost elements involved in MD

WPC

calculations.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1

Optimization results for water-heated and air-heated CAOW cycles as a function...

Chapter 12

Table 12.1

Experimental water matrices and drinking water regulations.

Table 12.2

Summary of heavy metals concentrations at different treatment time.

Table 12.3

Physico-chemical properties of the studied ions.

Table 12.4

Metal concentrations measured in the electrode drain samples.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1

Solar pond assisted MSF desalination systems [12].

Table 13.2

Different types of solar collector-assisted MSF [27].

Table 13.3

Solar pond-assisted MED desalination systems [12].

Table 13.4

Different solar collector types coupled with MED systems [12].

Table 13.5

Solar-assisted different heat pump configurations [12].

Table 13.6

PV system powered RO desalination systems [27].

Table 13.7

Solar ORC powered ROdesalination systems [27].

Table 13.8

PV system assisted ED desalination systems.

Table 13.9

Solar collectors [91].

Table 13.10

Spectral absorption of solar radiation in water [82].

Chapter 14

Table 14.1

IEC classification of wind turbines.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1

A summary of geothermal desalination installations around the world.

Table 15.2

Geothermal desalination feed and product water compositions studied in Poland...

Table 15.3

Environmental impacts of geothermal source based power production and desalination.

Table 15.4

Environmental regulations to be considered for geothermal source based power...

Table 15.5

Desalination costs for various desalination processes for various capacities.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1

Energy Demand for Several Alternative Water Supply Enhancement Options...

Table 16.2

Water cost and energy outlays.

Table 16.3

Impaired water compositions.

Table 16.4

Frack fluid additives (after U.S. Department of Energy - All Consulting 2009).

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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Desalination 2nd Edition

Water from Water

Edited by

Jane Kucera

This edition first published 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2019 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-119-40774-4

DEDICATION:

In fond memory of,

Julius “Bud” Glater

my thesis advisor and mentor, and a pioneer in the development of membrane-based, desalination technologies.

Preface

The world-wide demand for “fresh” water is growing exponentially, while the supply of readily-available fresh water is dwindling. Several diverse techniques have been implemented to try to meet the growing demand for fresh water, with variable degrees of success. One technique that has had great success and that continues to grow in application is desalination. Desalination encompasses a host of technologies such that clean water may be generated regardless of location, make-up source, and/or energy source.

This book explores numerous desalination technologies. Some of the technologies that are covered here are highly commercialized and are in extensive use today, while others are under development and may be commercially-viable tomorrow. This book also covers renewable energy sources (wind, geothermal, and solar) as alternatives to fossil-fuels to drive desalination technologies.

World-renowned experts have contributed to this book. The authors’ experience includes decades of work in their respective fields, and covers the gamut from academia to real-world practice. I thank the authors for contributing their time and sharing their expertise to help us explore the possibilities within the realm of desalination.

Chapter 1Introduction to Desalination

Jane Kucera

Nalco Water/an Ecolab Company

Corresponding author: Jane Kucera ([email protected])

Abstract

The availability of fresh water on the planet is finite, and natural fresh water makes up only about 0.5% entire water supply on Earth. This limited supply, coupled with the growing population of the Earth and the growing industrialization of many developing countries, is driving global fresh water stress and scarcity to the point where more fresh water must be found to meet future needs. Methods to “find” more fresh water include conservation and reduce/reuse/recycle of existing fresh water sources, moving fresh water from water-rich regions to water-poor regions, and “creating” fresh water from other sources, such as oceans and wastewater, using desalination. Of these methods, desalination has proven to be a very viable technique to meet current and future fresh water needs in many areas around the world.

This introductory chapter discusses the history of, and drivers for desalination, and also provides a framework for the detailed discussions about various desalination technologies and opportunities to use renewable energy sources to power the desalination technologies that are presented in this book.

Keywords: Desalination, water scarcity, thermal desalination, membrane desalination, reverse osmosis, renewable energy sources

1.1 Introduction

Desalination: from the root word desalt meaning to “remove salt from” [1]. By convention, the term desalination is defined as the “process of removing dissolved solids, such as salts and minerals, from water” [2]. Other terms that are sometimes used interchangeably with desalination are desaltingand desalinization, although these terms have alternate meanings; desalting is conventionally used to mean removing salt from other more valuable products such as food, pharmaceuticals, and oil, while desalinization is used to mean removing salt from soil, such as by leaching [2].

The first practical use of desalination goes back to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when sailors such as Sir Richard Hawkins reported that their men generated fresh water from seawater using shipboard distillation during their voyages [3]. The early twentieth century saw the first desalination facilities developed on the Island of Curaçao and in the Arabian Peninsula [3]. The research into and application of desalination gained momentum in the mid-twentieth century, and the last 30 years has witnessed exponential growth in the construction of desalination facilities.

One could ask the question, “Why desalination?” Desalination has become necessary for several reasons, the most compelling of which may be: 1) the increased demand for fresh water by population growth in arid climates and other geographies with limited access to high-quality, low-salinity water, and 2) the per capital increase in demand for fresh water due to industrialization and urbanization that out paces availability of high-quality water. Research and development over the last 50 years into desalination has resulted in advanced techniques that have made desalination more efficient and cost-effective. Desalination is, and will be in the future, a viable and even necessary technique for generating fresh water from water of relatively low quality. Thus, the title of this book, Desalination: Water from Water.

In this chapter, and in this entire book, we make the case for desalination as one of the major tools for meeting the fresh water needs of a growing and industrializing planet.

1.2 How Much Water is There?

The allocation of the world’s water is shown in Figure 1.1. About 97.5%, or 1338 million km3, of the world’s water is sea-water [3, 4]. Eighty percent of the remaining water is bound up as snow in permanent glaciers or as permafrost [4]. Hence, only 0.5% of the world’s water is readily available as low-salinity groundwater or in lakes or rivers for “direct” use by humans.

Figure 1.1 Allocation of the world’s water resources.

1.2.1 Global Water Availability

Some regions of the world are blessed with an abundance of fresh water. This includes areas with relatively low populations and easy access to surface waters, such as northern Russia, Scandinavia, central and southern coastal regions of South America, and northern North America (Canada, Alaska) [2, 5]. More populated areas and areas with repaid industrialization are experiencing more water stress, particularly when located in arid regions.

There are numerous methods to calculate water stress (e.g., The Faulkenmark Indicator [6]), and many maps that display current and projected future water stress. In most cases, water stress is measured by comparing the amount of water used to that which is readily available, as explained by Maplecroft:

“The Maplecroft Water Stress Index evaluates the ratio of total water use (sum of domestic, industrial, and agricultural demand) to renewable water supply, which is the available local runoff (precipitation less evaporation) as delivered through streams, rivers, and shallow groundwater. It does not include access to deep subterranean aquifers of water accumulated over centuries and millennia.

The application of the index is to provide a strategic overview of the current situation of physical water stress at global, continental, regional, and national levels. It does not take account [any] future projection, [or] water management policies, such as desalination, or the extent of water re-use” [5].

Figure 1.2 shows the baseline water stress for the world, as estimated by the World Resources Institute for 2015.

Figure 1.2 Global baseline water stress, 2015. Courtesy of World Resources Institute.

The areas of the world that are not rich in water resources and that also experience un-stable and rapid population growth and industrialization will see water stress significantly increase in the future. Figure 1.3 compares the global water stress in 1995 with that predicted for 2025 [7]. As many as 2.8 billion people will face water stress or scarcity issues by 2025; by 2050, that number could reach 4 billion people [7] (See Figure 1.4 for world-wide 2040 estimates). Water stressed areas will include the south central United States, Eastern Europe, and Asia, while water scarcity (extremely limited access to flush water) will be experienced in the Southwestern United States; Northern, Southern, and Eastern Africa; the Middle East; and most of Asia [2].

Figure 1.3 Global water stress in 1995 and predicted for 2025. Courtesy of Philippe Rekacewicz (Le Monde diplomatique), February 2006.

Figure 1.4 Projected water stress by 2040. Courtesy of World Resources Institute.

1.2.2 Water Demand

The demand for water in developed nations is relatively high. Demand in the United States is about 400 liters per person per day [4]. Some Western countries that have been successful in implementing conservation and reuse measures have seen their demand for water drop to about 150 liters per person per day [4, 8]. However, the limited availability and access to water in some parts of the world, results in much lower consumption in these regions. For example, per capita freshwater consumption in Africa is only about 20 liters per day due to the shortage of suitable water [8]. The World Heath Organization (WHO) deems 15 to 20 liters per person per day is necessary for survival, while 50 liters per person per day is estimated to be needed for operation of basic infrastructure such as hospitals and schools (see Figure 1.5) [4]. The WHO estimates that by 2025, the worldwide demand for fresh water will exceed supply by 56% [8].

Figure 1.5 Global demand for water and World Health Organization basic water requirements (2010).[4, 8].

In addition to population growth, another pressure being exerted on water supply is fact that the per capita water demand is increasing faster than the rate of population growth [9]. According to Global Water Intelligence [10], the per capital water demand has outpaced population growth by a factor of 2. By 2050, global water demand is expected to increase 55% over 2015 demands, primarly due to manufacturing, thermal electricity generation and domestic use [11].

1.2.3 Additional Water Stress Due to Climate Change

While population growth and per capita increase in demand are two major water stressors, the impact of climate change on global water stress cannot be ignored. The effects of climate change actually work synergistically with population growth and increasing demand to strain water supply. As population and industrialization grow, climate change accelerates, leading to more drastic climate events such as drought. A study by the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) indicates that severe drought is a real possibility for many populous countries [12]. Regions that are projected to experience considerable drought include most of Latin America, the Mediterranean regions, Southeast and Southwest Asia, Africa, the southwest United States, and Australia [9]. Coincidentally, many of these regions are also experiencing increases in population, industrialization and, urbanization, with the corresponding increase in per capita water demand. The United Nations forecasts that the world will have 27 cities with populations greater than 10 million by the year 2020, and all but 3, New York City, Moscow, and Paris, will be in regions under the threat of significant drought [9].

Risks to freshwater supplies increase with increasing greenhouse gas emissions (via industrialization). [11] For example, higher seawater levels due to melting of polar ice can lead to a variety of problems, including seawater intrusion into coastal aquifers and higher water temperatures, leading to faster dissolved oxygen depletion, both of which affect the quality of this fresh water source. [13].

The effects of climate change on water balance and availability, coupled with population growth and industrialization, will create added future challenges for finding more fresh water to meet demand.

1.3 Finding More Fresh Water

For much of the world’s urbanized population, fresh water is an afterthought, a commodity that has been easy to find and always there at the tap. However, water in some parts of the world is increasingly considered a “product” that must to be found and developed to meet growing demand. Depending on the specific circumstances in a particular geography, one or more methods may need to be implemented to find and develop water sources to meet future water needs. Some of these methods are summarized below.

1.3.1 Relocating Water

Moving water from water-rich areas to water-scarce regions, while sounding extreme, is not a new idea. Witness the diversion of water to the desert southwest United States for drinking, power, and irrigation uses. Los Angeles currently imports 85% of its water demand from outside sources: the Sierra Nevada Mountains, the Delta in Northern California, the Los Angeles Aqueduct, and the Colorado River Aqueduct [14].

However, moving water is not always palatable. Public outcry against moving water from a water-rich region can be a formidable obstacle. Consider the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest United States. “Water is Oregon’s Oil,” declared Oregon State Senator David Nelson in his 2007 white paper, “Columbia River Diversion as a Public Revenue Source.” Diversion of the Columbia River to other western states has been a topic of discussion in the State of Oregon for over 40 years. Not much has come of this discussion to date however, as water-poor areas in the region have found other sources for water, and, more to the point, Oregonians have routinely declined to give up their supply of inexpensive fresh water that also serves as their source for relatively inexpensive hydroelectric power.

Politics can also play a role in how water supplies are dispersed. In the late 2000’s, different political parties in Spain were having a tug-of-war over how to supply the south-eastern area of Spain with water. The conservative party in Spain advocated moving water from the Ebro River (an eastern river whose delta into the Mediterranean Sea is about half way between Barcelona and Valencia) to the Community of Valencia, which lies approximately 200km from the delta. The Socialist Party in power has commissioned the Torrevieja Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) facility, the 6th largest SWRO facility in the world, which is located in Alicante, Municipality of Torrevieja, about 75 km from Valencia. Backers of the Ebro river project have denied a permit for concentrate discharge from the SWRO facility, thereby preventing the construction of the seawater intake and outfall pipelines [14]. The Terreveija facility was delayed for 3 years due in part to the political wrangling. Having been finally constructed, the facility is designed to deliver 240,000 m3/day to approximately 400,000 people (see Figure 1.6). The Valencia province has 2.5+ million people with several more SWRO projects under way that could encounter the same political stalemate.

Figure 1.6 Terrevieja, Spain, 240,000 m3/day seawater reverse osmosis desalination facility. Courtesy and copyright of Acciona.

While importing fresh water makes sense in some cases, public and political pressures, as well as technical issues, such as moving water long distances, particularly when elevation changes are involved, will not make importing water supplies feasible or even possible to meet the requirements of all regions in need of fresh water.

1.3.2 Conservation and Reuse

Conservation is a term that has been used for decades to mean more efficient usage and savings of a resource, in this case, water. The twenty-first century equivalent terms for conservation are sustainability, and more recently green, and reduce/reuse/recycle. Regardless of which term is used, the need to conserve through more efficient usage, recycling, and reuse has become popular in today’s culture. While these techniques are oft times the first choice of populations located in arid areas or far from an ocean as a means of finding more fresh water, all populations can benefit from these techniques.

For example, consider the City of Los Angeles, California, an arid, coastal city that receives only about 40cm of rain a year. Los Angeles imported roughly 85% of its water from northern California, the Owens River, and the Colorado River as of 2013 (see Figure 1.7). Los Angeles is one large metropolitan area that has considered conservation to supply an increasing portion of its future water needs. Los Angeles Country has a current population of about 10.2 million people and is expected to grow to reach 26 million inhabitants by 2060 [16]; water demand is expect to rise by 123 million m3per year [9, 17]. The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) describes the future of the city’s water philosophy: “Conservation will continue to be a foundation of LADWP water resource management policy, and will be implemented to the fullest extent concurrent with further consideration of alternative water supplies” [18].

Figure 1.7 Water sources for Los Angeles, California, USA [15].

In addition to its aggressive conservation plan, the LADWP has developed a new Recycled Water Master Plan which relies heavily on recycling highly-treated wastewater as a cost-effective solution to meet some of the future demands of the city [19]. The Edward C. Little Water Recycling Facility (ELWRF) located in the City of El Segundo, Los Angeles County, CA (commonly referred to as “West Basin”), is a model for water conservation, recycling, and reuse. The facility, funded in 1992 following the severe drought in California in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, produced about 236,000 m3/d of recycled water in 2013 at a 2012 investment of $500 million [20]. Five grades of water, known as “designer” water, are produced by the facility to match the needs of local industry (water type listed roughly from lowest to highest quality):

Tertiary wastewater (known as Title 22 Water) for general industrial and irrigation uses, such as irrigating golf courses,

Nitrified water for use in industrial cooling towers,

Softened reverse osmosis (RO) water for ground water recharge,

RO water for low-pressure boiler feed water at local refineries, and

Ultra-pure RO water for high-pressure boiler feed water at local refineries.

The objective of the LADWP Recycled Water Master Plan is to recycle a total of about 62 million m3 of water per year by 2019 at an estimated cost of $715 million to $1 billion [14, 18]; by 2035, the goal is to recycle 72 million m3/year [22]. West Basin has already achieved 2/3 of that water recycling goal. The recycled water conserves 42 million m3/year of water that would have to be imported from elsewhere to meet demands [23].

Table 1.1 shows the water sourcing plan for the LADWP from actual sourcing in 2010 to projected sourcing in 2032. [15]. Conservation and recycling wastewater, using West Basin as the example in Southern California, will require treatment, such as desalination, to produce water that is suitable for reuse. Conservation and recycling has the potential to slow the rate at which new, future supplies of fresh water may need to be developed, but will not, by itself, meet the total local and worldwide need for fresh water.

Table 1.1 Actual and projected water sources for Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. Adapted from [15].

Water source (%)

LADWP 2010 (actual)

LADWP 2035 (plan)

Imported Water, total

84

64

Metropolitan Water District (MWD)

*

48

24

Los Angele Aqueduct

36

34

Other water transfers

0

6

Ground Water

14

16

Conservation

1

9

Recycled Water

1

8

Storm Water Capture

0

3

*Northern California’s Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, via the State Water Project, and the Colorado River, via the Colorado River Aqueduct, provide 45% of MWD water sources.[21]

1.3.3 Develop New Sources of Fresh Water

Developing new sources of fresh water other than traditional sources, such as lakes, rivers, or relatively shallow wells, is another method for meeting the demand for more fresh water. The most common new sources for developing new fresh water supplies are seawater and deep wells or saline aquifers, and waste water.

Seawater is the traditional source water when one thinks of desalination. Seawater represents the feed water source for the majority of desalination facilities in the world (59%) [24]. The majority of these facilities were developed in the Arabian Gulf region, Algeria, Australia, and Spain. In the united states seawater desalination is also being used to reduce the dependence of the Southern California Region on imported water. Southern California has a handful of direct seawater desalination facilities, the largest of which is the Claude “Bud” Lewis Carlsbad SWRO Desalination Facility near San Diego (see Figure 1.8). The facility was commissioned in December, 2015, and supplies 190,000 m3/day of fresh water to San Diego