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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
The mainstream upper-level undergraduate textbook designed for first courses in Developmental Psychopathology
Developmental Psychopathology provides a comprehensive introduction to the evolving scientific discipline that focuses on the interactions between the biological, psychological, behavioral, and social contextual aspects of normal and abnormal human development. Designed for advanced undergraduates and early graduate students with no previous engagement with the subject, this well-balanced textbook integrates clinical knowledge and scientific practice to help students understand both how and why mental health problems emerge across the lifespan.
Organized into four parts, the text first provides students with essential background information on traditional approaches to psychopathology, developmental psychopathology (DP), normal development, and insecure attachment. The next section addresses attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and other problems emerging in childhood. Part III covers problems that arise in adolescence and young adulthood, such as depression, suicide, eating disorders, and schizophrenia. The text concludes with a discussion of special topics such as the relation between pathopsychological issues and divorce, separation, and loss. Each chapter includes a visual demonstration of the DP approach, a clinical case, further readings, and discussion questions. Developmental Psychopathology:
- Presents a coherent organization of material that illustrates the DP principle of cutting across multiple levels of analysis
- Covers common psychopathological problems including antisocial behavior, substance use disorders, fear and anxiety, and emerging personality disorders
- Features integrative DP models based on the most recent research in psychopathological disorders
- Provides instructors with a consistent pedagogical framework for teaching upper-level students encountering the discipline for the first time
Developmental Psychopathology is the perfect textbook for advanced undergraduate or graduate courses in Child Psychopathology, Abnormal Child Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Family Dynamics and Psychopathology.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Preface
Reference
The Editors
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Part I: Background
Chapter 1: Traditional Approaches to Child Psychopathology
Chapter Overview
Diagnosis and Classification
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
The International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
Quantitative Classification Approaches
The Limitations of Traditional Approaches to Diagnosis and Classification
The Value of a Developmental Psychopathology Approach
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Chapter 2: Developmental Psychopathology
Chapter Overview
The History of the Developmental Psychopathology Approach
The Definitional Principles of Developmental Psychopathology
Developmental Psychopathology Research Methodology
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Chapter 3: Normal Development
Chapter Overview
The Family Context and Life Cycle Theory
Physical Development
Cognitive Development
Social–Emotional Development
Moral Development
Sex‐Role Development
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Chapter 4: Insecure Attachment and Related Difficulties
Chapter Overview
Definition and Theoretical Underpinnings
Factors Affecting the Distribution of Attachment Styles in the General Population
Attachment and Psychopathology
Developmental Continuities and Discontinuities
A Developmental Psychopathology Model of the Etiology of Attachment Security
Interventions
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Part II: Problems of Early and Middle Childhood
Chapter 5: Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Chapter Overview
Definition, Diagnosis, and Clinical Features
Prevalence
Comorbidity
Developmental Continuities and Discontinuities (Course)
A Developmental Psychopathology Model of ADHD
Interventions
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Chapter 6: Autism Spectrum Disorder
Chapter Overview
Definition, Diagnosis, and Clinical Features
Prevalence
Comorbidity
Developmental Continuities and Discontinuities (Course)
A Developmental Psychopathology Model of the Etiology of ASD
Interventions
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Chapter 7:
Emergence of Antisocial Behavior in Middle Childhood
Chapter Overview
Definition, Diagnosis, and Clinical Features
Prevalence
Comorbidity
Developmental Continuities and Discontinuities
A Developmental Psychopathology Model of the Etiology of Antisocial Behavior
Interventions
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Chapter 8: Fear and Anxiety
Chapter Overview
Definition, Diagnosis, and Clinical Features
Prevalence
Comorbidity
Developmental Course
A Developmental Psychopathology Model of Anxiety Disorders
Interventions
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Part III: Problems of Adolescence and Early Adulthood
Chapter 9: Depression
Chapter Overview
Definition, Diagnosis, and Clinical Features
Prevalence
Comorbidity
Developmental Continuities and Discontinuities (Course)
A Developmental Psychopathology Model of the Etiology of Depression
Evidence‐Based Interventions
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Chapter 10: Eating Disorders
Chapter Overview
Definition, Diagnosis, and Clinical Features
Prevalence
Comorbidity
Developmental Continuities and Discontinuities (Course)
A Developmental Psychopathology Model of the Etiology of Eating Disorders
Interventions
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
References
Chapter 11: Substance Use Disorders
Chapter Overview
Definition, Diagnosis, and Clinical Features
Prevalence
Comorbidity
Developmental Psychopathology Models of Substance Use Disorder
Gene–Environment Interactions
Developmental Timing Effects
Assessment of Substance Use Disorders
Intervention with Substance Use Disorders
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary of Terms
References
Chapter 12: Schizophrenia
Chapter Overview
Definition, Diagnosis, and Clinical Features
Prevalence
Comorbidity
Developmental Continuities and Discontinuities (Course)
A Developmental Psychopathology Model of the Etiology of Schizophrenia
Intervention
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Chapter 13: Emerging Personality Disorders
Chapter Overview
Definition, Diagnosis, and Clinical Features
Prevalence
Comorbidity
Developmental Continuities and Discontinuities (Course)
A Developmental Psychopathology Model of Borderline Personality Disorder
Evidence‐Based Interventions
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Part IV: Special Topics and Conclusions
Chapter 14: Child Maltreatment
Chapter Overview
Varying Definitions of a Multifaceted Construct
Prevalence, Incidence, and Economic Impact
Child Maltreatment Within a Developmental Psychopathology Framework
Prevention and Intervention
Future Research Directions
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Chapter 15: Divorce, Separation, and Loss
Chapter Overview
Definition, Diagnosis, and Clinical Features
Prevalence
Developmental Continuities and Discontinuities (Course)
A Developmental Psychopathology Model of Child Adjustment After Divorce or Separation
Interventions for Children of Divorced Parents
Prevalence of Loss Difficulties
A Brief Developmental Psychopathology Model of Child Adjustment After Loss
Interventions for Bereaved Children
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
Discussion/Essay Questions
Glossary
References
Chapter 16: Quo Vadis
Chapter Overview
Where Have We Been?
Where Are We Going?
The General Psychopathology Factor: A Singular Model of Psychopathology
Glossary
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 5
TABLE 5.1 ADHD as Defined by the DSM 5, ICD‐11, and the Actuarial Child Behavio...
Chapter 7
TABLE 7.1 Externalizing Disorders as Defined by the DSM‐5, ICD‐11, and the Dime...
Chapter 8
TABLE 8.1 Anxiety Disorders in the DSM‐5, ICD‐11, and ASEBA Scales...
TABLE 8.2 Summary of Brain Regions Associated with Child and Adolescent Anxiety
Chapter 9
TABLE 9.1 Depression as Defined by the DSM 5, ICD‐11, and the Dimensional ASEBA S...
TABLE 9.2 Developmental Differences in the Symptoms and Syndrome of Depression
TABLE 9.3 Lifetime Prevalence of DSM‐IV‐TR/CIDI Mood Disorders by Age and Gender ...
TABLE 9.4 Summary of Brain Regions Associated with Child and Adolescent Depressio...
Chapter 10
TABLE 10.1 Eating Disorders as Defined by the DSM‐5 and ICD‐11
TABLE 10.2 DSM‐5 Eating Disorder Prevalence in a Community Cohort of Adolescents...
TABLE 10.3 Evidence‐Based Therapies for Eating Disorders in Adolescents
Chapter 11
TABLE 11.1 Diagnostic Structure for Substance Use Disorder in DSM, ICD‐11, and AS...
Chapter 12
TABLE 12.1 Schizophrenia as Defined by the DSM‐5, ICD‐11, and the Dimensional ASE...
TABLE 12.2 Examples of Family Factors Related to Risk for Schizophrenia from the ...
TABLE 12.3 Examples of Goals and Strategies That Can Be Included in Cognitive Rem...
Chapter 13
TABLE 13.1 DSM‐5 Diagnostic Criteria for Borderline Personality Disorder (adapted...
TABLE 13.2 Elements of Personality Functioning (Criterion A of AMPD)
TABLE 13.3 Pathological Personality Trait Domains and Facets (Criterion B of ...
Chapter 14
TABLE 14.1 PTSD According to DSM‐5, ICD‐11, and the ASEBA System
Chapter 15
TABLE 15.1 Adjustment Disorders as Defined by the DSM‐5 and ICD‐11...
List of Illustrations
Preface
FIGURE 1 Developmental Psychopathology Framework
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.1 Schizoid Personality as Defined by DSM‐I Through DSM‐5 and the AM...
FIGURE 1.2 Illustration of How the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Matrix Gu...
FIGURE 1.3 Limitations of Approaches to Diagnosis and Classification of Psyc...
Chapter 2
FIGURE 2.1 Example of Heterotypic Continuity. The Nature of Externalizing or...
FIGURE 2.2 A. Multifinality: Similar Early Experiences Lead to Different Out...
FIGURE 2.3 Multiple Levels of Analyses
FIGURE 2.4 Common Risk and Protective Factors in Child Outcomes. Risk Factor...
FIGURE 2.5 Contrasting Linear and Transactional Models for Explaining Develo...
Chapter 4
FIGURE 4.1 Control Systems Model of the Attachment Behavioral System.
FIGURE 4.2 Ways in Which Attachment Manifests Behaviorally Across Developmen...
FIGURE 4.3 Two‐Dimensional Model of Attachment.
FIGURE 4.4 A Developmental Psychopathology Model of Insecure Attachment
FIGURE 4.5 Secure Mothers Showed Greater Activation in Areas of the Brain Associ...
FIGURE 4.6 Circle of Security.
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5.1 Developmental Psychopathology Model of ADHD
FIGURE 5.2 Neural Circuits Implicated in Attention‐Deficit Hyperactivity Dis...
Chapter 6
FIGURE 6.1 A Developmental Psychopathology Model of ASD
FIGURE 6.2 Sally Anne Task.
Chapter 7
FIGURE 7.1 A Developmental Psychopathology Model of Conduct or Oppositional ...
Chapter 8
FIGURE 8.1 A Developmental Psychopathology Model of Childhood Anxiety
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9.1 DSM‐5 Classification of Depressive Disorders
FIGURE 9.2 12‐Month Depression Prevalence in Adolescents. Source: National I...
FIGURE 9.3 A Developmental Psychopathology Model of Depression
FIGURE 9.4 (a) Reward outcome x group interaction observed at a subregion (3...
FIGURE 9.5 Results of Multiple Regression Analyses Estimating the Associatio...
Chapter 10
FIGURE 10.1 Russell’s Sign on the Hands of a 32‐Year‐Old Woman.
FIGURE 10.2 Developmental Psychopathology Model of Eating Disorders
Chapter 11
FIGURE 11.1 A Developmental Psychopathology Model of Substance Use Disorder...
Chapter 12
FIGURE 12.1 A Developmental Psychopathology Model of Schizophrenia
FIGURE 12.2 The Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia by Howes and Kapur, 200...
Chapter 13
FIGURE 13.1 A Developmental Psychopathology Model of Borderline Personality...
Chapter 14
FIGURE 14.1 A Developmental Psychopathology Model of Child Maltreatment
Chapter 15
FIGURE 15.1 A Developmental Psychopathology Model of Childhood Effects Follo...
FIGURE 15.2 Pre‐divorce Maternal Sensitivity Protects Against the Emergence ...
FIGURE 15.3 Children of Divorce‐Coping with Divorce Program Outline.
FIGURE 15.4 Sandler et al.’s (2008) Contextual Framework on Adaptation Follo...
Chapter 16
FIGURE 16.1 Developmental Psychopathology Framework
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Preface
The Editors
List of Contributors
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Developmental Psychopathology
AMANDA VENTACARLA SHARPJACK M. FLETCHER ANDPETER FONAGYEDITORS
This edition first published 2021© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Amanda Venta, Carla Sharp, Jack M. Fletcher and Peter Fonagy to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Venta, Amanda, 1987– editor.Title: Developmental psychopathology / edited by Amanda Venta, Ph.D. Associate Professor Department of Psychology University of Houston [and three others].Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2020043391 (print) | LCCN 2020043392 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118686485 (paperback) | ISBN 9781118686218 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781118686447 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Child psychopathology. | Child development. | Child mental health.Classification: LCC RJ499 .D4828 2021 (print) | LCC RJ499 (ebook) | DDC 618.92/89–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020043391LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020043392
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © sarayut /iStock /Getty Images Plus/Getty Images
This book is dedicated to the many youth and families who, by volunteering to participate in research, have taught us so much about developmental psychopathology.
Preface
Developmental Psychopathology is an interdisciplinary field that emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s and is defined as “an evolving scientific discipline whose predominant focus is elucidating the interplay among the biological, psychological, and social contextual aspects of normal and abnormal development across the life span” (Cicchetti, 2006, p. 1). While this definition certainly highlights the enormous undertaking that a developmental psychopathology perspective demands, a number of principles help to guide us:
Interweaving studies of
normal development and pathological
functioning into a true synthesis
Examining developmental
continuities and discontinuities
of traits, behaviors, emotional responses, and disorders
Evaluating evidence across
multiple levels of analysis
to include the biological, individual, family, social, and cultural levels
Incorporating
distinct perspectives
: clinical, developmental psychology, child/adolescent psychiatry, genetics, neurology, public health, and philosophy of science into multidisciplinary effort
Exploring
both risk and protective
factors and their interplay in order to delineate pathways of risk and resilience
Involving
reciprocal, transactional models
of influence in the field’s causal models (e.g., gene–environment interaction)
These principles highlight how the developmental psychopathology approach differs from the traditional descriptive psychiatric approaches represented in most child psychology textbooks. The developmental psychopathology approach goes beyond the “what” of psychopathology to include the “how” of psychopathology. How does normal development go awry? What factors determine the multiple pathways that lead to psychopathology in one child, but not another? Because of the focus on “how,” the developmental psychopathology approach has, over the last 30 years, become the guiding framework for understanding psychopathology in youth. Courses both at the undergraduate and graduate levels are being renamed from “Abnormal Child Psychology” to “Developmental Psychopathology.” Yet, few textbooks have been created to guide teaching of developmental psychopathology courses at the upper undergraduate level.
There are two major challenges in writing a developmental psychopathology textbook: (1) finding organizing principles that can structure a complex, dense, and multidisciplinary field into manageable chapters and (2) not digressing back to a descriptive psychiatric approach of providing information on the “what” of disorders, but rather staying true to the “how” of psychopathology. In addressing these challenges, the organization of the textbook is as follows:
In Part I, three introductory chapters lay the foundation. First, we want to present how psychology has typically classified and understood psychopathology, highlighting both the benefits and problems of the traditional approach. Building on that background, we then describe how the developmental psychopathology approach can address some of the limitations of the traditional approach. We will use the principles of developmental psychopathology throughout the rest of this book. In Part I, we also provide a summary of normal development, which is key to the developmental psychopathology approach—that is, we understand that normal and abnormal development are both components of understanding disorder. In this section you will also find a chapter on insecure attachment—a way of describing relationships between children and their caregivers—because, when disrupted, those relationships often relate to various forms of psychopathology.
To showcase the fact that our approach is “developmental,” disorders are organized not following the usual organization in psychopathology textbooks (e.g., mood disorders), but rather how they appear through development. Accordingly, Part II of this book focuses on the problems that first emerge in childhood: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorders, antisocial behavior, and fear and anxiety. In Part III, we shift our focus further down the developmental course in order to focus on adolescents, with chapters covering depression and suicide, eating disorders, substance use disorders, schizophrenia, and emerging personality disorders. It is important to note that the problems described in Part II also affect teenagers, and that the problems described in Parts II and III also affect adults. We have arranged sections by the stage of development where problems are typically first noticed by individuals and their loved ones, but every chapter reviews psychopathology that exists, in some form, across the whole lifespan. Finally, in Part IV of the book we talk about important topics in developmental psychopathology that were not covered elsewhere, like maltreatment and divorce, separation, and loss. We close with a chapter asking “quo vadis?” or “where do we go from here?” which looks to the future.
Disorder chapters will be organized similarly: (1)
defining the disorder
according to the DSM, (2) presenting the most empirically validated developmental psychopathology
model
for that disorder, reflecting the interplay between risk and protective factors across multiple levels of analyses—to include the biological, individual, social, and cultural factors, (3) discussing the empirical evidence in support of each of the
etiological factors
in the model, including studies that have tested interactions between factors (e.g., gene–environment studies), (4) presenting
assessment and intervention
implications, and (5) highlighting areas for
future research
.
Each chapter will contain a figure capturing the developmental psychopathology approach visually. Your first introduction to that figure is in this preface, where each of the terms is defined (see
Figure 1
). You will also see this framework through the remainder of the book and we encourage you to refer back here when you need a reminder of what each component represents.
FIGURE 1 Developmental Psychopathology Framework
It is our hope that this textbook will provide you with a rich understanding of psychopathology that moves beyond simple characterizations of mental health disorder as something you either do or do not have—something that was absent one day and emerged the next. The developmental psychopathology approach instead paints a more complicated, flexible picture of psychopathology. We will review research in each of the areas described above, showing that psychopathology emerges through the combination of many factors that shift across time—some of which are deeply buried in our biology and some of which exist in our outside environments. This approach is not only consistent with the most cutting‐edge science, but it can help combat stereotypes and stigma about mental illness head‐on by showing that all of us are shaped by small and large forces across our lives, many of which are out of our control.
Reference
Cicchetti, Dante (2006). Theory and method. In Dante Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.),
Development and psychopathology
(2nd ed., pp). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The Editors
Amanda Venta, PhDAssociate ProfessorDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of Houston
Carla Sharp, PhDProfessorDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of Houston
Jack M. Fletcher, PhDHugh Roy and Lillie Cranz Cullen Distinguished ProfessorAssociate Vice President for Research AdministrationAssociate Chair, Department of PsychologyUniversity of Houston
Peter Fonagy, FMedSci FBAHead of the Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College LondonChief Executive, Anna Freud National Centre for Children & FamiliesDirector, UCLPartners Integrated Mental Health & Behaviour Change ProgrammeSenior Clinical Advisor on Children’s Mental Health, NHS England
Library of Congress Information
Amanda Cristina Venta, Date of Birth: March 20, 1987Carla Sharp, Date of Birth: October 9, 1971Jack McFarlin Fletcher, Date of Birth: May 12, 1952Peter Fonagy, Date of Birth: August 14, 1952
About the Editors
Amanda Venta, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Psychology serving the APA Accredited Clinical Psychology doctoral program at the University of Houston. She received her BA from Rice University and her MA and PhD in Clinical Psychology from the University of Houston. She completed her pre‐doctoral internship at DePelchin Children’s Center through the Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Baylor College of Medicine, where she remains Adjunct Faculty. Dr. Venta’s clinical training focused on children, adolescents, and families, with practicum placements at DePelchin Children’s Center and Texas Children’s Hospital. She also provided psychological services within the University of Houston’s Psychology Research and Services Center and in several Houston‐area schools. Her primary research interests are the development of psychopathology in youth and the protective effect of attachment security, with additional interests in emotion dysregulation and social cognition. She has recently focused on the psychological functioning of recently immigrated adolescents from Central America, with related research and clinical work. Her published work includes more than 90 manuscripts and chapters as well as two books in press besides the current edited volume, including Cultural competency in psychological assessment: Working effectively with Latinos with Oxford University Press and an edited collection entitled Serving Refugee Children: Listening to Stories of Detention in the USA with Peter Lang. She has received research funding from the National Institute of Minority Health and Health Disparities, the National Institutes of Mental Health, and the American Psychological Foundation.
Carla Sharp, PhD, trained as a clinical psychologist (University of Stellenbosch, South Africa) from 1994 to 1997, after which she completed a PhD in Developmental Psychopathology at Cambridge University, UK, 1997–2000. In 2001, she obtained full licensure as a Clinical Psychologist in the UK through a Statement of Equivalence with the British Psychological Society. From 2001 to 2004 she was appointed as a Research Postdoctoral Fellow in Developmental Psychopathology, Cambridge University. In 2004, she moved to the United States to take up an appointment as Assistant Professor in the Menninger Department of Psychiatry at Baylor College of Medicine. She obtained provisional licensure as a Clinical Psychologist in Texas in 2008. In 2009, she was appointed as Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Houston. In 2014 Dr. Sharp was promoted to Full Professor. Her published work includes over 270 peer‐reviewed publications and numerous chapters reflecting her interests in the social‐cognitive basis of psychiatric problems and problems of behavioral health, and the application of this work in developing diagnostic tools and interventions in youth. She has co‐authored three books: An edited volume with Springer titled The handbook of borderline personality disorder in children and adolescents, an edited volume with Oxford University Press titled Social cognition and developmental psychopathology, and a book with MIT Press titled Midbrain mutiny: Behavioral economics and neuroeconomics of gambling addiction as a basic reward system disorder. Her work has been continuously funded since 2009 by the National Institutes of Health and various foundations.
Jack M. Fletcher, PhD, is a Hugh Roy and Lillie Cranz Cullen Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the University of Houston. He received a BA degree from Davidson College in 1973 and a PhD in clinical psychology from the University of Florida in 1978. Dr. Fletcher has been affiliated with The University of Houston since 1979, first as an adjunct assistant professor (1979–1985), then as a tenured Associate Professor (1985–1989), adjunct Professor (1989–2006), and beginning his current tenured appointment in 2006. From 1978 to 1985, Dr. Fletcher was the Acting Director of the Mental Retardation/Developmental Disabilities Research Section at the Texas Research Institute of Mental Sciences; from 1989 to 2006, Dr. Fletcher was a tenured Professor in the Division of Developmental Pediatrics in the Department of Pediatrics at The University of Texas Medical School, Houston. For the past 40 years, Dr. Fletcher, a board‐certified child neuropsychologist, has worked on issues related to child neuropsychology, including studies of children with spina bifida, traumatic brain injury, and other acquired disorders. In the area of developmental learning and attention disorders, Dr. Fletcher has addressed issues related to definition and classification, neurobiological correlates, and, most recently, intervention. Dr. Fletcher directs a Learning Disability Research Center grant funded by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. He served on the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development National Advisory Council, the Rand Reading Study Group, the National Research Council Committee on Scientific Principles in Education Research, and the President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education. The author of three books and over 400 papers, Dr. Fletcher was the recipient of the Samuel T. Orton award from the International Dyslexia Association in 2003 and a co‐recipient of the Albert J. Harris award from the International Reading Association in 2006. He was President of the International Neuropsychological Society in 2008–2009.
Peter Fonagy, PhD, is Head of the Division of Psychology and Language Sciences at UCL; Chief Executive of the Anna Freud National Centre for Children and Families, London; Consultant to the Child and Family Programme at the Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences at Baylor College of Medicine; and holds visiting professorships at Yale and Harvard Medical Schools. He has occupied a number of key leadership positions including Chair of the Outcomes Measurement Reference Group at the UK Department of Health, Chair of two NICE Guideline Development Groups, Chair of the Strategy Group for National Occupational Standards for Psychological Therapies, and co‐chaired the UK Department of Health’s Expert Reference Group on Vulnerable Children. His clinical interests centre on issues of early attachment relationships, social cognition, borderline personality disorder and violence. He has published over 550 scientific papers, 260 chapters, and has authored or co‐authored 20 books. He is a Fellow of the British Academy, the Academy of Medical Sciences, the Academy of Social Sciences, and the American Association for Psychological Science, and was elected to Honorary Fellowship by the American College of Psychiatrists. He has received Lifetime Achievement Awards from several national and international professional associations, including the British Psychological Society, the International Society for the Study of Personality Disorder, the British and Irish Group for the Study of Personality Disorder, the World Association for Infant Mental Health, and was in 2015 the first UK recipient of the Wiley Prize of the British Academy for Outstanding Achievements in Psychology by an international scholar.
List of Contributors
Anna Abate, MASam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Brian Allen, PhDPenn State College of MedicineHershey, PA
Emma Anderson‐White, MASam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Sarah Barksdale, BASam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Bailey A. Barnes, BASam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Katherine Bergez BSUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Johanna Bick, PhDUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Caitlin H. Child, BSSam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Maxwell R. Christensen, MASam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Haley E. Conroy, BAUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Michelle P. Desir, PhDPenn State College of MedicineHershey, PA
Rachel H. Fein, PhDTexas Children’s HospitalHouston, TX
Jack M. Fletcher, PhDUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Peter Fonagy, PhDUniversity College LondonLondon, UK
Jessica R. Hart, PhDNorthwest Forensic InstitutePortland, OR
Craig E. Henderson, PhDSam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Sophie KerrUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Beata A. Krembuszewski, MASam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Hillary A. Langley, PhDSam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Rebecca Lipschutz, MSUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Allison C. MeinertUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Deborah Michel, PhD, CED‐S, FAEDEating Recovery CenterHouston, TX
Sarah S. Mire, PhDUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Francesca Penner, MAUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Elizabeth M. Raines, MAUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Mayra B. Ramos, MASam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Mia M. Ricardo, MASam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Matthew T. RobertsSam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Lauren J. Ryan, MASam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Carla Sharp, PhDUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Chad E. Shenk, PhDPenn State College of MedicineHershey, PA
Eric Sumlin, BAUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Cody Sze, BASam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, TX
Erika S. Trent, MAUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Amanda Venta, PhDUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Andres G. Viana, PhDUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Jesse Walker, BAUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Kiana Wall, MAUniversity of HoustonHouston, TX
Part IBackground
In these first four chapters, we provide the background you will need for the rest of the book. You will learn first about the ways that mental health practitioners and researchers have thought about and defined psychopathology traditionally (Chapter 1) and also about an alternative approach (Chapter 2) that solves some of the problems identified in the traditional approaches. The approach covered in Chapter 2—called developmental psychopathology—will carry us through the remaining chapters in this book. Throughout this entire book, we will highlight how studying psychopathology goes hand‐in‐hand with studying normal development, or the absence of psychopathology. For that reason, in this introductory part of the book we also include a chapter on normal development (Chapter 3) and a chapter highlighting the essential role of caregiving relationships (Chapter 4), for context. Specifically, in this part of the book, we will cover the following topics:
Chapter 1
. Traditional Approaches to Psychopathology
Chapter 2
. Developmental Psychopathology
Chapter 3
. Normal Development
Chapter 4
. Insecure Attachment and Related Difficulties
Chapter 1 Traditional Approaches to Child Psychopathology
Kiana Wall, Eric Sumlin, and Carla Sharp
Chapter Overview
What is psychopathology? How do we know when a child or adolescent has clinically significant symptoms of a psychological or behavioral disorder? How do we ensure that medical and mental health professionals, patients, and other stakeholders assess for, and communicate about, mental illness in a consistent way? Formal diagnostic systems and other approaches to the classification of psychopathology allow us to answer these questions to varying degrees. In this chapter, we will discuss different approaches to understanding, classifying, and diagnosing psychopathology in children and adolescents. We conclude with a summary of the limitations of each approach and introduce the benefit of a developmental psychopathology approach to conceptualizing psychopathology.
Diagnosis and Classification
Psychopathology is the study of mental disorders. Mental, or psychological, disorders are characterized by behavioral patterns and cognitive, emotional, and physical symptoms that deviate from a normative developmental trajectory and are not typical of individuals living in the same cultural context. “Mental disorders are usually associated with significant distress or disability in social, occupational, or other important activities” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 20) because symptoms of mental illness can have serious negative impacts on people’s physical health, education, employment, relationships, and well‐being. Unsurprisingly, then, scientists, philosophers, doctors, and other scholars have taken an interest in psychopathology since ancient times. Historically, how have we decided what psychological symptoms or behaviors are considered abnormal? How do we keep track of this knowledge or information to ensure that everyone with an interest in mental health or a role in treating mental health concerns is educated and “on the same page” when it comes to psychopathology? In the modern era, we have facilitated communication about mental health and tried to understand and organize knowledge about psychopathology using classification systems.
Classification is the act of categorizing things according to a set of criteria. Things in the same category tend to share similar characteristics or features. For example, biologists interested in taxonomy, the science of classification, might classify sea creatures according to dimensions such as size, diet, or gestation process. Classification systems for psychopathology aim to organize the observed symptoms of psychological disorders. The most commonly used and well‐known classification system for mental disorders in the United States (US) is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The most recent version of the DSM, the DSM‐5, contains 22 classes of disorders. Within each class, specific diagnoses are listed and most of these diagnoses list a set of criteria and number of symptoms that must be met for an individual’s functioning to be considered abnormal and for a diagnosis to be given. The diagnoses in each class share similar features. For example, one class of disorders in the DSM‐5 is the anxiety disorders. These disorders “share features of excessive fear and anxiety and related behavioral disturbances” (APA, 2013, p. 189). Diagnoses within the anxiety disorder class differ from one another in the types of situations and objects that cause fear, anxiety, and avoidance behavior, and all the diagnoses within the anxiety disorder class differ from diagnoses in the other classes in important ways. According to the DSM‐5, the organization of symptoms into disorders and disorders into classes based on their shared features is “a historically determined cognitive schema imposed on clinical and scientific information to increase its comprehensibility and utility” (APA, 2013, p. 10). In other words, historical scientific research and clinical wisdom was utilized to organize and classify symptoms in a way that would allow for easier communication between mental health providers, patients, and other stakeholders.
How do classification systems for psychopathology improve our understanding of an individual’s mental illness and communicate about it more easily? Once mental health providers assess for the presence of psychopathological symptoms or observe certain behaviors in their patients, they can use a classification and diagnostic system to organize their findings and come to a differential diagnosis. The process of diagnosing an individual gives mental health providers a starting point, including guidance about the cause of this person’s difficulties, the likely course their symptoms might take, and the outcomes they might experience without intervention. These considerations can have important implications for treatment planning. Classification and diagnostic systems also act as a “shorthand” between providers, with insurance companies, and with government agencies. Rather than describe all the symptoms an individual is experiencing one by one, which could be a time‐consuming process that potentially violates an individual’s right to privacy, mental health providers and other involved agencies can quickly communicate the overall “gist” of a person’s presenting problems by using a classification system to give them a diagnostic label.
It is important to note that although individuals with the same diagnosis experience some of the same symptoms, they often present with very heterogeneous symptom profiles. Additionally, there is no one etiology underlying the symptoms of these disorders. Therefore, a psychological disorder diagnosis, as described in the DSM‐5, is only a list and description of symptoms that appear to occur together, resulting in a phenotype or set of observable characteristics. This phenotype is often associated with specific outcomes, suggesting that intervention on the phenotype is necessary. But why should we use a classification and diagnostic system, like the DSM‐5, if there are sometimes large differences between individuals with the same diagnosis or uncertainty regarding the cause of diagnoses? In short, it is because diagnoses are useful to us (Frances & Widiger, 2012). They help us do all the things already discussed in this chapter, such as communicate with other professionals and patients, conceptualize patient problems, and identify the most effective interventions possible.
Psychopathology classification and diagnostic systems are, however, not infallible (Frances & Widiger, 2012) nor definitive. They are simply our best attempt to describe and organize the psychological, behavioral, and emotional phenomena that clinicians and researchers observe in their practices, laboratories, and in the real world. We will now review the history and content of two of the most well‐known and widely used psychological disorder classification and diagnostic systems – the DSM and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD).
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
The DSM is the most well‐known and widely used classification and diagnostic system for psychological disorders in the US. The DSM was born out of the American Psychiatric Association’s (APA) desire to create a coherent system of communication in the field of psychiatry, and the first edition was published in 1952. The DSM‐I contained 128 diagnoses organized into different classes of disorders (Blashfield et al., 2014). The distinct disorders were derived from the clinical experiences of APA members and not through research, as available studies at that time were extremely limited. Each category and diagnosis contained a brief description of that class and the disorders’ symptoms, traits, and behaviors (Blashfield et al., 2014). Of significant note, the DSM‐I contained few references to children or adolescents, or how psychopathology would present itself in these periods of development.
The DSM would go on to be substantively revised five times (DSM‐II, III, III‐R, IV, and 5), with the number of diagnoses listed increasingly steadily since 1952 (see Figure 1.1). Whereas the DSM‐I contained 128 diagnoses, the DSM‐5 contains 541 diagnoses organized into 22 diagnostic categories. Between the publication of DSM‐I in 1952 and the publication of DSM‐II in 1963, studies examining the reliability of psychiatric diagnoses and the clinical utility of categories of diagnoses increased (Blashfield et al., 2014). This provided the APA with some empirical evidence for drafting DSM‐II and began the shift that would lead the DSM from being a descriptive, clinically based classification system to an empirically supported one.
The publication of DSM‐III was significant because it aimed to bring psychiatry in line with the rest of medicine by ensuring that more information was provided in the text about the symptomology, demographics, etiology, and course of each disorder, basing this information on available empirical evidence. Importantly, it provided specific symptom thresholds for determining whether the disorder was present (e.g., at least three of seven symptoms must be present), and exclusion criteria for determining when an individual should not be diagnosed with a disorder. DSM‐III was also atheoretical, which means that it did not adhere to any one theory about psychopathology (e.g., psychoanalytic, behavioral).
These changes initiated a period of rapid, systematic empirical research. For the first time, researchers at different institutions were able to reliably assess and report on disorders because of the newly operationalized symptoms, and the provision of exclusion criteria allowed studies to examine specific disorders one at a time. Structured interviews were also created, and these further increased the reliability of assessment. However, almost immediately after publication of DSM‐III, several studies suggested that the diagnostic criteria published had a number of flaws (Blashfield et al., 2014). Therefore, in 1987, DSM‐III‐R was published with new diagnoses and diagnostic categories, updated diagnostic criteria for many of the disorders, and a section containing unofficial disorders for further research and consideration. Reliance on empirical evidence for revising the DSM continued to increase such that prior to the publication of DSM‐IV, workgroups were assigned to each diagnostic category to conduct thorough literature reviews and analyses of existing databases so that empirical evidence could be used to revise the diagnostic criteria and organization of the DSM.
FIGURE 1.1 Schizoid Personality as Defined by DSM‐I Through DSM‐5 and the AMPD of DSM‐5
Leading up to the publication of DSM‐5, many researchers pushed for the inclusion of more dimensional representations of psychopathology. A dimensional approach suggests that symptoms and traits exist on continuums. Rather than putting people into yes–no categories based on whether or not they have a certain number of symptoms, researchers who advocate for a dimensional approach place people on a dimension of symptom severity ranging from not present or not severe to very severe, for example. This is in contrast to a categorical representation of psychopathology (the majority of the DSM) where symptoms are assessed and a clinician makes a dichotomous (yes/no) decision about the presence of a diagnosis. Some studies have found that these distinct, diagnostic categories are supported by empirical data, but most studies have found that they are not.
Subsequently, a number of dimensional components were integrated into the DSM‐5 (Regier, Kuhl, & Kupfer, 2013). For example, an alternative dimensional model for personality disorders was introduced to Section III of the DSM for “Emerging Measures and Models” for future research. Additionally, the diagnoses of autistic disorder, Asperger’s disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder were combined into one autism spectrum disorder. This reflects an understanding that these disorders do not differ in “kind” of symptoms or problems, but in “degree” (of severity). Finally, and importantly to the topic of developmental psychopathology, the DSM‐5 had several revisions that improved the assessment of psychopathology in children and adolescents. Specifically, the DSM‐5 added a heading entitled “Development and Course” to each disorder section to describe the typical development of an individual with that disorder across the lifespan and how the individual might present during each developmental stage. The text of many disorders now also expands upon individual variables or characteristics important to the etiology of that disorder, including culture and gender.
The International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
While the DSM is the standard diagnostic manual used in the US, the ICD is the classification system of mental disorders used most widely in the world (Reed et al., 2019). Published by the World Health Organization (WHO), the ICD system was developed in order to catalog and track diseases across populations. The primogenitor of the ICD, the International List of Causes of Death, was published in 1883 and revised four times throughout the following half‐century until the newly formed WHO assumed the responsibility for disease classification in 1948 (ICD‐6; Hirsch et al., 2016). Of note, the ICD‐6 was the first edition to include psychiatric disorders in a compilation of diseases that had previously been more traditionally medical.
Until recently, the ICD‐10, published in 1992 and now named the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, was the latest iteration of the ICD currently in use. The eleventh iteration of the ICD will come into effect on January 1, 2022 (WHO, 2019) and makes several changes over the ICD‐10 while maintaining the goal of prioritizing clinical utility (Reed et al., 2019). Taxonomically, the boundary between disorders usually associated with childhood and adolescence versus adults was removed, reflecting a similar shift to a lifespan approach that we saw in the DSM. Also, similarly to the DSM‐5, the ICD‐11 includes more dimensional approaches to psychopathology. Dimensional qualifiers have been added to describe the symptom presentation of psychotic disorder, and the conceptualization of personality disorders has been overhauled and resembles the Alternative Model of Personality Disorders (AMPD) found in Section III of the DSM‐5.
Quantitative Classification Approaches
The histories of the DSM and the ICD are rooted in psychiatry and a largely categorical approach to classification and diagnosis. The ICD and DSM can also be thought of as “top down” approaches because they rely on the authoritative opinion and clinical experience of psychiatrists to organize symptoms or behaviors into groups or categories. However, there have also been individuals who have suggested that “bottom up” approaches to defining types of psychopathology are ideal. “Bottom up” approaches to the classification of psychopathology often take a statistical or factor analytic approach to organizing symptoms. One of the first articles using “bottom up” analyses to investigate the statistical covariation of symptoms was by Moore (1930). More recently, the well‐known Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA), the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC), and the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) have been developed.
The Achenbach Sysyem of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA)
The ASEBA was developed by Dr. Thomas Achenbach in the 1960s in order to provide clinicians with a tool for assessing psychopathology in children and adolescents (Achenbach, Rescorla, & Maruish, 2004). At that time, the DSM provided very little information about mental illness in childhood. To develop the ASEBA, he first developed self‐report questionnaires that asked about all types of psychopathological symptoms. Using factor analysis, Dr. Achenbach was able to determine which symptoms co‐occurred with one another and seemed to “hang together.” This allowed him to identify different psychological syndromes, similar to how groups of symptoms are listed under a disorder in the DSM. Today, when a clinician or researcher uses one of the measures of the ASEBA, they can use computer software to score the questionnaire and create a symptom profile displaying their score on each syndrome. Using norms established by studying large pools of people of the same age and gender, these profiles indicate how severe a person’s symptoms are compared to others like them. The ASEBA is a “bottom up” approach to understanding and classifying psychopathology and the scales are dimensional because they do not create distinct categories (e.g., those with depression and those without).
The Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Initiative
In 2009, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) launched the RDoC initiative (Insel et al., 2010). This was part of the Institute’s strategic plan to begin developing a dimensional system of psychopathology, ultimately aiming to revamp the traditional categorical models used in the field (i.e., DSM and ICD). The RDoC initiative is not a classification system per se. It is a systematic framework or template for guiding and conducting psychopathological research from a “bottom up” dimensional approach (Kozak & Cuthbert, 2016). Thus, much of the research conducted as part of RDoC examines transdiagnostic symptoms or causal factors shared across many forms of psychopathology. For example, research conducted as part of the RDoC initiative might not look at the symptom or surface level differences between different anxiety disorders defined by the DSM. Instead, studies might look at a certain symptom typically associated with anxiety disorders, such as fear, and study the neurobiological mechanisms, and endophenotypes, underlying fear so that we can better understand how or why a person might develop this specific symptom (see Figure 1.2).
The Hierarchical Taxonomy of The Psychopathology (Hitop) System
Building on the Achenbach system of classification, the HiTOP system (Kotov et al., 2017; Krueger et al., 2018) was developed to address limitations of categorical systems. HiTOP derived its psychopathology syndromes or disorders using statistical analyses, and is therefore a quantitative, “bottom up” approach to psychopathology. Behaviors and symptoms that mental health professionals typically assess were analyzed to identify which covaried, co‐occurred, or clustered together to form syndromes. The “H” in HiTOP (hierarchical) indicates that this system of classification is based on a hierarchical statistical model. After syndromes were statistically identified, they were then organized under higher‐order factors that describe the similarities of the disorders in that factor. For example, HiTOP lists the disorders major depressive disorder (MDD), dysthymia, general anxiety disorder (GAD), post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and borderline personality disorder (BPD) under a higher‐order “distress” factor based on statistical findings that the symptoms of all of these disorders covary. In all, there are currently seven higher‐order factors in the HiTOP system. These factors were then organized under spectra, or groups of factors that correlate with each other. For example, the substance abuse and antisocial behavior factors correlate, and this correlation is explained by an underlying disinhibited externalizing spectra (dimension), suggesting that both substance use problems and antisocial behaviors are both characterized by problems with self‐control of behaviors. Importantly, the HiTOP system is a dimensional classification system for psychopathology (Krueger et al., 2018).
FIGURE 1.2 Illustration of How the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Matrix Guides Research
The Limitations of Traditional Approaches to Diagnosis and Classification
Most of this chapter has been dedicated to reviewing major approaches to classifying and diagnosing psychopathology. At the beginning of this chapter, we noted that these systems are not perfect. The table in Figure 1.3 compares the limitations of each approach.
FIGURE 1.3 Limitations of Approaches to Diagnosis and Classification of Psychopathology
The Value of a Developmental Psychopathology Approach
We hope it is now evident that the major approaches to classification and diagnosis across history serve important purposes but also suffer from substantial weaknesses. In the next chapter, we will describe the developmental psychopathology approach to conceptualizing psychopathology. Developmental psychopathology (DP) means exactly what its name suggests: it is the study of psychological or mental disorders (psychopathology) from a developmental or lifespan perspective. Many features of the DP approach make it a superior alternative to understanding mental illness, particularly in children and adolescents. Briefly, it heavily emphasizes understanding normal development in order to better understand abnormal functioning, making it a dimensional approach to understanding psychopathology. It is also not a classification or diagnostic system per se. Therefore, similar to RDoC, it is not constrained by diagnostic labels or categories but can be used to study these constructs if desired. Also, like the RDoC initiative, and unlike statistical models of psychopathology like HiTOP, a DP approach to studying mental illness examines mechanisms underlying symptomology, rather than the phenotype alone. Finally, unlike all the models and approaches previously described, the DP approach emphasizes and systematically investigates developmental, individual, and environmental risk and protective factors in the etiology of all mental illness. This is particularly critical to understanding childhood and adolescent psychopathology.
Chapter Summary
This introductory chapter was meant to provide you with an understanding of traditional approaches to diagnosing and classifying psychopathology. We reviewed five diagnostic or classification systems and the limitations of these approaches. Finally, we gave you a preview of how a developmental psychopathology approach to conceptualizing psychopathology in children and adolescents can address the limitations of previous diagnostic systems.
Further Reading
Clark, L. A., Cuthbert, B., Lewis‐Fernández, R., Narrow, W. E., & Reed, G. M. (2017). Three approaches to understanding and classifying mental disorder: ICD‐11, DSM‐5, and the National Institute of Mental Health’s Research Domain Criteria (RDoC).
Psychological Science in the Public Interest
,
18
(2), 72–145. doi: 10.1177/1529100617727266.
Insel, T., Cuthbert, B., Garvey, M., Heinssen, R., Pine, D. S., Quinn, K., Sanislow, C., & Wang, P. (2010). Research domain criteria (RDoC): Toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Available at:
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20595427/
.
Kotov, R., Krueger, R. F., Watson, D., Achenbach, T. M., Althoff, R. R., Bagby, R. M., & Eaton, N. R. (2017). The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): A dimensional alternative to traditional nosologies.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
,
126
(4), 454.
Regier, D. A., Kuhl, E. A., & Kupfer, D. J. (2013). The DSM‐5: Classification and criteria changes.
World Psychiatry
,
12
(2), 92–98.
Discussion/Essay Questions
Discuss at least three purposes of classification and diagnostic systems for psychopathology.
Compare and contrast the categorical approach to classifying psychopathology of the DSM‐5 with at least one of the dimensional approaches to classifying psychopathology. Make a list of advantages and disadvantages for each approach.
Are dimensional approaches to thinking about psychopathology superior to categorical approaches? Provide evidence for your answer.
Glossary
Abnormal, in the context of psychopathology, can be defined as behaviors, emotions, and cognitions that deviate from the norm (culturally or developmentally) and cause distress, impairment in functioning, or endanger an individual or those around them.
Alternative Model for Personality Disorders (AMPD) is a hybrid (categorical and dimensional) model for diagnosing personality disorders found in Section III of the DSM‐5.
Categorical refers to an approach to classification of psychopathology that distinguishes between different forms of psychopathology by grouping symptoms to create distinct categories of diagnoses.
Classification is the act of categorizing things according to a set of criteria.
Continuum refers to a way of thinking about a phenomenon as existing on a scale ranging from normal to abnormal.
Developmental psychopathology is the study of psychological or mental disorders (psychopathology) from a developmental or lifespan perspective.
Dichotomous refers to any two‐option choice (most often “yes” or “no”) that an individual or clinician could make about the presence of a symptom of psychopathology or the presence of a diagnosis, overall.
Differential diagnosis is the process of deciding between two or more diagnoses that share similar features.
Dimensional refers to an approach to classification of psychopathology that conceptualizes psychological phenomenon as existing on continuums, ranging from abnormal to normal, and typically avoids categorizing symptoms or disorders according to traditional methods.
Empirically supported refers to something (a measure, a classification system, or a psychological intervention) that has research‐based, scientific evidence in support of its validity.
Endophenotype refers to a measurable construct that, although not observable, links an individual’s genotype and phenotype.
Etiology refers to the cause of a symptom or a disorder.
Factor analysis is a form of statistical analysis that tries to explain the covariation of observable phenomenon by revealing underlying common factors.
Heterogeneous means diverse, dissimilar, or not the same.
Higher‐order factors refer to constructs or factors in a hierarchical statistical or classification model that are “above” other factors at a lower level.
Mechanisms refer to processes or characteristics that underlie or cause a psychological symptom.
Mental (psychological) disorders are characterized by behavioral patterns, and cognitive, emotional, and physical symptoms that deviate from a normative developmental trajectory and are not typical of individuals living in the same cultural context.
Norms are standardized comparison values for the interpretation of an individual’s results on some psychological measure, relative to other people of the same age, gender, etc.
Operationalize means to define what a phenomena, symptom, or construct is and how it should be measured.
Phenomena are characteristics, circumstances, facts, or events (e.g., a psychological symptom) observed through the senses.
Phenotype is a set of observable characteristics (e.g., a group of psychological symptoms).
Psychopathology is the study of mental disorders.
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure, or the measurement of a symptom or diagnosis, in different instances or under different circumstances.
Self‐report questionnaire is a method of measuring psychological symptoms where individuals complete a survey about their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and experiences.
Structured interviews are interviews used by clinicians and researchers to diagnose a psychological disorder. These interviews consist of standard instructions, questions, and scoring procedures that must be administered in the same way every time to ensure reliability.
Syndrome is a cluster of symptoms and behaviors that often present together.
Taxonomy is an area of scientific study that aims to systematically classify objects, organisms, or phenomena.
Traits are characteristics of an individual that are relatively stable across time and context.
Transdiagnostic means that a specific symptom or cause of a symptom is not unique to one disorder category but cuts across multiple diagnoses.
Workgroup is a group of individuals with expertise in a given area, assigned to collaborate in order to propose updates for the next DSM.
References
Achenbach, T. M., Rescorla, L. A., & Maruish, M. E. (2004). The Achenbach system of empirically based assessment (ASEBA) for ages 1.5 to 18 years.
The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment
(vol. 2, pp. 179–213). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, Associates.
American Psychiatric Association (1952).
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
(1st ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
American Psychiatric Association (1968).
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
