Digital Transformations in the Challenge of Activity and Work E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND HUMAN RESOURCES SET Coordinated by Patrick Gilbert The accelerating pace of technological change (AI, cobots, immersive reality, connected objects, etc.) calls for a profound reexamination of how we conduct business. This requires new ways of thinking, acting, organizing and collaborating in our work. Faced with these challenges, the Human and Social Sciences have a leading role to play, alongside others, in designing, supporting and implementing these digital transformation projects. Their ambition is to participate in the development of innovative and empowering devices, that is to say, systems that are truly at the service of human beings and their activity, that empower these professionals to take action and that also provide occupational health services. This book takes a multidisciplinary look at the challenges of these digital transformations, making use of occupational psychology, ergonomics, sociology of uses, and management sciences. This viewpoint also helps provide epistemological, methodological and empirical insights to better understand and support the changes at work.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Introduction
PART 1: Towards an Overview of Digital Transformations…
1 Emerging Technologies and Issues for Activity and Occupational Health
1.1. Introduction
1.2. From properties to the uses of emerging technologies
1.3. Five paradoxes of the diffusion of technologies in/on the activity
1.4. Conclusion
1.5. References
2 Collaborative Work Platforms: Challenges for Business Development
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Two organizational challenges: empowering digital transformations and changing work practices
2.3. Stakes for the development of activity: knowing how to give meaning to a poly-contextual and multi-mediated activity
2.4. Conclusion
2.5. References
3 Virtual Reality: Definitions, Characteristics and Applications in the Workplace
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Some elements of definition
3.3. The main interaction devices
3.4. The main areas of application of virtual reality
3.5. Applications of virtual reality in industry
3.6. Conclusion
3.7. References
4 Robotization in Industries: A Focus on SMEs
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Focus on a robotization experiment in an industrial SME
4.3. Receiving support in order to better implement a robot: illustration by the Robot Start PME program
4.4. Conclusion
4.5. References
5 Serious Games for Vocational Training: From Emotional Labor to Knowledge Transfer
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Emotions, debriefing and learning
5.3. The context and framework of the Serious Escape Game (SEG)
5.4. Results
5.5. Discussion and conclusion
5.6. References
6 The “Old” Issues of the “New” Artificial Intelligence Systems in Professional Activities
6.1. Introduction
6.2. AI: elements of definition and recent developments
6.3. Functionalities and (potential)6 uses of new generation AI systems
6.4. The “new” generation of AI and the old challenges of transforming work situations
6.5. What are the approaches to designing and integrating AI systems in work situations?
6.6. Conclusion
6.7. References
PART 2: New Modalities and Forms of Work…
7 Challenges in Deploying Telework: Benefits and Risks for Employees
7.1. Telework: definitions and characteristics
7.2. The benefits of teleworking
7.3. The constraints and risks of teleworking
7.4. The challenges of deploying telework in organizations
7.5. Conclusion
7.6. References
8 The Reconfiguration of Managerial Practices through Digital Innovation: The Example of a Work Team in Site Renovation
8.1. Introduction: when digital technology is used on renovation sites
8.2. At the heart of the renovation sites
8.3. Understanding occupational risk prevention activity and prevention management
8.4. Ethnography of the activity on a renovation site
8.5. Confirming a culture of safety: prevention management
8.6. Digital innovation in occupational risk prevention: restructuring of management practices
8.7. Conclusion: towards a better consideration of digital innovations in prevention management
8.8. References
9 Integrating Collaborative Robotics into Work Situations: The Intentions of SME Managers in the Digital Transformation of their Companies
9.1. Transformations in work situations seen through the prism of technocentric solutions
9.2. Models of leadership activity to understand change management processes
9.3. Methodology for data collection and analysis
9.4. Managers' desires in the face of reality: an encounter that helped to shape their intentions
9.5. The reality, a messenger from the past, in a modernization project
9.6. References
10 The Role and Function of Technological Artifacts in Entrepreneurial Activity
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Theoretical foundations
10.3. Methodology
10.4. Results
10.5. Discussion and conclusion
10.6. References
PART 3: Psychosocial and Socio-organizational Impacts of the Diffusion of Technology
11 The New Physical Territories of Digital Activity
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Transformation of spaces and transformation of work and employment: “spatialized work”
11.3. From “spatialized work” to the division between space and work
11.4. Flexible work environments: from work to “activity”
11.5. What theoretical models for considering space and its transformations?
11.6. Conclusion
11.7. References
12 Digital Work, Disposable Work? When Opportunities to Explore Threaten the Meaning of the Activity
12.1. Introduction
12.2. The division of complex digital work
12.3. Chronic indeterminacy of the product
12.4. When the contingencies regime threatens work commitment
12.5. Conclusion
12.6. References
13 Is the Obsolescence of the Skills of Older Employees an Inevitable Consequence of Digitalization?
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Aging, work, technologies and skills obsolescence: theoretical elements
13.3. Question and methodology
13.4. Main results
13.5. Discussion and conclusion
13.6. References
14 Are Work Collectives and Digital Exposure Compatible?
14.1. Collective activity: major developments
14.2. Engineering: a highly digitized environment
14.3. Problem of the study
14.4. The methodology used
14.5. Main results: virtually hyper-instrumented collective work for invisible work collectives
14.6. Discussion
14.7. Conclusion
14.8. References
PART 4: Approaches and Methods for Conducting Digital Transformations
15 Prospective Ergonomics in Service of Technological Innovation
15.1. Introduction
15.2. A new form of intervention focused on creation and innovation
15.3. The context and challenges of prospective ergonomics
15.4. Foundations in several disciplines and fields of study
15.5. Prospective ergonomics intervention approach
15.6. Two cases of intervention
15.7. Conclusion
15.8. References
16 Simulating Digital Activity in the Making: Elements of Methodology
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Digital activity
16.3. Simulating digital activity
16.4. Two illustrations of digital activity simulation
16.5. Conclusion
16.6. References
17 Managing Technological Change
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Digital transformations, sources of threats and opportunities
17.3. Social and responsible management of new technologies
17.4. A model for responsible leadership of technological change within organizations
17.5. Conclusion
17.6. References
18 Exploring the Situated Acceptance of Emerging Technologies in and Concerning Activity: Approaches and Processes
18.1. Introduction
18.2. Models of technological acceptability: outlines and approaches
18.3. Frameworks for action and intervention to address situated acceptance
18.4. Conclusion
18.5. References
List of Authors
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 10
Table 10.1. Methodological protocol
Table 10.2. The starting point of the project (Step 1)
Table 10.3. Redefining the project (Step 2)
Table 10.4. Design of the model (Step 3)
Table 10.5. Design of the model (Step 4). For a color version of this table, see...
Figure 10.1. Evolution of the format and roles of the innovation object in the E...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1. List and characteristics of digital tools observed (Crouzat 2019)
Table 14.2. Grid for observing collective activity (Crouzat 2019)
Table 14.3. Breakdown of collective uses according to the tools observed and the...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1. Some elements that distinguish the three ergonomic intervention moda...
Table 15.2. The three contexts of innovation
Chapter 17
Table 17.1. Ambivalence of digital technologies
Table 17.2. Responsible technological innovation in the digital domain
Table 17.3. Limiting threats and seizing opportunities
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1. The activity system (Engeström 1998)
Figure 2.2. Third generation of the activity system. For a color version of this...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1. Types of functionality of “new” generation AI systems
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1. Field of activity, payroll, duration of existence and location of th...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1. Activity system model (Engeström 1987, p. 78)
Figure 13.2. Accelio. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/bob...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1. The six phases of a prospective ergonomic intervention approach
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1. The simulation situation, configurable mirror of the activity situa...
Figure 16.2. The simulation system and its main actors. For a color version of t...
Figure 16.3. Elements of the simulation device (model, situation sheets, program...
Figure 16.4. The medium for the scripting of the future process and its formaliz...
Figure 16.5. The simulation medium, made up of “work object” avatars (books and ...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Introduction
Begin Reading
List of Authors
Index
End User License Agreement
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Technological Changes and Human Resources Set
coordinated by
Patrick Gilbert
Volume 3
Digital Transformations in the Challenge of Activity and Work
Understanding and Supporting Technological Changes
Edited by
Marc-Eric Bobillier Chaumon
First published 2021 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd
27-37 St George’s Road
London SW19 4EU
UK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
111 River Street
Hoboken, NJ 07030
USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2021
The rights of Marc-Eric Bobillier Chaumon to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2020946633
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-529-9
Introduction
There has been an acceleration in technological change within the workplace. This is because innovations and the deployment of technical solutions are multiplying (AI, robotization, immersive environment, Big Data, collaborative platforms, factory of the future, etc.). At best, the implementation of these new devices provokes simple transfers of use and learning (which are iterative or incremental technologies), and, at worst, they provoke real disruptions in use (which are disruptive technologies) (Bobillier Chaumon 2016). These can require a profound rethinking of the user experience, which can cause employees to fail and make it more difficult for them to carry out their activity. Therefore, new organizational and socio-cognitive models are required, as the devices call for alternative ways of thinking, doing and collaborating at work.
Professional activity thus depends less and less on the direct intervention of individuals in terms of the object of work than on their actions within these digital work environments, that is, on technological artifacts that mediate this activity. This distancing phenomenon is consubstantial with the quality of the “human–machine” systems used: if a system is complex to use (i.e. designed with an insufficient level of usability) or if it is difficult to attribute meaning to this technical artifact to make it a truly useful and enabling instrument for one’s activity (notion of situated acceptance), the individual can be expected to experience difficulties in carrying out work in which he or she recognizes himself or herself and for which he or she is recognized. There is therefore a link between successful technologies and successful work, between a good quality technological environment and a good quality of work, and between the benefit of appropriate technical environments and the well-being of their users.
New ways of working are also accompanying the deployment of these emerging technologies: dematerialization of work processes, design of dynamic work spaces, automation of intellectual tasks, and the renewal of human–machine collaboration modes with (high-level) tasks that are delegated to systems, distributed among several actors and broken down into multiple spaces/times (nomadism, home office, coworking). These new ways of acting also correspond to new ways of suffering, which are expressed by cognitive and psychic loads of a new order and by potential socio-professional and organizational constraints (obsolescence of skills, renewal of professions, etc.).
While technologies can therefore re-enhance work and re-qualify the individual, they can also contribute to distorting the activity and divesting the subject of everything that make sense to them: in their professional practices and ties as well as in their room for maneuver and relationship with work. The dematerialization of activity can therefore be to the detriment of the employee and their work. This is because ICTs are implemented to either replace the individual or appropriate that which represents the core of their activity: that which has meaning and makes sense. However, these tools imply reconfigurations and requirements that destabilize work and weaken the individuals and collectives in place. The question of introducing ICTs and their constant renewal in organizations therefore fundamentally refers to the place and role that these devices play in the activity and its implementation conditions (factors of occupational health and well-being), as well as the way in which human factor specialists (occupational psychologists, sociologists, ergonomists, etc.) can grasp them in their interventions.
Considered as both a current and prospective reflection attempting to grasp the logic and modalities of the digital transformations taking place, this book has several goals:
1) to take stock of the current situation and define precisely what these new technologies and new working methods are that are being deployed in companies;
2) to understand the role they can play in organizational effectiveness and human efficiency;
3) to discuss the role of these technologies in the development (or prevention) of activity and their potential impact on the conditions for exercising the activity, the sources of well-being and the quality of life at work (occupational health);
4) to reflect on the approaches and modalities of support for these digital transformations, based on an anthropocentric, participatory and inclusive approach.
A total of 18 contributions provide epistemological support (from a theoretical and methodological point of view) and empirical illustrations (from field surveys) for these lines of thought. They come from teacher-researchers and practitioners who have been conducting interventions on the deployment of technologies in work organizations and consider the analysis and support of these digital transformations.
These perspectives provide multidisciplinary and complementary insights – in the field of occupational psychology, ergonomic psychology, ergonomics, sociology of uses, management sciences, etc. – on how these technologies are transforming work systems and how they can be better managed.
Thus, conceived both as a work of analysis and reflection on the socio-technical changes affecting the world of work in the future and in the making, and also as a handbook for understanding the major technological innovations and the approaches to support digital transformations in progress, each chapter – grouped into four main parts – enriches our understanding of the dynamics at work.
1) The first part provides an overview of the digital transformations and the various emerging technologies that are spreading throughout organizations.
Chapter 1 by Marc-Eric Bobillier Chaumon provides an overview of the various emerging technologies that are gradually being seen in companies, and discusses their paradoxical uses and impacts on work. Bobillier Chaumon also discusses how he believes the human and social sciences should accompany the design and deployment of these technical innovations so that they support business and promote the well-being of employees. Chapter 2 by Nadia Barville-Deromas and Marc-Eric Bobillier Chaumon focuses on the topic of collaborative technologies, and more specifically on the corporate digital social networks that are being massively spread throughout organizations in order to make communication fluid and to optimize synergies between professions and services. The authors question the psychosocio-organizational stakes that such cooperative platforms can represent on collective activity and mobilized skills. Chapter 3 by Camille Sagnier, Émilie Loup-Escande and Gérard Valléry proposes a critical analysis of immersive technologies based on virtual and augmented reality. The authors illustrate not only the contributions but also the constraints that these devices impose on the activity and the users, especially in the industrial sector. Chapter 4 by Sandrine Berger-Douce gives an account of the situation of small and medium enterprises (SMEs), as well as their strengths and weaknesses with regard to robotization. It also proposes the means of support for these organizations and their employees, who prove to be poorly prepared or not at all prepared. Chapter 5 by Lydia Martin, Julian Alvarez and Antoine Taly gives us feedback on the serious game technique for learning professional behaviors, and shows how debriefing and work group devices can promote learning transfers in work situations. Finally, Chapter 6 by Tamari Gamkrelidze, Moustafa Zouinar and Flore Barcellini defines the scope of action and the possible development of artificial intelligence (AI). The authors question the place and role of AI in professional activities and in the modalities/conditions of interaction between these innovative devices and humans.
2) The following thematic part focuses on the new ways of working caused or accelerated by digital transformations, providing analysis and feedback from various research studies.
Thus, Chapter 7 by Emilie Vayre reports on the psychosocial and socio-professional issues of telework deployment within work organizations, based on a summary of various research works and publications. The author also suggests steps that can be taken to mark out the process of deploying telework in work structures. Chapter 8 by Elodie Chambonnière and Jacqueline Vacherand-Revel is based on an ethnographic study in the building sector that deals with the reconfiguration of pre-existing management practices of various key players on the building site and occupational risk prevention activity, following the introduction of a business application. The authors demonstrate the advantage of an ethnographic approach that immerses itself in the heart of this activity in order to be able to understand the multiple determinants of the evolution of these newly digitized managerial practices. Chapter 9 by Anne-Cécile Lafeuillade, Flore Barcellini, Willy Buchmann and Tahar-Hakim Benchekroun focuses on collaborative robotics (cobotics) and the way it is considered and determined by the organizational projects of managers of SMEs. The authors demonstrate the importance of starting from the reality of the activity to shape the “desires” of transformation, a reflection similar to that of Irène Poidi, Marc-Eric Bobillier Chaumon and Jacqueline Vacherand-Revel in Chapter 10. These authors show how technological artifacts are mobilized at different stages and for different functions in the process of creating innovative companies by young entrepreneurs. These technical devices then take on a status and a particular trajectory of use depending on the situations and activities in which they are employed. Finally, Chapter 11 by Maria Ianeva, Raluca Ciobanu and Chiara Lai on the new physical territories of digital activity proposes to question the outlines and challenges of space as an object of research and action in digital transformations. Their contribution seeks to qualify the psychosocial and organizational implications of these complex socio-technical devices (flexible spaces, unassigned positions), based on research carried out within the IT subsidiary of a large French group.
3) The third thematic part discusses more specifically the psychosocial, socio-organizational and occupational impacts of technology diffusion in work activity.
Chapter 12 by Maxime Besenval and Alexandra Bidet looks at the beginnings of engagement in digital, creative and collective work. Based on an ethnographic study of the sociology of work and uses in the video game design sector, the authors ask how far we can invest in and develop the opportunities offered by digital transformations – in terms of permanent and collective reconfiguration of the product of work – without threatening the possibility of workers engaging in it. Chapter 13 by Florence Cros, Marc-Eric Bobillier Chaumon and Bruno Cuvillier raises the issue of the obsolescence of the skills of older workers in the face of the challenges of technological change. This chapter illustrates that older people have major experiential and collective resources that enable them to cope with these transformations, and, above all, to regulate technical failures or work situations not covered by the new systems. Chapter 14, the last chapter of Part 3, by Pauline Crouzat and Marc-Eric Bobillier Chaumon sets out, on the one hand, to specify how the collective activity of an aeronautical engineering department can be reconfigured under the impetus of technology and, on the other hand, to examine the manifestations, resources and limits of these collective practices mediated by technology.
4) The fourth and final thematic part covers the methods and approaches that can be used to understand, design and support digital transformation projects.
Thus, Chapter 15 by Jean-Marc Robert, Antoine Martin, Mitra Taraghi, Clément Colin, Masood Maldar, Flavie Bonneviot and Eric Brangier aims to explain the place and role of the prospective ergonomics (PE) approach in the development of future products, services, processes and systems. The authors present two illustrations of innovative projects that apply the approach and methods of this perspective. Chapter 16 by Laurent Van Belleghem describes the interest of the activity simulation method in order to fully explain the new work configurations that these transformations foreshadow and to help design them. Two intervention experiments illustrate these ways of anticipating and co-designing probable future work. Chapter 17 by Clotilde Coron and Patrick Gilbert deals with the specificities of change management in the context of digital transformations, because they can be an amplifier, or even a catalyst, of social and professional inequalities. The authors present a model of change management that takes into account the specificities of technological change. Chapter 18, the last chapter by Marc-Eric Bobillier Chaumon, returns to the concepts and models of technological acceptability, which are crucial in the process of adopting and deploying new technologies. The chapter also discusses their contributions and limitations. Based on the situated acceptance approach, he outlines the methods that, in his view, allow us to explore the acceptance of emerging technologies, based on the analysis of acceptable developments related to digitized activities.
Introduction written by Marc-Eric BOBILLIER CHAUMON.
PART 1Towards an Overview of Digital Transformations…
1Emerging Technologies and Issues for Activity and Occupational Health
The question of the introduction of emerging technologies and their constant renewal in organizations fundamentally refers to the place and role that these devices play in business, as well as how they can affect activity and health at work. Considered as a prospective reflection attempting to grasp the logic and modalities of the digital transformations underway, the ambition of this chapter is: (1) first, to identify and characterize the emerging technologies that are being deployed in the company; (2) to discuss their impact on the activity and well-being of employees, demonstrating the uses and paradoxical effects that these devices may have on work; and (3) finally, to reflect on the psychosocial function of these devices as potential operators of health and development of the profession.
1.1. Introduction
For several years now, we have been witnessing a major reconfiguration of the conditions in which work is carried out, in their nature (intensification, dematerialization, acceleration), in their modalities (remote working, nomadism, fragmentation, virtual teams) and in their reference points (fragmentation and dispersion of activity, multi-activity), due to the deployment of innovative technical solutions which are multiplying. The impact on the human factor is not neutral. The implementation of these emerging devices can, at best, provoke simple transfers of use and learning; they are iterative or incremental technologies. At worst, they can lead to real disruptions in use; they are then disruptive technologies (Bobillier Chaumon 2017). The latter require a profound rethinking of the user experience, requiring new ways of doing, thinking, organizing and collaborating at work. New organizational and socio-cognitive models are then required to work with these devices (de Terssac and Bazet 2007; Ajzen et al. 2015), with strong implications for the health and well-being of employees (Bobillier et al. 2015). Anastassova (2006) and Loup-Escande and Burkhardt (2019) identify four specific characteristics of emerging technologies: (1) an innovative character, an important technological advance, partially achieved or in the making; (2) unclear and undifferentiated uses; (3) several limitations that slow down its massive application; and (4) a promise of transformation of the economic and social context in which it will be introduced.
The goal of this chapter is to question the place and impact that these emerging technologies can have in the often paradoxical transformations and development of activity. The first step will be to identify and characterize the emerging technologies that are being deployed in companies. Then, we will discuss the impact they may have on professionals and their activity.
1.2. From properties to the uses of emerging technologies
Disruptive digital innovation manifests itself through a variety of technologies that are being deployed in a number of business sectors. Thus, collaborative robots (cobots, exoskeletons), communicating, ambient or ubiquitous technologies (Internet of Things), artificial intelligence (voice assistants, decision support systems), evaluative and predictive data exploitation (Big Data), immersive environments (virtual and/or augmented reality) and new modalities of human–machine interaction (haptics, sensory, cognitive technologies of BIM (brain interface machine) type – brain interface machine) find applications in various fields of our professional and socio-domestic life. They can be found with the factory of the future, the hospital of the future, the smart home, autonomous transport, connected health (HCS/home care service, HS/home support; Martineau and Bobillier Chaumon 2017) or in the services offered by digital work platforms (uberization, robotics; Casilli 2019).
In order to understand the impact of technologies on professional activity and to identify research and societal issues that are addressed to the scientific community, it is necessary beforehand to clarify what they cover in terms of uses and practices, as well as what they bring in terms of resources and constraints.
1) Collaborative robots (also called cobots) are assistants, which remain dependent on the intention, gesture or behavior of humans at work. They support the employee in his/her actions and adjust their interventions to those of the professional. It is no longer simply a robotic substitute or a form of mechanical assistance for particular tasks. Here, robotics becomes symbiotic (Brangier et al. 2009), that is, it extends (like an extension) the individual by enabling the increase of human capacities in terms of strength, speed or precision. In this new context of interaction where these mobile and learning systems evolve, new forms of cooperation and human–robot interfaces (HRIs) are to be imagined and deployed. The exoskeleton constitutes a special class of cobots. It is a device for electrically, pneumatically or hydraulically amplifying the movement of each segment of the body. This kind of external skeleton allows movements, load handling and tool management that the body alone would not be able to perform (Claverie et al. 2013). The return of sensation is then immediate, and we witness a certain form of global person–machine consciousness, a hybrid body schema, or what Merle (2012) calls “the illusion of uniqueness”. However, we must be careful, because these exoskeletons that are grafted onto the human body strongly constrain body movements and gestures. It is more about adjusting to this “mechanical corset” than the other way around: the actions of the body can be repressed or even prevented, with possible impacts on the physical health of employees (increase in musculoskeletal disorders – MSDs).
2) Ambient, ubiquitous or pervasive technologies constitute a second class of these emerging innovations, more generally known as the “Internet of Things” (IoT) or connected/communicating objects. These discrete (because they are non-intrusive) technologies are integrated into everyday objects (Nehmer et al. 2006). They seek to capture activity and trigger the appropriate actions, without the need for human intervention (Gossardt 2017) (e.g. the thermostat that communicates with the personal calendar to turn on the heating at the appropriate time). These can be sensors scattered throughout the living or working space to record physical activities (quantified-self; Zouinar 2019), to inform the individual and thus fight against sedentariness: people are then made aware of what they are doing, what they are not doing – well or not well enough – and what they should do better (concept of “technological persuasion”, nudge technology or captology; Fogg 2002). There are also digital tracers integrated into production lines to evaluate, in real time, the conformity of professional actions to expected standards. Maintenance is no longer merely corrective, it becomes predictive. That is, we are able to react before the error is made by measuring the nut and bolt too, if it is wrong or not tight enough. This is the idea of the connected factory of the future (Factory 4.0).
3) Artificial intelligence (AI) is highly sophisticated algorithmic programs based on artificial neural networks. They aim to solve specific problems for which human beings use their cognitive abilities (Zouinar 2020). What constitutes the strength of these devices is their “reasoning” power, which is based on deep learning or machine learning (see Chapter 6). These particular machine learning techniques make it possible to analyze, extract and classify large amounts of data. These programs are used to make diagnoses (skin cancer detection is more reliable than human expertise), make decisions (90% of stock market orders are now made by AI systems, such as high-frequency trading) or “naturally” assist humans in their daily activities, for example, Google’s voice assistant, capable of making appointments by phone, voice-recognition systems (connected speakerphone) or chat-bot systems that automatically answer customers’ questions on websites. These devices are “artificial intelligence” because they are capable of some form of learning, or even “intuition” to deal with complex and sometimes unprogrammed situations. This is the case of the autonomous car, which has to manage a wide range of unforeseen events and incidents on its course. However, it should also be recalled that although AI is capable of learning, evolving and taking initiatives1, it is incapable of giving meaning to what it sees or does or to the information it processes. Concretely, it can recognize the presence of a cat in millions of photos, but it does not know what a cat is. Symbolic processing and cognitive flexibility remain for the moment the prerogative of humans.
4) In order to function, AI must be able to access large volumes of data provided by, among others, Big Data. Big Data refers to the ability to produce or collect digital data, store, analyze and visualize them (Cardon 2015). The traces we leave on the Internet (“likes”, comments), the data sent by connected objects… on all aspects and at all times of our lives constitute a considerable mass of information2 on how we act, think and even on what we experience and feel (Dagiral et al. 2019). However, this raw data have little meaning and value as it stands. The challenge is to assign value to them through correlation, in order to transform them into information, and then into knowledge about the subject, that is relevant, useful and focused data. These are “smart data”. Combined with predictive models, these systems are capable of evaluating and anticipating individual behavior in some detail, or even seek to modify attitudes and decisions (as in the case of the Cambridge Analytica scandal3).
5) Immersive environments (based on virtual, augmented and tangible reality) consist of immersing a person in an artificial environment, by stimulating their sensory (via sound, vision, smell), cognitive (information and decision-making) and sensory-motor (haptics, gestures) modalities via appropriate digital devices (3D headsets, haptic gloves, etc.) (see Chapter 3). This world can be imaginary, symbolic or simulate certain aspects of the real world. Different types of immersive environments can be distinguished:
– Virtual reality makes it possible to extract ourselves from physical reality in order to virtually change time, place and/or types of interaction. It gives a person the opportunity to engage in sensory-motor and cognitive activity in an artificial, digitally recreated world (Fuchs
et al.
2006). It allows us to simulate what we would do in a normal and real situation. These devices are often used in the field of vocational training: employees find themselves in situations close to their actual working conditions, which are difficult to reproduce (Ganier
et al.
2013). For example, it may be necessary to simulate the altitude to carry out a technical intervention at the top of an electrical pylon, or to carry out a difficult operation on a patient, with medical complications. Virtual reality can also be used in the medical field to treat anxiety-provoking situations (treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (Moraes
et al.
2016) or delusions of persecution (Freeman
et al
. 2016)).
– Augmented reality consists of adding/enriching virtual information above the real physical environment using a video headset, a computer or any other projection system (Marsot
et al.
2009). There are applications for productive or maintenance tasks (such as indicating to the operator very precisely the location of rivets to be screwed on the aircraft’s cabin: the targets are then projected virtually on the surface) or when the operator wearing a headset is presented virtually with the sequences and location of the various operations to be performed to change a part on a large industrial machine (the steps and circuit to be changed appear superimposed on the engine). We therefore interact with the virtual in order to know how to act on the real thing.
– Augmented virtuality (tangible environment) consists of integrating real entities into a virtual environment; both can interact together (Fleck and Audran 2016). For example, an architect will physically manipulate models of houses in a virtually recreated living space in order to evaluate the best exposure to sun and wind and thus calculate possible energy losses. In this case, we interact with reality to act on the virtual.
The integration of these various immersive technologies (virtual reality, augmented reality, augmented virtuality) is called mixed reality (Moser et al. 2019).
All these new generations of technologies are thus intended to replace/improve all or part of human functions (physical, sensory and/or cognitive). The objective is to optimize the capacities at work (learning, understanding, decision-making, action, etc., both individual and collective) and to make work processes more efficient and effective in order to increase reactivity and profitability. According to a very deterministic approach, it also appears that the choice of such systems aims at the emergence of a working model oriented towards individual excellence, organizational agility, collective intelligence and also an efficient mutualization of the activity (between humans and machines). This would also explain the enthusiasm of companies for such systems, as Champeaux and Bret (2000, p. 45) have already mentioned, for technologies that are now more traditional: “Adopting them is no longer an opportunity, but an obligation. It is no longer a question of whether we are going to go there, but of how we are going to go there, that is, with what strategy, what investments, what objectives”.
However, while it appears that technology can affect certain dimensions of the activity, it cannot determine or shape it according to predefined and expected patterns. There is no technological determinism in the strict sense of the term. In other words, a technological innovation does not in itself impose a single type of organization or business model, but makes various forms of it possible. It is indeed the use (i.e. the conditions of use of the tool – individual, collective, organizational, etc., the project and the experiences of the user…) and not the intrinsic characteristics of the technology that will determine its effects, which can therefore be contrasted. It is these paradoxes that we will now examine in the following section.
1.3. Five paradoxes of the diffusion of technologies in/on the activity
1.3.1. Sense of loss of control over the activity vs increased control over the activity
The multiplication of digital media at work (shared digital schedules and spaces, messaging and social networks, collaborative platforms, reporting tools) is accompanied by a requirement for permanent availability and reactivity. The activity is thus increasingly determined, punctuated and emphasized by the various digital injunctions, warnings and solicitations. In the research we conducted on the impact of technology on the management profession (Bobillier Chaumon et al. 2018), we identified a category that we called “self-service or dispossessed managers”. They felt deprived of their ability to define or control their work schedule (work “imposed” by shared schedules) or simply to keep and achieve the objectives they had set for themselves during the day (work “prevented” by the many digital interruptions that required them to complete the current activity in order to initiate a new, unplanned task). This feeling of loss of control over the activity was paradoxically consubstantial with the increase in control that employees experienced in their activity.
Indeed, more and more so-called prescriptive (Bobillier Chaumon 2017) or info-normative (Frenkel et al. 1992) technical systems determine and frame the work to be done, but are also capable of assessing whether the work has been done well, that is, whether it is compatible with labor standards and norms. The software packages that manage the dialogue between advisors and customers in call centers, the voice-picking devices that dictate each action to the warehouse agent to make a pallet, thus establish what must be done, how it must be done, according to what timeframe and with whom.
1.3.2. Invisibility vs visibility of the activity
In an activity that tends to become dematerialized, less tangible and less comprehensible, more distributed between human–machine systems, the individual finds it increasingly difficult to assess what his or her actual contribution to work is. He/she thus intervenes at a given moment or on a particular sequence of the work process, without being able to judge what he/she really brings, his/her added value in the task, or the various impacts of his/her professional conduct: in terms of customer satisfaction, improvement of the work process or efficiency of the actions undertaken.
This lack of visibility on the activity gives the feeling of a “truncated” action, that is, the professional has difficulty not only in evaluating who he/she serves (is it a customer, a robot, an automated procedure?), but also what he/she is doing the work for and especially what his/her work is used for. This sense of usefulness is one of the fundamental attributes of professional recognition (Dejours 1993). It is based on self-actualization in the social field of valorization: of oneself by oneself, and of oneself by others: that is, by the way I recognize myself in what I do and also in the way others perceive me in conjunction with what I do. Professional identity also asserts itself as the framework of psychological health. Not being able to identify with what we do and to be recognized (by our peers, those in charge) in what we do, weakens our identity (the way we consider, appreciate and value ourselves) and consequently affects our well-being.
Conversely, these same systems can contribute to increasing the visibility of work through systems and indicators (reporting, indicators, Big Data, connected objects) that make it possible to (re)trace and evaluate in almost real time all the work that the individual does, and above all the work that he or she does not do, in relation to the standards performed. With the connected factory, for example, we will have powerful means that recount who does what, when and within what timeframe. This panoptic world (Bain and Taylor 2000), constantly supervised by these technologies, also makes the individual more transparent and measurable and therefore more predictable and controllable as well. In other words, one has the impression that these ICTs give one more control and more capacity for action over one’s human behavior (through better self-knowledge). But we are also creating the conditions for voluntary servitude with regard to these devices: which tell us how to act, at what pace to live, and what the right attitude to have is.
1.3.3. Increase in virtual teams vs isolation of employees
A third contradiction concerns the increase in virtual teams/collaborations, which can paradoxically be accompanied by the isolation of employees. This also reflects the opposition between “collective work” and “a work collective” (or teamwork) (Caroly and Clot 2004).
Collaborative work platforms and corporate digital social networks are thus being deployed, which ultimately aim more at prescribing collaborations between employees than at supporting existing cooperations. Without this bias, the company seeks to optimize collective intelligence, transversality and decompartmentalization between departments and teams, which are the new spearheads of matrix and agile organizations (Barville et al. 2018; see Chapter 2 in this book).
The aim of these systems is to order or even impose special forms of cooperation between employees in order to increase exchanges and collaborative work remotely (Crouzat and Bobillier Chaumon 2017; see Chapter 14 in this book). However, by seeking to organize collective work – at the expense of collective work – these technical environments create artificial collectives (Crapeau 2001) composed of individuals opportunely linked according to the needs of the organization and projects. However, this does not in any way promote the feeling of belonging to a professional community, to a work collective, or teamwork.
It should be remembered that this working group is the indispensable framework for regulating work constraints. The collective refers to a community of actions and thoughts, essential in the relationship between the individual and the work situation (Lhuilier 2006). It creates a sense of belonging and identification with a professional community. The role of the collective is therefore essential, because it is both a resource and a support (psychological, cognitive, social, professional) for individual action and a “social shock absorber” for organizational pressures. The absence or decline of these groups is partly responsible for the suffering of employees who are then unable to manage the various risks of the activity and to cope with the demands of the organization.
With these collaborative environments, if people feel like they are working virtually together, they do so by being more alone in front of their computers. This contributes to creating what Clot (2010) calls a collection of individuals, that is, an arrangement of interchangeable skills, linked together by fake relationships, and where individuals are exposed to isolation: they do not know who to rely on, who to turn to in case of a problem, who to open up to in case of a hard blow. This isolation can be compounded by a feeling of loneliness when one feels excluded or even banished from the working group to which one belongs. One feels alone among others in a way. Marc and Ladreyt (2019) speak of distressing loneliness to describe “a subjective experience suffering from delirium associated with a perceived lack of social support. The subject faces a solitary and constrained face-to-face encounter with himself/herself. This form of loneliness is pathogenic. It is an experience conducive to restlessness” (p. 262), which is accompanied by a withdrawal into oneself, a voluntary abandonment of all ties with others. The result is a double exclusion “of oneself among others and of others in oneself”.
This distressing loneliness can appear when the organization “corrupts” the use of certain technological artifacts by putting employees in competition with each other, which can be harmful to existing collectives. “Surviving together” then gives way to “every man for himself”. Indeed, as we have seen previously, certain tools seek to trace the activity and to report on the task performed using various numerical indicators. However, these indicators (often partial because they are based on the performance performed) prove to be inappropriate and insufficient to testify to the specificities and requirements of the real activity: namely, all the trials, errors, bewilderment, etc. necessary to complete the work. Management will, however, use these data to encourage emulation between employees. However, these individualized evaluations push individuals to judge, compare, confront and finally come head to head with each other between competitors (and no longer colleagues) at the risk of jeopardizing the relationships of mutual aid and trust, which are necessary for social cohesion in the activity. The other is then seen as an adversary that I must protect myself from and keep at a distance. This competition with others can also be doubled with competition with oneself when the individual seeks to maintain a level of excellence in the activity (de Gaulejeac and Hanique 2018), which in the end turns out to be very deleterious, even deadly.
1.3.4. Nomadism vs a sedentary lifestyle at work
The office is no longer the major or exclusive determinant of work. Thanks to digital environments (permanent office, “office in the pocket”), it has been exported, largely outside the walls of the company (work without borders) and has freed itself from the temporal, spatial and organizational barriers of the company. While some employees carry out an activity from their home (home office, teleworking; Vayre 2019), others tend to engage in a nomadic type of activity by alternating between workplaces (customer base, hotel, transport, third party places such as coworking areas, etc.) and different schedules (part of the work being carried out in “concealed” time, i.e. on transport or during other waiting times) (Vacherand-Revel 2017; Lutumba et al. 2020). These employees thus find themselves more or less voluntarily immersed in environments that each have their own requirements and that demand particular practices and uses. Thus, depending on the digital demands, employees must improvise their professional activities in situations that they do not always control, and which do not necessarily lend themselves to the task to be carried out with the technical system (Bonneau and Enel 2018). The different roles and work contexts then interpenetrate each other and this can create conflict (Marks and MacDermid 1996). Concretely, the individual may be psychologically and/or behaviorally engaged in one area/situation, but physically and temporally present in another area. Being able to carry out an activity in an inappropriate and potentially disruptive environment requires increased attention and focus (Popma 2013).
While nomadism is one of the characteristics of modern work, which technology has undoubtedly contributed to and has accentuated and accelerated it, sedentary life is paradoxically another facet of these digitized situations.
Indeed, there are still a number of economic sectors in which employees remain glued to their computers to carry out almost all the tasks inherent in their professional activity: from mediated interactions between colleagues (remote offices, being away from the workplace) to remote meetings, from information management (research, archiving) to training (e-learning) and even for moments of relaxation and social breaks (surfing on the web and social networks) (Debrosses 2019). It should be noted that this sedentary lifestyle has a major health cost since, according to epidemiological studies, it causes various major organic and physical disorders and causes mortality greater than that caused by cigarette consumption (Wen and Wu 2012). A study by the American Cancer Society indicated that the mortality rate of a person sitting more than six hours a day is 20% higher than that of a person sitting only three hours a day (Patel et al. 2010).
1.3.5. Detachment from activity vs proximity of work
A final contradiction is the tension between distancing ourselves from work, on the one hand, and being very/too close or even experiencing a lack of privacy, on the other hand.
Indeed, in parallel with the multiplication of interfaces between a human and their work, we are witnessing a distancing between humans and the object of their activity (Dodier 1995). The individual no longer acts directly on the product of their work (object to be transformed) or interacts with the person to be supported (client to be satisfied), but goes through a technical mediator (e-mail, collaborative or robotic tool) which will act on their behalf. However, this technical artifact requires other ways of representing ourselves, organizing and implementing our work (Norman 1994; Rabardel 1995). It is also a dematerialized work that becomes more abstract, more symbolic, less tangible, because it is represented by curves, signs, values, codifications, etc. The professional must then base himself/herself on these new indices of the activity to enable him/her to understand the process in progress and to adjust his/her interventions accordingly.
In this activity mediated by technologies, the reference points are no longer sensory (linked to noise, to a characteristic smell in the activity), and no longer rest on interactional and/or physical/haptic material bases (such as irregularity spotted in a work process, a distrustful attitude identified during customer negotiations). These indicators are now signified by matrices, which the professional must interpret to give them a meaning, a value (Baril 1999). He/she thus loses the intimate knowledge of the product of the activity: its specificities, its properties, its reactions, etc. Consequently, this loss of meaning – through media detachment – is accompanied by a loss of meaning (Baudin 2017), that is, one no longer recognizes oneself in the product/service being made.
Another consequence of this remoteness concerns the maintenance of competence and of the professional gesture which, when they are no longer maintained, withers, weakens and deteriorates. There is thus a risk of losing the acuity of analysis (based on information taken from the field), the dexterity and assurance of conduct, and the skill and finesse of movement. Beyond the decline of the gesture, the confidence itself in the gesture can also be dulled. This refers to Bendura’s (2007) sense of personal efficacy (SPE), which is reflected in the fact that one no longer feels capable and confident to be able to ensure the required professional conduct. We can give the example of those surgeons who, by dint of using mechanized extensions (interfaces and robotic arms), no longer have the same knowledge of the body and the patient’s reactions (through sensory and physical cues) and no longer develop the same motor skills that require the manipulation of the scalpel (Wannenmacher 2019). It is other skills and abilities (perceptive, motor, collective) that are mobilized to use alongside the technological system (Seppänen et al. 2017).
This physical and sensory detachment from the object of one’s activity is paradoxically accompanied by greater promiscuity with work. Indeed, work has never been so present, pressing and oppressive through the use of technology. Clients, colleagues, managers and work procedures are becoming omnipresent and overflow from the professional sphere to invade domestic, personal and third party areas (El-Wafi et al. 2017). Messages, digital solicitations and warnings arise at any time and in any place, promoting intrusion, the hybridization of personal and professional spaces and fostering the feeling of excess and over-connection (Morand et al. 2018). This feeling is also known as telepressure (Dose et al. 2019).
1.4. Conclusion
Emerging technologies, by promising new and almost infinite computational capacities, reasoning possibilities and modes of action, induce an all-powerful imagination: they are then perceived or presented as omnipotent, because they are omniscient (reasoning power of AI) and omnipresent (supervision of activities by smart data and connected objects). They formulate an almost superhuman injunction to be able to control them. And the individual, a mere mortal, can only be, at best, the discreet substitute or the passive auxiliary of these systems, and at worst, they’ll be totally eradicated from the socio-technical equation that is unfolding.
What is also particular with these emerging technologies is to consider the omnipotence of these tools as determining and structuring the organization’s project: factory/hospital of the future, collaborative work platform, smart home, teleworking, collective intelligence, organizational agility, work tuberization, etc. We are in what could be called a “technological absolutism” or an essentialist vision of technology: first and foremost, one considers what it “is” and “must do”, instead of what it is capable of “doing” or “undoing”, “bringing or removing”, that is, its value, the meaning it takes on in the activity. It is the only one that holds the truth, the knowledge, the expertise about the work. Seen as performative systems, these tools are the Alpha and Omega of organizational efficiency and individual and collective innovation.
However, despite the innovations and sophistication that characterize these technologies, it should be remembered that the vast majority of these devices remain disconnected from the socio-professional realities that employees experience. They are more oriented towards the search for technological performance, profitability and socio-economic efficiency, which disqualify from the outset any subjective commitment and deny any human initiative that could be detrimental to the organizational project. For companies, these human practices thwart their action plans and/or threaten the quality standards promoted by technological environments. In this system of activity-mediated human–machine, it is the individual who is the variable of adjustment and it is up to him/her to find an acceptable compromise of functioning, with the rules of action imposed by the device. Moreover, as we have also seen, the deployment of such environments is also accompanied by tensions and contradictions in the very way of living and acting with these tools, of building our practice and developing our profession.
Ultimately, in this human–machine collaboration to be constructed, it is a question of moving from “incantatory technologies”, which aim to provoke quasi-automatic, even magical effects, by their mere presence; to “embodied” technologies which have meaning for employees and which give meaning to the activity that is being done. They aim not only to satisfy the needs of professionals, but also to support their initiatives, sustain their activity and encourage the development of their skills and autonomy. It is under these conditions that these technologies will become acceptable (Bobillier Chaumon 2016, and see Chapter 18 in this work) by being instruments at the service of professions and acting as occupational health operators.
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