Earth Materials E-Book

Kevin Hefferan

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1342

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2010

Beschreibung

Minerals and rocks form the foundation of geologic studies. This new textbook has been written to address the needs of students at the increasing number of universities that have compressed separate mineralogy and petrology courses into a one- or two-semester Earth materials course.

Key features of this book include:

• equal coverage of mineralogy, sedimentary petrology, igneous petrology and metamorphic petrology;
• copious field examples and regional relationships with graphics that illustrate the concepts discussed;
• numerous case studies to show the uses of earth materials as resources and their fundamental role in our lives and the global economy, and their relation to natural and human-induced hazards;
• the integration of earth materials into a cohesive process-based earth systems framework;
• two color thoughout with 48 pages of four color. 

Readership: students taking an earth materials, or combined mineralogy and petrology course in an earth science degree program. It will also be useful for environmental scientists, engineering geologists, and physical geographers who need to learn about minerals, rocks, soil and water in a comprehensive framework. 

A companion website for this book is available at: www.wiley.com/go/hefferan/earthmaterials.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Half title page

Dedication

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1 Earth materials and the geosphere

1.1 EARTH MATERIALS

1.2 THE GEOSPHERE

1.3 DETAILED MODEL OF THE GEOSPHERE

1.4 GLOBAL TECTONICS

1.5 HOTSPOTS AND MANTLE CONVECTION

Chapter 2 Atoms, elements, bonds and coordination polyhedra

2.1 ATOMS

2.2 THE PERIODIC TABLE

2.3 CHEMICAL BONDS

2.4 PAULING’S RULES AND COORDINATION POLYHEDRA

2.5 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

Chapter 3 Atomic substitution, phase diagrams and isotopes

3.1 ATOMIC (IONIC) SUBSTITUTION

3.2 PHASE DIAGRAMS

3.3 ISOTOPES

Chapter 4 Crystallography

4.1 CRYSTALLINE SUBSTANCES

4.2 SYMMETRY OPERATIONS

4.3 TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTIFS AND LATTICES (MESHES)

4.4 THREE-DIMENSIONAL MOTIFS AND LATTICES

4.5 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

4.6 INDEXING CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANES

4.7 TWINNED CRYSTALS

4.8 CRYSTAL DEFECTS

4.9 POLYMORPHS AND PSEUDOMORPHS

Chapter 5 Mineral properties and rock-forming minerals

5.1 MINERAL FORMATION

5.2 CRYSTAL HABITS

5.3 MACROSCOPIC MINERAL PROPERTIES

5.4 SILICATE MINERALS

5.5 NON-SILICATE MINERALS

Chapter 6 Optical identification of minerals

6.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

6.2 ESSENTIALS OF OPTICAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

6.3 THE OPTICAL INDICATRIX, INTERFERENCE FIGURES AND OPTIC SIGN DETERMINATION

Chapter 7 Classification of igneous rocks

7.1 MAGMA AND IGNEOUS ROCKS

7.2 IGNEOUS TEXTURES

7.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

7.4 MINERAL COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

7.5 MINERAL TERMINOLOGY

7.6 IGNEOUS ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Chapter 8 Magma and intrusive structures

8.1 ROCK MELTING

8.2 FACTORS IN ANATEXIS AND INITIAL MELT COMPOSITION

8.3 MAGMA DIVERSIFICATION: DIFFERENTIATION, MIXING AND ASSIMILATION PROCESSES

8.4 MAGMA SERIES

8.5 INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS STRUCTURES

Chapter 9 Volcanic features and landforms

9.1 VOLCANOES, CRATERS AND VENTS

9.2 CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES

9.3 CLASSIFYING VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

9.4 VOLCANIC RESOURCES AND HAZARDS: GLOBAL IMPACTS

Chapter 10 Igneous rock associations

10.1 IGNEOUS ROCK ASSOCIATIONS

10.2 DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

10.3 CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

10.4 INTRAPLATE MAGMATISM

Chapter 11 The sedimentary cycle: erosion, transportation, deposition and sedimentary structures

11.1 SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

11.2 THE SEDIMENTARY CYCLE

11.3 STRATIFICATION AND SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

11.4 SEDIMENT DISPERSAL, DEPOSITION AND PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES

Chapter 12 Weathering, sediment production and soils

12.1 WEATHERING

12.2 DISSOLVED SOLIDS

12.3 DETRITAL SEDIMENTS

12.4 SOILS

Chapter 13 Detrital sediments and sedimentary rocks

13.1 TEXTURES OF DETRITAL SEDIMENTS

13.2 GRAVELSTONES

13.3 SANDSTONES

13.4 MUDROCKS

13.5 DIAGENESIS OF DETRITAL SEDIMENTS

Chapter 14 Biochemical sedimentary rocks

14.1 CARBONATE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

14.2 EVAPORITES

14.3 SILICEOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

14.4 IRON-RICH SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

14.5 SEDIMENTARY PHOSPHATES

14.6 CARBON-RICH SEDIMENTARY ROCKS AND MATERIALS

Chapter 15 Metamorphism

15.1 METAMORPHISM AND ITS AGENTS

15.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMMON METAMORPHIC ROCKS

15.3 COMMON PROTOLITHS

15.4 METAMORPHIC PROCESSES

15.5 METAMORPHISM TYPES

Chapter 16 Metamorphism: stress, deformation and structures

16.1 STRESS

16.2 DEFORMATION

16.3 DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR

16.4 BRITTLE STRUCTURES

16.5 DUCTILE STRUCTURES

16.6 PLANAR AND LINEAR STRUCTURES

Chapter 17 Texture and classification of metamorphic rocks

17.1 GRAIN TEXTURE

17.2 NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS

17.3 METAMORPHIC ROCKS CONTAINING FOLIATED TEXTURES

17.4 SHEAR SENSE INDICATORS

Chapter 18 Metamorphic zones, facies and facies series

18.1 METAMORPHIC ZONES

18.2 METAMORPHIC FACIES

18.3 METAMORPHIC FACIES SERIES

18.4 THE PHASE RULE, CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND THREE-COMPONENT DIAGRAMS

18.5 METAMORPHIC ROCKS AND PLATE TECTONICS

Chapter 19 Mineral resources and hazards

19.1 ORE MINERALS

19.2 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS

19.3 GEMS

19.4 MINERALS AND HEALTH

References

Index

Periodic table of the elements

Table of chemical elements

Earth Materials

Kevin Hefferan was born and raised in Jersey City, NJ to parents originating from Kiltimagh, County Mayo, Ireland. Kevin received his geological training at New Jersey City State University, Bryn Mawr College and Duke University. Kevin is married to Sherri (Cramer) Hefferan and is the proud father of Kaeli, Patrick, Sierra, Keegan and Quintin of Stevens Point, WI. Kevin is a professor of geology at the University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point Department of Geography and Geology.

John O’Brien is married (to Anita) with two sons (Tyler and Owen). He was born (on December 10, 1941) in Seattle, Washington, and was raised there and in Ohio and southern California. His parents were teachers, so summers were spent with the family traveling throughout the west, imbuing him with a passion for the natural world. He discovered an enthusiasm for working with students as a teaching assistant at Miami University (Ohio) and combined the two interests in a career teaching geological sciences at New Jersey City University. A sedimentologist by training, he took over responsibility for the mineralogy, petrology and structure courses when a colleague departed. The Earth Materials text is in part the result of that serendipitous occurrence.

Companion website

A companion website for this book, with resource materials for students and instructors is available at: www.wiley.com/go/hefferan/earthmaterials

This edition first published 2010, © 2010 by Kevin Hefferan and John O’Brien

Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.

Registered office: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK

The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, USA

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Hefferan, Kevin.

 Earth materials Kevin Hefferan and John O’Brien.

p. cm.

 Includes bibliographical references and index.

 ISBN 978-1-4051-4433-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-1-4443-3460-9 (pbk. : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-1-4443-9121-3 (ebk) 1. Geology–Textbooks. I. O’Brien, John, 1941– II. Title.

 QE26.3.H43 2010

 550–dc22

2009050260

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Set in 11 on 12 pt Sabon by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited

Printed and bound in Malaysia

1 2010

Preface

Particularly since the 1980s, Earth science at the undergraduate level has experienced fundamental changes with respect to curricula and student goals. Many traditional geology and Earth science programs are being revamped in response to evolving employment and research opportunities for Earth science graduates.

As a result, many colleges and universities have compressed separate mineralogy, optical mineralogy, petrology and sedimentology courses into a one- or two-semester Earth materials course or sequence. This in part reflects the increasing demand on departments to serve students in environmental sciences, remote imaging and geographical information systems and science education. This change has occurred at an accelerating pace over the last decade as departments have adjusted their course offerings to the new realities of the job market. At present, a glaring need exists for a textbook that reflects these critical changes in the Earth science realm.

No book currently on the market is truly suitable for a one- or two-semester Earth materials course. Currently available texts are restricted to specific topics in mineralogy, sedimentology or petrology; too detailed because they are intended for use in traditional mineralogy, sedimentology or petrology course sequences; or not appropriately balanced in their coverage of the major topic areas. This book is intended to provide balanced coverage of all the major Earth materials subject areas and is appropriate for either a one-semester or two-semester mineralogy/petrology or Earth materials course.

The chapters that follow illuminate the key topics involving Earth materials, including:

Their properties, origin and classification.Their associations and relationships in the context of Earth’s major tectonic, petrological, hydrological and biogeochemical systems.Their uses as resources and their fundamental role in our lives and the global economy.Their relation to natural and human-induced hazards.Their impact on health and on the environment.

This Earth Materials text provides:

A comprehensive descriptive analysis of Earth materials.Graphics and text in a logical and integrated format.Both field examples and regional relationships with graphics that illustrate the concepts discussed.Examples of how the concepts discussed can be used to answer significant questions and solve real-world problems.Up-to-date references from current scientific journals and review articles related to new developments in Earth materials research.A summative discussion of how an Earth materials course impacts both science and non-science curricula.

Chapter 1 contains a brief introduction to Earth materials and an overview of system Earth, including a discussion of Earth’s interior and global tectonics. This introductory chapter provides a global framework for the discussions that follow.

A minerals section begins with Chapter 2, which addresses necessary background chemistry and mineral classification. Chapter 3 examines the fundamentals of crystal chemistry, phase diagrams and stable and unstable isotopes. Chapter 4 reviews the basic principles of crystallography. Chapter 5 examines mineral formation, macroscopic mineral properties and the major rock-forming minerals. Chapter 6 focuses on the microscopic optical properties of minerals and petrographic microscope techniques.

The igneous rocks section begins with Chapter 7, which discusses the composition, texture and classification of igneous rocks. Chapter 8 addresses the origin and evolution of magmas and plutonic structures. Chapter 9 focuses on volcanic structures and processes. In Chapter 10, the major igneous rock associations are presented in relation to plate tectonics.

The sedimentary rock section begins with Chapter 11, which is concerned with the sedimentary cycle and sedimentary environments. This chapter also focuses on sediment entrainment, transport and deposition agents and the sedimentary structures produced by each. Chapter 12 addresses weathering and soils and the production of sedimentary materials. Chapter 13 examines the composition, textures, classification and origin of detrital sedimentary rocks. Chapter 14 focuses on the composition, texture, classification and origin of carbonate sedimentary rocks, while providing coverage of evaporites, siliceous, iron-rich and phosphatic sedimentary rocks. It ends with a brief synopsis of carbon-rich sedimentary materials, including coal, petroleum and natural gas.

The metamorphic rock section begins with Chapter 15, which introduces metamorphic agents, processes, protoliths and types of metamorphism. Chapter 16 addresses metamorphic structures in relationship to stress and strain. Chapter 17 investigates rock textures and the classification of metamorphic rocks. Chapter 18 concentrates on metamorphic zones, metamorphic facies and metamorphic trajectories in relationship to global tectonics. Lastly, Chapter 19 addresses ore minerals, industrial minerals, gems and environmental and health issues related to minerals.

In addition to information contained in the book, graphics, links and resources for instructors and students are available on the website that supports the text: www.wiley.com/go/hefferan/earthmaterials.

Our overall goal was to produce an innovative, visually appealing, informative textbook that will meet changing needs in the Earth sciences. Earth Materials provides equal treatment to minerals, igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks and demonstrates their impact on our personal lives as well as on the global environment.

Acknowledgments

We are indebted to Wiley-Blackwell publishers for working with us on this project. We are especially indebted to Ian Francis, who accepted our proposal for the text in 2005 and worked with us closely over the last 4 years, offering both guidance and support. Kelvin Matthews, Jane Andrew, Rosie Hayden, Delia Sandford, Camille Poire and Catherine Flack all made significant contributions to this project.

We gained much useful input from our mineralogy and petrology students at the University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point (UWSP) and New Jersey City University (NJCU). UWSP and NJCU provided sabbatical leave support for the authors that proved essential to the completion of the text, given our heavy teaching loads. We are also particularly thankful to the excellent library staffs at these two institutions.

We are truly appreciative of the many individuals and publishers who generously permitted reproduction of their figures and images from published work or from educational websites such as those created by Stephen Nelson, Patrice Rey and Steve Dutch.

Several reviewers provided critical feedback that greatly improved this book. Reviews by Malcolm Hill, Stephen Nelson, Lucian Platt, Steve Dutch, Duncan Heron, Jeremy Inglis, Maria Luisa Crawford, Barbara Cooper, Alec Winters, David H. Eggler, Cin-Ty Lee, Samantha Kaplan and Penelope Morton were particularly helpful.

Lastly we would like to thank our families, to whom we dedicate this text. Kevin’s family includes his wife Sherri and children Kaeli, Patrick, Sierra, Keegan and Quintin. John’s family includes his wife Anita and sons Tyler and Owen.

Chapter 2

Atoms, elements, bonds and coordination polyhedra

2.1 Atoms 19

2.2 The periodic table 23

2.3 Chemical bonds 31

2.4 Pauling’s rules and coordination polyhedra 39

2.5 Chemical classification of minerals 42

If we zoom in on any portion of Earth, we will see that it is composed of progressively smaller entities. At very high magnification, we will be able to discern very small particles called atoms. Almost all Earth materials are composed of atoms that strongly influence their properties. Understanding the ways in which these basic chemical constituents combine to produce larger scale Earth materials is essential to understanding our planet.

In this chapter we will consider the fundamental chemical constituents that bond together to produce Earth materials such as minerals and rocks. We will discuss the nucleus and electron configuration of atoms and the role these play in determining both atomic and mineral properties and the conditions under which minerals form. This information will provide a basis for understanding how and why minerals, rocks and other Earth materials have the following characteristics:

1 They possess the properties that characterize and distinguish them.

2