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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
EARTH'S FURY Natural disasters are any catastrophic loss of life and/or property caused by a natural event or situation. This definition could include biologic issues such as contagion, injurious bacterial colonization, invasion of dangerous plants and infestations of insects and other vermin. However, the popular understanding of what constitutes a natural disaster still focuses on disasters involving the physical properties of the earth and its atmosphere: earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, avalanches, tropical storms, tornadoes, floods and wildfires. Earth's Fury: The Science of Natural Disasters attempts to combine the best features of a scientific textbook and an encyclopedia. It retains the organization of a textbook and adopts the highly illustrative graphics of some of the newer and more effective textbooks. The book's unique approach is evident in its plethora of case studies: short, self-contained and well-illustrated stories of specific natural disasters that are highly engaging for both science and non-science majors. The stories incorporate the science into the event so students appreciate and remember it as part of the story. By relating the event to the impact on society and human lives, the science is placed in the context of the student's real life. Boasting a number of striking and highly detailed double-page illustrations of disaster-producing features, including volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunamis and hurricanes, this book is as much a visual resource as a textbook. For students who are probably most familiar with natural disasters through Hollywood movies, this book's own "widescreen presentation" is coupled with exciting stories which will enhance their interest as well as their understanding. Whether they are science or non-science majors, Earth's Fury: The Science of Natural Disasters will appeal to all students, with its fresh approach and engaging style.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Companion Website
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Natural Disasters
1.1 What Is a Natural Disaster?
1.2 Why Do People Live in Dangerous Areas?
1.3 What Can We Do to Stay Safe?
1.4 Societal Response to Natural Disasters
1.5 How This Book Is Organized
CHAPTER 2: Moving Continents
2.1 Control of Plate Margins on Earthquakes and Volcanoes
2.2 Architecture of the Earth
2.3 Divergent Margins
2.4 Convergent Margins
2.5 Transform Margins
2.6 Escape Tectonics
2.7 Plate Assembly and Disassembly
References
CHAPTER 3: How Does Rock Melt?
3.1 If the Earth Is Solid, Why Do Rocks Melt?
3.2 Types of Magma
3.3 Melting at Divergent Margins
3.4 Melting at Convergent Margins
3.5 Melting at Mantle Plumes
3.6 Contamination of Magma
3.7 Magma to Lava
3.8 Physical and Chemical Constraints on Volcanic Hazards
CHAPTER 4: Types of Volcanoes
4.1 What Is a Volcano?
4.2 Classification by Shape
4.3 Parts of a Volcano
4.4 Classification of Volcanoes by Threat
4.5 Decade Volcanoes
4.6 Evacuation of Volcanic Areas
4.7 Supervolcanoes
Reference
CHAPTER 5: Volcanic Hazards
5.1 Eruption of Stratovolcanoes
5.2 Eruption of Shield Volcanoes
CHAPTER 6: Causes of Earthquakes
6.1 Stress and Strain
6.2 Faults
6.3 Intraplate Versus Plate Margins
6.4 Earthquakes from Igneous Activity
CHAPTER 7: Earthquakes 101
7.1 Earthquake Basics
7.2 Earthquake Waves
7.3 Foreshocks, Main Shocks, and Aftershocks
7.4 Magnitude and Intensity
7.5 Determining the Epicenter and Movement on Faults
7.6 Earthquake Risk Maps and ShakeMaps
CHAPTER 8: Earthquake Hazards
References
CHAPTER 9: Killer Tsunamis
9.1 Terror from the Sea
9.2 Generation of a Tsunami
9.3 Quantifying Tsunami Intensity
Reference
CHAPTER 10: Predicting Earthquakes and Reducing Hazards
10.1 Where: Easy, When: Not So Easy
10.2 Cockroaches and Other Precursors
10.3 Earthquake Hazard Reduction
10.4 Big Data: The New Hope
References
CHAPTER 11: Avalanches and Landslides
11.1 Gravity: What Goes Up Must Come Down
11.2 Rockfalls and Slides
11.3 Avalanches and High‐Speed Movement
11.4 Low‐Speed Movement
11.5 Karst Topography
References
CHAPTER 12: Weather and Storms
12.1 Why Do We Have Weather?
12.2 Climate Systems of The Earth
12.3 Air Masses and the Fronts that Separate Them
12.4 Generation of Severe Weather
Reference
CHAPTER 13: Ocean Circulation and Coastal Systems
13.1 Shape, Size, and Location of Oceans
13.2 Ocean Processes
13.3 Ocean Circulation
Reference
CHAPTER 14: Hurricanes, Cyclones, and Typhoons
14.1 The Most Dangerous Storms
14.2 Surprise! They Have Nothing to Do with Fronts
CHAPTER 15: Tornadoes and Supercells
15.1 It Starts with a Cold Front
15.2 How Powerful, How Far?
CHAPTER 16: Devastating Floods and Their Aftermath
16.1 Drainage Systems
16.2 Discharge, Gauging Stations, and Water Height
CHAPTER 17: Droughts and Desertification
17.1 Deserts
17.2 Desertification
17.3 Drought and Climate Indices
17.4 Droughts and Dust Storms
17.5 Megadroughts
Reference
CHAPTER 18: Impacts
18.1 The Solar Nebula
18.2 Objects Colliding with Earth
18.3 Potential Impacts
18.4 Impacts with Earth
Reference
CHAPTER 19: Climate Change Dynamics
19.1 What Is Climate Change?
19.2 Can Volcanoes Change Climate?
19.3 Global Cooling
19.4 Global Warming
19.5 Volcanoes During Modern Human Development
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 7
TABLE 7.1
Magnitude scale for earthquakes and their characteristics.
TABLE 7.2
Earthquake intensity factors of the Modified Mercalli Scale.
Chapter 9
TABLE 9.1
Modified Sieberg Scale for Tsunamis.
TABLE 9.2
Soloviev‐Imamura Intensity System.
Chapter 11
TABLE 11.1
The various types of mass movements based on water content and s
...
TABLE 11.2
Alluvial Fan Sedimentation Scale (Keaton et al. 1988; Keaton and
...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.1 Collage of natural disasters which come in a number of forms that...
FIGURE 1.2 Map of ancient Greece showing the cities of Sparta and Athens as ...
FIGURE 1.3 The approximate location of Tornado Alley in North America.
FIGURE 1.4 Night satellite image of the Mount Vesuvius area in Naples in Ita...
FIGURE 1.5 Population distribution map of South Florida showing the high pop...
FIGURE 1.6 Location of tsunami sensors in the Pacific Ocean and surrounding ...
FIGURE 1.7 Sharp contrast of earthquake engineered Transamerica building (le...
FIGURE 1.8 Map showing the locations of the 1949 earthquake epicenters,lands...
FIGURE 1.8A Photo of a major 1949 Khait landslide.
FIGURE 1.9 Map of the location of the 2010 Port‐au‐Prince, Haiti earthquake ...
FIGURE 1.9A Collapsed buildings and crushed cars in Port‐au‐Prince, Haiti af...
FIGURE 1.9B Aerial view of the destruction in downtown Port au Prince, Haiti...
FIGURE 1.9C Collapse of cliff face in Haiti as the result of the 2010 earthq...
Chapter 2
FIGURE 2.1 Diagram showing the chemical layers of the earth.
FIGURE 2.2 Diagram showing the lithosphere and asthenosphere (mechanical lay...
FIGURE 2.3 Diagram showing the concept of isostasy. Top diagram shows isosta...
FIGURE 2.4 Diagram showing the depression of the lithosphere into the asthen...
FIGURE 2.5 Illustrations showing the retreat of the continental ice sheet. R...
FIGURE 2.5A Current map of Lake Champlain after glacial rebound was complete...
FIGURE 2.6 Diagram of convection cells in the mantle which drive the plates ...
FIGURE 2.7 Stages in the development of a divergent margin; (A) rifting of c...
FIGURE 2.8 Diagram of convection cells in the mantle which drive the plates ...
FIGURE 2.9 Diagrams of transform boundaries; (A) divergent–divergent transfo...
FIGURE 2.10 Right lateral offset of a fence across the San Andreas Fault as ...
FIGURE 2.10A Photograph of downtown San Francisco in flames as a result of t...
FIGURE 2.10B Photograph of destruction of downtown San Francisco as a result...
FIGURE 2.10C Destroyed downtown area in San Francisco as a result of the 190...
FIGURE 2.11 Diagrams showing escape or extrusion tectonics. (A) Fault and te...
FIGURE 2.12 Map of Eastern Asia showing the location of the 1970 Tonghai ear...
FIGURE 2.13 Diagram of plate configuration for the Triassic Period showing t...
FIGURE 2.14 Map of North America showing the mobile belts along the East and...
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.1 Igneous rock types, corresponding volcanoes and their characteris...
FIGURE 3.2 Diagram showing the circulation in the asthenosphere and movement...
FIGURE 3.3 Pressure–temperature graph of a phase diagram for the melting of ...
FIGURE 3.4A Photo of the Giant's Causeway, Ireland.
FIGURE 3.4B Photo of the Devils Postpile, California.
FIGURE 3.5 Diagram of a subduction zone showing the movement of wet rock at ...
FIGURE 3.6 Pressure–temperature graph of a phase diagram for the melting of ...
FIGURE 3.7 Diagrams of mantle plume igneous activity. (A) Mantle plume under...
FIGURE 3.8 Pillow lavas on the ocean floor in Hawaii.
FIGURE 3.8A Photograph of aa lava in Hawaii.
FIGURE 3.8B Photograph of pahoehoe lava in Hawaii.
FIGURE 3.9 Photograph showing the eruption column of the Eyjafjallajökull vo...
FIGURE 3.9A Satellite image showing the plume emerging from the Eyjafjallajö...
FIGURE 3.9B Satellite image showing the plume from the Eyjafjallajökull volc...
FIGURE 3.9C Photograph showing the eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano....
FIGURE 3.10 Intrusion of magma into continental crust pulling in xenoliths f...
FIGURE 3.11 Tectonic map of Nazca plate and South America.
Chapter 4
FIGURE 4.1 Diagrams of volcano types. (A) Fissure eruptions. (B) Shield volc...
FIGURE 4.2 Diagram of the parts of a volcano as shown.
FIGURE 4.3 Table of volcanic explosivity index (VEI) showing the criteria fo...
FIGURE 4.4 Map of the earth showing the locations of the 16 Decade Volcanoes...
FIGURE 4.5 Map of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea Basin showing the location o...
FIGURE 4.6 Timeline for eruptive cycles of Soufrière Hills volcano shown by ...
FIGURE 4.6A Map of Montserrat showing volcanic flows in 1997 and 1998.
FIGURE 4.6B Photograph of the Soufrière Hills volcano.
FIGURE 4.6C Photograph of a pyroclastic flow from the Soufrière Hills volcan...
FIGURE 4.7 Photograph of the Yellowstone National Park.
FIGURE 4.7A Photograph of Huckleberry Ridge flow.
FIGURE 4.7B Map of the United States showing the distribution of ash from th...
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5.1 Map showing location of Mount St. Helens and the distribution of ...
FIGURE 5.1A Photograph of the summit eruption of Mount St. Helens.
FIGURE 5.1B Photograph of the lateral blast shooting to the left out of the ...
FIGURE 5.1C Photograph of broken trees from the lateral blast with a person ...
FIGURE 5.1D Photograph of trees blown down by the lateral blast.
FIGURE 5.1E Photograph of a lahar filling a river valley on Mount St. Helens...
FIGURE 5.2 Map of Colombia and surrounding geography with the location of Mo...
FIGURE 5.2A Satellite image of Mount Galeras and the city of Pasto showing t...
FIGURE 5.2B Photograph of a small summit eruption of the volcano Galeras....
FIGURE 5.2C Photograph of a small summit eruption of the volcano Galeras....
FIGURE 5.3 Map of the island of Martinique and surrounding area.
FIGURE 5.3A Series of photographs of the development of the
nuée ardente
...
FIGURE 5.3B Photograph overlooking the destroyed city of St. Pierre after th...
FIGURE 5.3C Photograph of destroyed buildings in St. Pierre with a view up t...
FIGURE 5.3D Photograph of the destroyed city of St. Pierre and Mt. Pelee....
FIGURE 5.3E Photograph of destroyed buildings in the St. Pierre harbor.
FIGURE 5.4 Map of Krakatoa and surrounding area with the inset map of the lo...
FIGURE 5.4A Photograph/lithograph of the eruption of Krakatoa.
FIGURE 5.4B Satellite image of Anak Krakatoa, the resurgent dome in the midd...
FIGURE 5.4C Map of the current islands around the Krakatoa eruption and the ...
FIGURE 5.4D Map showing the distribution of the tsunami that was produced by...
FIGURE 5.5 Map of the Nevado del Ruiz volcano and the hazards it produced....
FIGURE 5.5A Satellite image of Nevado del Ruiz volcano showing the lahar tow...
FIGURE 5.5B Photograph of the Nevado del Ruiz lahar.
FIGURE 5.5C Photograph of the Nevado del Ruiz lahar.
FIGURE 5.5D Photograph of the damage caused by the Nevado del Ruiz lahar....
FIGURE 5.6 Map of the Katmai/Novarupta volcano in Alaska showing the directi...
FIGURE 5.6A Current photograph of the ash field deposited by the 1912 Novaru...
FIGURE 5.6B Photograph of the ash field, Valley of 10 000 Smokes from fumero...
FIGURE 5.6C Close‐up photograph of fumeroles.
FIGURE 5.6D Satellite image of the Katmai and Novarupta volcanoes and Valley...
FIGURE 5.6E Photograph of the Valley of 10 000 Smokes with fumeroles.
FIGURE 5.7 Map of the 1783 Laki flows and fissures and an inset map of the l...
FIGURE 5.7A Photograph of the Laki fissure system with volcanic cones.
FIGURE 5.7B Photograph of a vent from the Laki volcanic field.
FIGURE 5.7C Photograph of pillow basalts from the Laki volcanic field.
FIGURE 5.8 Map of Iceland showing the location of the Grímsvötn volcano unde...
FIGURE 5.8A Photograph showing the Grímsvötn volcano erupting through a glac...
FIGURE 5.8B Satellite image of the Grímsvötn eruption showing the meltwater ...
FIGURE 5.8C Photograph showing the flood of meltwater of the jökulhlaup from...
FIGURE 5.9 Map of Heimaey showing the location of the Eldfell vents and flow...
FIGURE 5.9A Photograph showing the Eldfell volcano erupting on the outskirts...
FIGURE 5.9B Photograph showing the Eldfell flows overtaking the houses in Ve...
FIGURE 5.9C Photograph showing the Eldfell flows overtaking and crushing a h...
FIGURE 5.9D Photograph showing the Eldfell flows moving down streets in Vest...
FIGURE 5.9E Photograph showing efforts to slow the Eldfell flow shown in Fig...
FIGURE 5.9F Photograph showing efforts to slow the Eldfell flow using seawat...
FIGURE 5.10 Map showing the location of Nyos in the Cameroon volcanic line i...
FIGURE 5.10A Panoramic photograph of a stirred‐up Lake Nyos as a result of t...
FIGURE 5.10B Photograph of cattle that were killed by the gas cloud from Lak...
FIGURE 5.10C Photograph of cattle killed by the gas cloud from Lake Nyos ins...
FIGURE 5.10D Illustration of the gases diffusing into the bottom of Lake Nyo...
Chapter 6
FIGURE 6.1 Diagram showing the relationships among compression (yellow arrow...
FIGURE 6.2 The breaking of a pencil in brittle deformation showing the relea...
FIGURE 6.3 Block diagrams of several main fault types including normal, rev...
FIGURE 6.4 Map of the Eastern United States showing the location of the New ...
FIGURE 6.4A Photograph of submerged trees in Reelfoot Lake as a result of su...
FIGURE 6.4B Print of upheaval on a river resulting from the New Madrid earth...
FIGURE 6.4C Photograph of a liquefaction channel leading to a now gone mud v...
FIGURE 6.5 Tectonic map of the Northwestern United States showing the locati...
FIGURE 6.5A Diagram showing the stratigraphy of the Oregon Coast and the age...
Chapter 7
FIGURE 7.1 The concentric expanding ripples on a pond after a rock is thrown...
FIGURE 7.2 (A) Block diagram showing the propagation of a Rayleigh wave thro...
FIGURE 7.3 Block diagrams showing the propagation of a P‐wave (top) and an S...
FIGURE 7.4 Schematic diagrams of simple seismographs showing vertical motion...
FIGURE 7.5 Photograph of a three‐drum seismic system showing the monitoring ...
FIGURE 7.6 Diagram showing the relative arrival times of seismic waves on a ...
FIGURE 7.7 Diagram of a sine wave showing the quantities of amplitude and pe...
FIGURE 7.8 Diagram showing how Richter magnitude is determined based upon wa...
FIGURE 7.9 Diagram showing travel‐time curves for P‐ and S‐waves for an area...
FIGURE 7.10 Map of North America with the circles of travel distance drawn a...
FIGURE 7.11 Much more focused triangulation exercise showing that with the r...
FIGURE 7.12 Diagram of a fault plane and its auxiliary plane dividing the ar...
FIGURE 7.13 Diagram showing block diagrams of five fault‐earthquake scenario...
FIGURE 7.14 Map of the Northwest Coast of the United States showing fault‐pl...
Chapter 8
FIGURE 8.1 Map of Mexico showing the Central American subduction zone and th...
FIGURE 8.1A Photograph of a building with collapsed middle floors in the Mex...
FIGURE 8.1B Photograph of a building destroyed in the Mexico City earthquak...
FIGURE 8.1C Photograph of a building with the foundation destroyed in the Me...
FIGURE 8.2 Map of the Niigata earthquake showing intensity distribution. Ins...
FIGURE 8.2A Photograph of collapsed bridge in the Niigata earthquake.
FIGURE 8.2B Photograph of earthquake‐resistant buildings tilted over by liqu...
FIGURE 8.3 Map of the Great Kantō earthquake showing ground acceleration dis...
FIGURE 8.3A Photograph of Tokyo destroyed in the Great Kantō earthquake.
FIGURE 8.3B Photograph of Tokyo destroyed in the Great Kantō earthquake....
FIGURE 8.3C Photograph of buildings in Tokyo destroyed in the Great Kantō ea...
FIGURE 8.3D Photograph of the city of Tokyo destroyed in the Great Kantō ear...
FIGURE 8.4 Map of the Tangshan earthquake in China.
FIGURE 8.4A Photograph of a bridge destroyed in the Tangshan earthquake.
FIGURE 8.4B Photograph of buildings destroyed in the Tangshan earthquake....
FIGURE 8.4C Photograph of destruction in the Tangshan earthquake.
FIGURE 8.5 Geologic map of Morocco showing the location of Agadir.
FIGURE 8.5A Photograph of the destruction to the city of Agadir.
FIGURE 8.5B Photograph of damage to buildings by the 1960 Agadir earthquake...
FIGURE 8.5C Photograph of massive damage to buildings from the Agadir earthq...
FIGURE 8.5D Photograph of damage to the Saada Hotel during the Agadir earthq...
FIGURE 8.6 Map of Central China showing the location of the 1920 Gansu earth...
FIGURE 8.6A Photograph of loess bluffs and plateau near Luochuan, China. Lar...
FIGURE 8.6B Photograph of a temple destroyed by the Gansu earthquake.
FIGURE 8.7 Tectonic map of the Aleutian Arc in subduction zone and areas of ...
FIGURE 8.7A Photograph of a roads destroyed by slumping during the 1964 Good...
FIGURE 8.7B Photograph of houses jumbled at the head of a slump in the 1964 ...
FIGURE 8.7C Photograph of a section of downtown Anchorage having undergone s...
FIGURE 8.7D Photograph of a school broken in half by slumping during the 196...
FIGURE 8.7E Photograph of a houses destroyed by slumping during the 1964 Goo...
FIGURE 8.8 Map of Central China showing the distribution of shaking intensit...
FIGURE 8.8A Photograph of rockslides generated during the 2008 Sichuan earth...
FIGURE 8.8B Photograph of buildings destroyed during the 2008 Sichuan earthq...
FIGURE 8.8C Photograph of building foundations damaged during the 2008 Sich...
FIGURE 8.8D Photograph of buildings demolished during the 2008 Sichuan earth...
FIGURE 8.9 Geologic map of Peru and surrounding area showing the location of...
FIGURE 8.9A Photograph of a lone statue left in the rubble generated by the ...
FIGURE 8.9B Photograph showing the origin of the rock and ice fall on Nevado...
FIGURE 8.9C Photograph of a boulder that was carried in the avalanche. Note ...
FIGURE 8.9D Photograph of an impact crater 48 ft (15 m) long and 16 ft (5 m...
FIGURE 8.9E Photograph showing the debris and mudflow in featureless light g...
FIGURE 8.9F Photograph showing the edge of the debris flow and the mountain ...
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9.1 Block diagram showing the parameters of a tsunami that has struck...
FIGURE 9.2 Map of Southern South America with Chile and the shaking intensit...
FIGURE 9.2A Map showing the dispersion of the 1960 Valdivia tsunami across t...
FIGURE 9.2B Before (top) and after (bottom) photos of the 1960 Valdivia eart...
FIGURE 9.2C Photo of the 1960 Valdivia tsunami damage on Hilo, Hawaii.
FIGURE 9.2D Photo of the 1960 Valdivia tsunami striking a community in Japan...
FIGURE 9.2E Photo of the 1960 Valdivia tsunami damage on the coast of Chile....
FIGURE 9.3 Map of Southeast Asia showing the location of the epicenter of th...
FIGURE 9.3A Photo of the drawback and bathers investigating the seafloor at ...
FIGURE 9.3B Map showing the dispersion of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Th...
FIGURE 9.3C Photo of a flooded village in Thailand from the 2004 Indian Oc...
FIGURE 9.3D Satellite image of an agricultural area in Indonesia struck by t...
FIGURE 9.3E Panoramic view of an area of Indonesia impacted by the 2004 Ind...
FIGURE 9.4 Map of Japan showing the location of the epicenter of the 2011 T
ō
...
FIGURE 9.4A Map showing the dispersion of the 2011 T
ō
hoku tsunami. The ...
FIGURE 9.4B Photo of the 2011 T
ō
hoku tsunami and cars overtopping the t...
FIGURE 9.4C Photo of the 2011 T
ō
hoku tsunami coming ashore in Sendai, J...
FIGURE 9.4D Satellite image of northeast coast of Japan struck by the 2011 t...
FIGURE 9.4E Aerial photo of smoke emanating from the fires at the Fukushima ...
FIGURE 9.5 Map of the Canary Islands and the surrounding area including La P...
FIGURE 9.5A Diagram showing the section of Cumbre de Vieja that is developin...
FIGURE 9.5B Map showing the dispersion of the hypothetical tsunami that wou...
FIGURE 9.6 Maps showing (A) the location of the epicenter and intensity of t...
FIGURE 9.6A Photo of Lituya Bay showing the left side shoreline stripped of ...
FIGURE 9.6B Photo of the hill face of Lituya Bay stripped of vegetation to a...
FIGURE 9.6C Photo of the Lituya Bay shoreline stripped of vegetation by the...
FIGURE 9.6D Diagram showing the collapse of the hill face of Lituya Bay sl...
FIGURE 9.7 Map of Aitape shoreline of Papua New Guinea showing the location ...
FIGURE 9.7A Photo showing onshore damage caused by the 1998 Sissano tsunami....
FIGURE 9.7B Photo showing an area impacted by the 1998 Sissano tsunami.
FIGURE 9.7C Photo showing a house swept out to sea by flowback of the 1998 S...
FIGURE 9.7D Photo showing an area stripped of vegetation by the 1998 Sissano...
Chapter 10
FIGURE 10.1 Map of the earth showing the locations of epicenters of earthqua...
FIGURE 10.2 Traditional earthquake precursors and their changes with time le...
FIGURE 10.3 Map of China showing the locations of instrumental major earthqu...
FIGURE 10.3A Photo of damage suffered in the 1975 Haicheng earthquake.
FIGURE 10.3B Photo of destruction in the 1975 Haicheng earthquake.
FIGURE 10.4 Map of Central Italy showing the location of the 2009 L'Aquila e...
FIGURE 10.4A Aerial photograph of earthquake destruction in L'Aquila.
FIGURE 10.4B Photograph of a street damaged by the 2009 L'Aquila earthquake...
FIGURE 10.4C Photo of a street destroyed by the 2009 L'Aquila earthquake....
FIGURE 10.5 Building damaged in the 1985 Mexico City earthquake with the mid...
FIGURE 10.6 Steel‐rebar‐reinforced concrete column deformed during the 1971 ...
FIGURE 10.7 Diagram of a building with cross bracing on the faces.
FIGURE 10.8 Diagram showing deformation of walls without shear walls (top) a...
FIGURE 10.9 Diagram showing the position of the tuned mass damper in the Tai...
FIGURE 10.10 Photograph of the Transamerica building in San Francisco, Calif...
FIGURE 10.11 Diagram of building vibrations from seismic waves in convention...
FIGURE 10.12 Diagram of slider‐bowl base isolation unit.
FIGURE 10.13 Diagram of lead rubber bearing base isolation unit.
FIGURE 10.14 Color‐enhanced surface deformation map during and around the ti...
FIGURE 10.15 Diagram of the earthquake‐precursor‐sensing satellite system th...
Chapter 11
FIGURE 11.1 Photographs of various sized piles of gravel all showing the sam...
FIGURE 11.2 Methods to stabilize slopes against failure.
FIGURE 11.3 Block diagrams of types of mass movements. (A) Block diagram of ...
FIGURE 11.4 Map of the 1963 Vaiont Dam disaster, Italy.
FIGURE 11.4A Photo of the destruction immediately downstream of the Vaiont D...
FIGURE 11.4B Before (left) and after (right) photos of a town downstream of ...
FIGURE 11.5 Diagram of a debris avalanche.
FIGURE 11.6 Map of 1962 Huascarán avalanche, Peru to debris flow.
FIGURE 11.7 Map of the battle fronts in the Dolomite Mountains of the Italia...
FIGURE 11.7A Photograph showing the arduous task of lifting of artillery int...
FIGURE 11.7B Photograph of soldiers inspecting a scar left by an avalanche t...
FIGURE 11.7C Artist’s rendition of soldiers being killed in an avalanche dur...
FIGURE 11.8 Block diagrams of slow‐velocity mass movements. (A) Earthflow. (...
FIGURE 11.9 Map of Venezuela showing the location of Vargas. Inset shows pos...
FIGURE 11.9A Photo showing the city of Vargas on an alluvial fan as viewed t...
FIGURE 11.9B Photo showing the mudflow engulfing part of Vargas.
FIGURE 11.9C Photo showing the mudflow deposit covering part of the city of ...
FIGURE 11.9D Photo showing an example of the boulders carried by the mudflow...
FIGURE 11.9E Photo showing the collapse of a building undermined by the mudf...
FIGURE 11.10 Block diagram of karst topography and features.
FIGURE 11.10A Photo of a sinkhole in a residential area.
Chapter 12
FIGURE 12.1 Diagram showing the decrease in temperature with height through ...
FIGURE 12.2 Diagram showing the straight path of a thrown ball with a nonrot...
FIGURE 12.3 Diagram showing the simplified circulation of the atmosphere in ...
FIGURE 12.4 Diagram showing the actual convection cells of the rotating eart...
FIGURE 12.5 Map of the earth showing the major climatic belts. Note that tro...
FIGURE 12.6 Map of the North Atlantic Ocean Basin showing the Gulf Stream oc...
FIGURE 12.7 Diagram showing the orographic effect of moist rising up the fro...
FIGURE 12.8 Block diagram of a cold front showing the front moving from back...
FIGURE 12.9 Block diagram of a warm front showing the front moving from fron...
FIGURE 12.10 Block diagrams of (A) a cold front moving from front to back an...
FIGURE 12.11 Diagrams showing (A) two varieties of circulation types in thun...
FIGURE 12.12 View of the Dallas/Fort Worth Airport showing the track of the ...
FIGURE 12.12A Illustration of a downburst from a thunderstorm as an airplane...
FIGURE 12.12B Annotated satellite image of the weather at the time of the cr...
FIGURE 12.12C Photo of the remaining tail section of the airplane.
FIGURE 12.13 Map of Egypt showing the location of Dronka.
FIGURE 12.13A Illustration of the generation of a lightning bolt. (a) Format...
FIGURE 12.13B Photo showing damage from the lightning disaster in Dronka....
FIGURE 12.14 Diagram showing the formation of hail by circulation between co...
FIGURE 12.14A Map showing the location of Hail Alley in the Central United S...
FIGURE 12.14B Radar image of the Denver hailstorm.
FIGURE 12.14C Photo of golf‐ball‐sized hail from the 2017 Denver storm.
FIGURE 12.14D Photo of hail covering Denver city streets.
FIGURE 12.14E Photo of hail damage to a car window.
FIGURE 12.14F Photo of hail damage to a house.
FIGURE 12.15 Illustration of the movement of the 2020 Derecho across the Nor...
FIGURE 12.15A Illustration of a derecho including radar image and winds.
FIGURE 12.15B Sequential radar images of the migration of the 2020 Derecho a...
FIGURE 12.15C Photograph of damage caused by the 2020 Derecho.
FIGURE 12.15D Satellite image of Iowa after passage of the 2020 Derecho. The...
FIGURE 12.15E Photograph of damage caused by the 2020 Derecho.
FIGURE 12.16 Color‐enhanced radar image of the 1993 Storm of the Century acr...
FIGURE 12.16A Photograph of the snowstorm of the 1993 Storm of the Century....
FIGURE 12.16B Photo of snow on cars in New York.
FIGURE 12.16C Map showing the distribution of snow across the Eastern Unit...
Chapter 13
FIGURE 13.1 Map of the world showing the bathymetry of the ocean basins. ...
FIGURE 13.2 Block diagram of a typical ocean basin with a passive margin sho...
FIGURE 13.3 Map view of an uneven coastline showing where wave energy would ...
FIGURE 13.4 Map view of a coastline showing a smooth segment versus a jagged...
FIGURE 13.5 Block diagram of a coast showing the placement of a barrier isla...
FIGURE 13.6 Satellite image of the end of the Mississippi River Delta in the...
FIGURE 13.7 Block diagram of the mouth of an estuary with blue arrow showin...
FIGURE 13.8 Diagram showing a polar view of the earth and the relation of hi...
FIGURE 13.9 Diagrams showing tidal ranges. (A) Cross‐section view of tidal r...
FIGURE 13.10 Relative positions of the sun, the moon, and the earth to produ...
FIGURE 13.11 Cross‐section diagram showing the parts and parameters of a wav...
FIGURE 13.12 Cross‐section diagram showing the movement of water particles a...
FIGURE 13.13 Block diagram showing the changes that a wave undergoes both in...
FIGURE 13.14 Block diagram showing waves approaching a shoreline at an angle...
FIGURE 13.15 Block diagram showing the scalloped shape of a shoreline that u...
FIGURE 13.15A Photograph of a shoreline with groins.
FIGURE 13.15B Photograph of a shoreline with breakwaters.
FIGURE 13.16 Map of the earth showing the major warm and cold ocean currents...
FIGURE 13.17 Diagrams showing maps and cross sections across the equatorial ...
Chapter 14
FIGURE 14.1 Map of the track of the 1900 Galveston hurricane.
FIGURE 14.1A Photograph of the destroyed center of the city as a result of t...
FIGURE 14.1B Photograph of the debris field of destroyed houses as a result ...
FIGURE 14.1C Photograph of the destroyed houses as a result of the Galveston...
FIGURE 14.1D Photograph of a destroyed house as a result of the Galveston hu...
FIGURE 14.2 Map of the track of the 1938 Great New England hurricane.
FIGURE 14.2A Diagram showing the dangerous versus less‐dangerous side of the...
FIGURE 14.2B Photograph of street flooding as a result of the 1938 Great New...
FIGURE 14.2C Photograph of river flooding as a result of the 1938 Great New ...
FIGURE 14.2D Photograph of the debris field of destroyed houses as a result ...
FIGURE 14.3 Map of the track of the Hurricane Mitch in 1998.
FIGURE 14.3A Satellite image of Hurricane Mitch over Central America.
FIGURE 14.3B Photograph of mudflows down mountain slopes in Central America....
FIGURE 14.3C Photograph of broadly flooded areas in Central America as a res...
FIGURE 14.3D Photograph of debris from river flooding in Central America as ...
FIGURE 14.4 Map of the track of the Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
FIGURE 14.4A Satellite image of Hurricane Katrina over Louisiana.
FIGURE 14.4B Photograph of houses that were damaged and destroyed by the sto...
FIGURE 14.4C Photograph of broadly flooded areas in New Orleans, Louisiana a...
FIGURE 14.4D Photograph of flooded houses in New Orleans, Louisiana with onl...
FIGURE 14.5 Map of the track of the 2013 Super Typhoon Haiyan.
FIGURE 14.5A Satellite image of Super Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines.
FIGURE 14.5B Diagram showing the Super Typhoon Haiyan over the Philippines c...
FIGURE 14.5C Photograph of the Philippines coastline showing the storm surge...
FIGURE 14.5D Photograph of broad damage in the Philippines from Super Typho...
FIGURE 14.5E Photograph of storm surge damage in the Philippines from Super ...
FIGURE 14.6 Map of the track of the Hurricane Maria in 2017.
FIGURE 14.6A Satellite image of Hurricane Maria over Puerto Rico.
FIGURE 14.6B Photograph of wind and rain of Hurricane Maria.
FIGURE 14.6C Photograph of flooded area in Puerto Rico during Hurricane Mari...
FIGURE 14.7 Map of the track of the Cyclone Nargis in 2015.
FIGURE 14.7A Satellite image of Cyclone Nargis in the Bay of Bengal.
FIGURE 14.7B Photograph of a flooded area in Myanmar with only the house roo...
FIGURE 14.7C Photograph of broadly flooded areas in Myanmar as a result of C...
FIGURE 14.7D Photograph of a flooded area in Myanmar as a result of Cyclone ...
FIGURE 14.8 Map of the track of the Cyclone Bhola in Bangladesh in 1970. Ins...
FIGURE 14.8A Photograph of broadly flooded areas in Bangladesh as a result o...
FIGURE 14.8B Photograph of a relief worker dragging a body of a child out of...
FIGURE 14.8C Album cover for the Concert for Bangladesh.
Chapter 15
FIGURE 15.1 Diagram of a supercell showing the location of a tornado.
FIGURE 15.2 Diagrams showing the formation of a tornado in four steps starti...
FIGURE 15.3 Map showing the path of the 2011 Joplin tornado across Missouri ...
FIGURE 15.3A Satellite image of the storm that produced the Joplin tornado....
FIGURE 15.3B Photo of the Joplin tornado.
FIGURE 15.3C Aerial before and after photos of the St. John's Hospital in Jo...
FIGURE 15.3D Photo of damage done by the Joplin tornado.
FIGURE 15.3E Satellite image of the path of stripped vegetation produced by...
FIGURE 15.4 Maps showing (A) the paths of the 2011 Super Outbreak across Sou...
FIGURE 15.4A Satellite image of the storm that produced the 2011 Super Outbr...
FIGURE 15.4B Photo of an EF5 tornado devastating Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
FIGURE 15.4C Aerial photo of a damage path done by a tornado in the 2011 Su...
FIGURE 15.4D Infrared satellite image of a path of stripped vegetation produ...
FIGURE 15.4E Aerial photo of damage done by a tornado in the 2011 Super Out...
FIGURE 15.5 Map showing the paths of the 1974 Super Outbreak across Southeas...
FIGURE 15.5A Photo of a tornado near Cincinnati, Ohio.
FIGURE 15.5B Aerial photo of damage done by a tornado in the 1974 Super Outb...
FIGURE 15.5C Photo of an F5 tornado devastating Xenia, Ohio.
FIGURE 15.5D Photograph of damage done by a tornado in 1974.
FIGURE 15.5E Aerial photo of damage done by a tornado in the 1974 Super Out...
FIGURE 15.6 Map showing the path of the 1999 Moore tornado across Oklahoma w...
FIGURE 15.6A Photo of the 1999 Moore tornado.
FIGURE 15.6B Radar image of the Moore tornado showing the classic tornado ho...
FIGURE 15.6C Photo of damage of the Moore tornado.
FIGURE 15.6D Aerial photo of damage done by the Moore tornado.
FIGURE 15.7 Map showing the path of the 1925 Tri‐state tornado showing the t...
FIGURE 15.7A Photo of damage from the Tri‐state tornado.
FIGURE 15.7B Photo of damage from the 1925 Tri‐state tornado.
FIGURE 15.7C Photo of damage from the Tri‐state tornado.
FIGURE 15.8 Map of the Venice, Italy area.
FIGURE 15.8A Photo of stadium destroyed by the 1970 Venice waterspout.
FIGURE 15.8B Photo of a monument to the victims of the 1970 Venice waterspou...
Chapter 16
FIGURE 16.1 Diagram of a drainage basin and watershed bounded by drainage di...
FIGURE 16.2 System for the ordering of tributary streams and rivers in a dra...
FIGURE 16.3 Block diagrams showing (A) an influent stream and (B) an effluen...
FIGURE 16.4 Drainage patterns for various systems including (A) dendritic pa...
FIGURE 16.5 Diagram of a gauging station measuring the height of water in a ...
FIGURE 16.6 Time versus discharge curves for precipitation events in (left) ...
FIGURE 16.7 Diagrams of (top) upstream flooding versus (bottom) downstream f...
FIGURE 16.8 (A) Maps of areas impacted by the Northern India floods showing ...
FIGURE 16.8A Satellite image of a flooded river in the Uttarakhand area.
FIGURE 16.8B Photograph of Northern India flood stranding pilgrims on small ...
FIGURE 16.8C Photograph of Northern India floods.
FIGURE 16.8D Photograph of Northern India flood damage.
FIGURE 16.9 Map of the Yangtze River in China showing the towns flooded by t...
FIGURE 16.9A Photograph of the 1931 Central China river flood inundating nor...
FIGURE 16.9B Photograph of a row of houses flooded into the second floor by...
FIGURE 16.9C Photograph of the Great China river flood inundating normally d...
FIGURE 16.10 Map of the Banqiao Dam and downstream towns and villages floode...
FIGURE 16.10A Photograph of the remains of the Banqiao Dam after the 1975 ri...
FIGURE 16.10B Photograph of the raging 1975 river floods in China.
FIGURE 16.10C Aerial photo of flooding from the breached dam in the 1975 flo...
Chapter 17
FIGURE 17.1 Map of the world showing the deserts and areas of water shortage...
FIGURE 17.2 Map showing the drifting of airborne dust from the Sahara Desert...
FIGURE 17.3 The process of deflation where wind removes the fine particles l...
FIGURE 17.4 Geomorphic features produced by wind erosion in an arid environm...
FIGURE 17.5 Diagrams showing the types of dunes: (A) barchan dunes, (B) tran...
FIGURE 17.6 Drought monitor report for the United States showing areas of re...
FIGURE 17.7 (A) Diagram showing the formation of a dust storm haboob. (...
FIGURE 17.8 Map of the United States showing the Dust Bowl states and area d...
FIGURE 17.8A Photo showing an approaching dust storm during the Dust Bowl....
FIGURE 17.8B Photo showing farm buildings covered by sand drifts and dunes d...
FIGURE 17.8C Photo showing an agricultural field made unproductive by drifti...
FIGURE 17.8D Photo showing an agricultural field and farm overtaken by drift...
FIGURE 17.8E Photo showing an approaching haboob during the Dust Bowl.
FIGURE 17.9 Map of the 1871 Peshtigo Fire in Wisconsin. Inset: the area of t...
FIGURE 17.9A Map of the area of the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.
FIGURE 17.9B Photo showing the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.
FIGURE 17.9C Photo showing burned buildings in Chicago in the fire of 1871....
FIGURE 17.9D Photo showing the burned area in Chicago in the fire of 1871....
FIGURE 17.10A Drought‐stricken areas of Central China (A) in 1876, (B) in 18...
FIGURE 17.10B Map of China showing the distribution of areas of famine (pink...
FIGURE 17.10C Woodcut showing the heartbreak of the 1876–1878 Great China d...
FIGURE 17.10D Woodcut showing the atrocities of the 1876–1878 Great China dr...
FIGURE 17.11 Top: Graph of the results of the tree‐ring and interpreted soil...
FIGURE 17.12 Drought monitor report for the United States in 2012 at the pea...
Chapter 18
FIGURE 18.1 Illustration of the solar system showing the relative locations ...
FIGURE 18.2 Color‐enhanced photo of the largest asteroid or planetoid Ceres ...
FIGURE 18.3 Photograph of the Comet Temple.
FIGURE 18.4 Photographs of meteorites: (A) Achondrite meteorite from Mars (1...
FIGURE 18.5 Photos of Barringer Crater, Arizona: (A) Satellite image of the ...
FIGURE 18.6 Illustrations of the parts and features of the Barringer Crater ...
FIGURE 18.7 Illustrations of the Chesapeake impact crater: (A) Map of locati...
FIGURE 18.8 Images of the Shoemaker–Levy 9 comet impact with Jupiter: (A) Se...
FIGURE 18.9 (A) Map showing the location of the Chicxulub impact crater in t...
FIGURE 18.10 Map showing the location of the Tunguska explosion.
FIGURE 18.10A Photo showing the trees blown down by the Tunguska explosion....
FIGURE 18.11 (A) Map showing the location of the Chelyabinsk impact. (B) Map...
FIGURE 18.11A Photo of bright glare of the Chelyabinsk bolide in the sky ove...
FIGURE 18.11B Photo of the trail left by the Chelyabinsk bolide in the sky o...
FIGURE 18.11C Photo of a building destroyed by the explosion of the Chelyabi...
Chapter 19
FIGURE 19.1 Map of Indonesia and the surrounding areas showing Mount Tambora...
FIGURE 19.1A Satellite image of the caldera at the summit of Mount Tambora....
FIGURE 19.1B Photo of the remains of natives killed in the pyroclastic flow ...
FIGURE 19.2 Map of the Philippines showing Mount Pinatubo.
FIGURE 19.2A Photo of the 1993 eruption of Mount Pinatubo.
FIGURE 19.2B Photo of a house covered by ash from the eruption of Mount Pin...
FIGURE 19.2C Photo of an airplane damaged by ash from the eruption of Mount ...
FIGURE 19.2D Aerial photo of the lahar produced by the 1993 eruption of Moun...
FIGURE 19.3A Graphs of temperature variations at various locations showing a...
FIGURE 19.3B Graph of spikes in SO
2
in ice cores from Greenland in 530 and ...
FIGURE 19.4A Graph of mass extinctions over the past 600 million years with ...
FIGURE 19.4B Map of the world during the Permian Period showing the continen...
FIGURE 19.4C Map of the location of the Siberian Traps during the Permian P...
FIGURE 19.4D Graphs of carbon isotope variations through time showing a shar...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Companion Website
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Earth's Fury
The Science of Natural Disasters
ALEXANDER GATES
Department of Earth & Environmental Science
Rutgers University
This edition first published 2022© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Gates, Alexander E., 1957‐ author.Title: Earth’s fury : the science of natural disasters / Alexander Gates.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley‐Blackwell, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2021970026 (print) | LCCN 2021970027 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119546597 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119546801 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119546832 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Natural disasters.Classification: LCC GB5014 .G38 2022 (print) | LCC GB5014 (ebook) | DDC 363.34–dc23/eng20220521LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021970026LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021970027
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © KalypsoWorldPhotography/Alamy Stock Photo
Preface
Most courses on natural disasters are attended primarily by non‐science majors. These students are not used to the style of science textbooks and have difficulty with them. Much of the problem is that chapters must be read in one sitting or else students lose their train of thought and are forced to start over or give up. Wading through the scientific concepts and information at college level is also foreign to them. After years of struggling with several textbooks on natural disasters, several colleagues and I attempted to use an encyclopedia on earthquakes and volcanoes instead of a textbook. As a result, student evaluations on the usefulness of the textbook improved dramatically. Students even commented on the textbook in their written assessments of the course, which is rare. They found that reading about science in short, contained packets was much more convenient and easier to digest.
The problem is that the information in an encyclopedia is organized alphabetically rather than to develop an understanding of a topic. Therefore, the book can only be used to support the class notes which provide the entire structure rather than as a stand‐alone resource. Encyclopedias are also not as useful in reviewing for exams because of this lack of topical organization. They tend also not to contain high‐quality graphics and many non‐science students are visual learners.
This book attempts to combine the best features of a scientific textbook and an encyclopedia into a single natural disasters book that is more appropriate to non‐science majors. It retains the organization of a textbook and adopts the highly illustrative graphics of some of the newer and more effective textbooks. However, most of the scientific content is delivered through a plethora of case studies. These are short, self‐contained, and well‐illustrated stories of specific natural disasters that are highly engaging for both science and non‐science majors. The stories incorporate the scientific concepts and vocabulary into the event so that students appreciate and remember it as part of the story. By relating the event to the impact on society and human lives, this method of presentation also places the science into the context of what is personally important to the student. The case studies are short and self‐contained so that chapters can be read in pieces without losing continuity. However, the chapters are organized to deliver the material in the logical manner of the topical development. Therefore, the book can be used as a stand‐alone resource for a course and be effective for exam preparation.
The other important feature is the visual support of the case studies. A number of artistic, highly detailed illustrations of disaster‐producing features serve as lead‐ins to the case studies. The features include volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunamis, supercells and hurricanes. These illustrations show the spatial and temporal relations of the natural hazards of the event. Each case study then describes a specific, premier example of the natural disaster. The case study can then be related back to the illustration to place it in context. For example, stratovolcanoes can produce deadly lahars, nuée ardentes, pyroclastic flows, and lateral blasts, among others. Case studies on interesting disasters involving each of these hazards are presented in two‐page spreads richly illustrated with diagrams and photographs of the event and resulting damage.
The book is organized to introduce the scientific basis of the disasters either early in the chapter or in a separate leading chapter including a list of easily referenced definitions to enhance understanding. The background can be interspersed with case studies, but all are followed by a group of case studies to give the reader a full flavor of the character of the processes and devastation. This organization coupled with the exciting and highly illustrated stories is intended to enhance interest and understanding.
There are many types of natural disasters, and courses tend to emphasize certain types. This book contains as many types of natural disasters as could be included in a single book. It also focuses on recent disasters so students may be able to relate to them more easily. It is not meant that the natural disaster courses should cover all of the topics, but that professors can choose the disasters that best fit their course.
Acknowledgments
The contributions of the following people is acknowledged and appreciated. Dr. David Valentino tested the encyclopedia idea, acted as a consultant and reviewed some of the chapters, providing helpful feedback. Dr. Ismael Calderon reviewed most of the chapters and provided extensive feedback. Cary Lu reviewed several chapters for ease of understanding.
About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/gates/earthsfury
This website includes:
Powerpoints of all figures and tables from the book for downloading
Web links from the book for downloading
CHAPTER 1Introduction to Natural Disasters
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 What Is a Natural Disaster?
1.2 Why Do People Live in Dangerous Areas?
1.3 What Can We Do to Stay Safe?
1.4 Societal Response to Natural Disasters
1.5 How This Book Is Organized
Words You Should Know:
Earthquake
– An event in which the breakage of rock along a fault within the earth causes the release of energy in the form of seismic waves.
Disaster reduction engineering
– Construction practices that are designed to reduce the impact of a natural disaster.
Hurricane
– A highly energetic, individual tropical storm that develops over warm ocean waters.
Natural disaster
– A natural event that causes loss of life or property, either directly or indirectly, as a result of the aftermath.
Population growth
– The increase in human population over time.
Tsunami –
Meaning “harbor wave” in Japanese, a tsunami is an energetic ocean wave generated by a physical event (earthquake, volcano, landslide) on the earth's surface.
Volcano
– The geographic feature resulting from the release of lava and/or solid ejecta from a vent in the earth.
1.1 What Is a Natural Disaster?
Humans seek to protect their lives at all costs. Major efforts and enormous amounts of money are devoted to medications and medical procedures that can increase human life by even a short amount of time. These efforts have increased the average life span worldwide and protected people from many natural threats. This increased protection has led to a sense of security among many of not having to worry about the threats, especially in the developed world. Increased feelings of security have also given humans the courage to inhabit areas of the planet that might otherwise be too subject to threats of nature to be safe. But natural disasters are not controlled by human will and continue to be threats to safety and security. On the other hand, some people do not have the finances or resources to live in areas other than those that are subject to natural disasters and face risks without expectations of security.
Very few people want to be involved in a natural disaster, but most people are mesmerized by them and marvel at their destructive force. In an attempt to find reasons for these catastrophic events, some cultures choose to explain them through folklore and religious beliefs, whereas scientists seek to understand the processes behind them and ultimately to forecast them and reduce their destruction.
Natural disasters are defined as any catastrophic loss of life and/or property caused by a natural event or situation. This definition could include biologic issues such as disease, injurious viral or bacterial colonization, invasion of dangerous plants, and infestations of insects and other vermin. However, this book solely focuses on disasters involving the physical properties of the shallow earth, the atmosphere, and those from extraterrestrial sources. These disasters include earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, avalanches, landslides, tropical storms, tornadoes, floods, and extraterrestrial impacts (Figure 1.1). The difference between these physical threats and the biological threats is that humans have virtually no control over the physical threats, whereas they may have some control on the biological threats. All people can do to prepare for these physical threats is to choose safe locations, engineer structures to withstand the impact, and/or evacuate areas before the threat produces a disaster.
In terms of the planet earth and its history, the processes that produce natural disasters are not extraordinary events. They occur on a daily basis and have done so since the beginning of time. Many large events go unnoticed because they do not impact humans. Unlike the way many ancient and primitive cultures regarded these events as being imposed by supernatural forces as a punishment, they are part of the natural sequence of events of planet earth. They are governed by the physical and chemical processes that define the planet and can be explained in those terms. That is one part of natural disasters. The other part is the impact on humans and response of society to these natural events.
Single natural disasters have changed the course of human history in profound ways. The dual components of natural disasters make them complex issues in modern society. In any evaluation of natural disasters, both aspects must be considered. This means that an understanding of the controlling science is the first part of appreciating a natural disaster. The human aspect is more difficult to generalize because each situation is different. The best way to appreciate the full meaning of a natural disaster is through case studies in the context of the controlling science.
FIGURE 1.1 Collage of natural disasters which come in a number of forms that have varying abilities to wreak havoc on human communities.
Source: Images from top, left to right courtesy of US National Park Service, Langevin Jacques/Getty Images, Getty Images, NOAA, David Mabe/Almay Stock Photo, Phys.org.
CASE STUDY 1.1 464 BCE Sparta, Greece Earthquake
Earthquake that Changed History
A major earthquake took place in 464 BCE that forever changed the course of Greek history. The estimated magnitude of this earthquake is 7.2, and the destruction from ground shaking is estimated at X on the Modified Mercalli Scale of earthquake intensity as interpreted from historical records of the damage it caused. A magnitude‐7.2 earthquake is considered to be strong. The strongest earthquake ever measured was of magnitude 9.6. The shaking intensity of X is on a scale of XII and is designated “extreme.” The probable result of the earthquake was a 20‐km‐long north‐south normal fault scarp or small cliff that lies a few miles east of Sparta (Figure 1.2). The earthquake is estimated to have produced a death toll of 20 000 people in the Greek city‐state of Sparta. Prior to this, the Spartans established themselves as the most formidable army in the region by defeating the invading Persian (now Iran) force which was previously considered the most fearsome. However, the earthquake so weakened the Spartans that they allowed troops from the nearby and allied city‐state of Athens to help with the rescue and relief operations. The Athenians learned that the Spartans had partially enslaved the Helots, another group of Greeks, by forcing them into an agrarian existence to supply the Spartans with food. The Athenians protested based on a regional agreement that all Greeks should be free and, as a result, were immediately expelled from Sparta. The removal of the Athenians, however, did not end the Spartans’ troubles. The Messenians, yet another group of Greeks, came to the aid of the Helots in a revolt against the weakened Spartans which lasted for years. Resentment from these issues eventually led to the Peloponnesian War, a major and defining event in Greek history.
FIGURE 1.2 Map of ancient Greece showing the cities of Sparta and Athens as well as the location of the Messenians.
