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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
POLLUTED EARTH A fresh and engaging introduction to the science behind pollution disasters for science and non-science majors Coming generations will have to reckon with a growing number of environmental challenges, whether caused by climate change, population growth or industrial production. Polluted Earth: The Science of the Earth's Environment combines the best features of a textbook and a popular science book. It retains the organization needed for a course while adopting a highly illustrative style that is mirrored in a multitude of case studies: short, self-contained and well-illustrated stories of well-known pollution disasters that are highly engaging for both science and non-science majors, from the historic Black Sunday dust storm in the midwestern United States to the more recent Deepwater Horizon spill in the Gulf of Mexico. From the very start, it also introduces the concept of environmental justice that ties pollution to economic and social life, bringing its subject into the world of the reader in an unprecedented way. Polluted Earth readers will also find: * Well-known case studies including the Great London smog, the Pacific Gas and Electric case (made famous by Erin Brockovitch), the Exxon Valdez, and more * Detailed illustrations showing the spatial and temporal relations of various pollution sources * Modern technological solutions already in use by environmental industries * A comprehensive list of pollutants, their health & environmental impact and their regulated exposure limits With its fresh and engaging style, Polluted Earth is an ideal introduction to the concepts, tasks and challenges of environmental science for undergraduate students of all disciplines.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Companion Website
CHAPTER 1: Humans and the Environment
1.1 Human Impact on the Environment
1.2 Earth's Environments
1.3 Point Source and Non‐Point Source Pollution
1.4 Pollution Affects Everything
1.5 What Can I Do About It?
CHAPTER 2: Environmental Justice
2.1 Environmental Justice
2.2 Environmental Justice of Industrial Impacts
2.3 Environmental Racism
Reference
CHAPTER 3: Architecture of the Earth and Atmosphere
3.1 Solid Earth Spheres and Systems
3.2 Liquid Spheres and Systems
3.3 The Atmosphere
CHAPTER 4: Climate Change
4.1 The Climate Change Controversy
4.2 Basics of Climate Change
4.3 Climate Change Impacts
4.4 Is it Really that Bad?
4.5 What Can I Do About It?
CHAPTER 5: Natural Pollution
5.1 Pollution from Naturally Occurring Materials
5.2 Natural Water Pollution
5.3 Natural Soil Pollution
5.4 Natural Air Pollution
CHAPTER 6: Environmental Perspective on Rocks and Minerals
6.1 Classification of Minerals
6.2 Classification of Rocks
6.3 Pollution by Rocks and Minerals
6.4 Environmental Remediation by Rocks, Minerals, and Soils
CHAPTER 7: Natural Hazards and Pollution
7.1 Natural Disasters
7.2 Volcanic Eruptions
7.3 Earthquakes
7.4 Pollution from Hurricanes
7.5 Mass Movement
CHAPTER 8: Pollution of Groundwater
8.1 The Groundwater System
8.2 Groundwater Movement
8.3 Pollution of Groundwater
8.4 Pollutants in Groundwater
8.5 What Can I Do?
CHAPTER 9: Pollution of Rivers and Surface Waters
9.1 Rivers and Streams
9.2 Pollution of Streams
9.3 Lakes, Ponds, and Wetlands
9.4 What Can I Do?
CHAPTER 10: Pollution of Soil
10.1 Soil Basics
10.2 Soil Pollution
10.3 Fluvial and Alluvial Sediments and Soils
10.4 Glacial Deposits and Pollution
10.5 What Can I Do?
CHAPTER 11: Ecosystem Pollution
11.1 Ecology and Ecosystems
11.2 Basic Ecology Concepts
11.3 Invasive Species
11.4 Impact on Landscapes
11.5 Light Pollution
11.6 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
11.7 What Can I Do?
Reference
CHAPTER 12: Ocean Pollution
12.1 Ocean Basics
12.2 Ocean Processes
12.3 Pollution of the Coast
12.4 Pollution of the Continental Shelf
12.5 Ocean Dumping
CHAPTER 13: Weather and Air Pollution
13.1 Weather Basics
13.2 Climate Systems of the Earth
13.3 Air Masses and the Fronts that Separate Them
13.4 Air Pollutants
13.5 Stagnation and Temperature Inversion
13.6 Acid Precipitation
Reference
CHAPTER 14: Mining and Earth Resources
14.1 Mining of Minerals and Rocks
14.2 Types of Mining
14.3 Pollution from Mines
14.4 Smelting and Refining
14.5 Petroleum Production and Processing
CHAPTER 15: Military and Pollution
15.1 War and Pollution
15.2 Pollution at Military Facilities
CHAPTER 16: Agricultural Pollution
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Agricultural Threats to the Environment
16.3 Agricultural Chemicals
CHAPTER 17: Nuclear Energy and Dangers
17.1 Radiation Types and Sources
17.2 Health Impacts of Radiation
17.3 Radiation Pollution
CHAPTER 18: Solid Waste Disposal
18.1 Dumps, Landfills, and Waste Disposal
18.2 Common Landfill Types
18.3 Pollution from Landfills
CHAPTER 19: Environmental Industry and Cleanup
19.1 The Environmental Industry
19.2 Steps in Site Evaluation
19.3 Remedial Methods
19.4 Bioremediation of Pollution
CHAPTER 20: Is It Too Late?
20.1 Believers and Non‐Believers
20.2 A Not‐So‐New Hope?
20.3 Let the Government Do It
Appendix A:Pollutant List
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
U
V
X
Z
Appendix B:Online Videos on Case Studies
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 20
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 6
TABLE 6.1
Classification of igneous rocks.
TABLE 6.2
Textural classification of particles and rocks.
TABLE 6.3
Compositional classification of sandstone.
TABLE 6.4
Dunham classification system for limestone.
TABLE 6.5
Textural classification for metamorphic rocks.
Chapter 9
TABLE 9.1
Ramsar impact classifications.
Chapter 14
TABLE 14.1
Metals and mining.
TABLE 14.2
Uses and occurrence of nonmetallic minerals.
Chapter 17
TABLE 17.1
Sources and amounts of radiation exposure.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.1 Human population growth curve from 1800 to 2020 with projected po...
FIGURE 1.2 Portrait of Rachel Carson.
FIGURE 1.3 Diagram illustrating several environment types.
FIGURE 1.4 Bar graph showing average annual precipitation for several enviro...
FIGURE 1.5 Diagram showing several point (PS) and non‐point sources (NPS) of...
FIGURE 1.6 (a) Map of the World Trade Center complex at Ground Zero and the ...
Chapter 2
FIGURE 2.1 Map of the world showing the Global North and Global South countr...
FIGURE 2.2 (a) Map of India area showing the location of Bhopal. Inset shows...
FIGURE 2.3 (a) Map of the Citarum River and basin and proximity to Jakarta. ...
FIGURE 2.4 A silhouette of the New York City skyline showing relative height...
FIGURE 2.5 (a) Map of the Flint, Michigan area showing the proposed and avai...
FIGURE 2.6 (a) Map of “Cancer Alley” in Louisiana as shown by the band of in...
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.1 Diagram showing the chemical layers of the Earth.
FIGURE 3.2 Diagram showing the asthenosphere, lithosphere, and mechanical la...
FIGURE 3.3 Diagram showing convection cells in the mantle driving lithospher...
FIGURE 3.4 Diagram showing the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the biosphere, ...
FIGURE 3.5 (a) Map showing the location of Valdez, Alaska. Inset shows the l...
FIGURE 3.6 Diagram showing the layers of the atmosphere.
FIGURE 3.7 (a) Image of the hole in the ozone layer.(b) Graph of the are...
Chapter 4
FIGURE 4.1 The Northern Hemisphere of the Earth showing the extent of contin...
FIGURE 4.2 Map of the Arctic showing the average extent of ocean ice between...
FIGURE 4.3 Illustration of sunlight entering the troposphere, being converte...
FIGURE 4.4 Graph of CO
2
content of the atmosphere from 1000 to 2020.
FIGURE 4.5 Photo of Roger Revelle.
FIGURE 4.6 Graph of surface temperature from 1850 to 2020.
FIGURE 4.7 Graph of global sea‐level rise from 1920 to 2018.
FIGURE 4.8 Map of the New York metropolitan area showing the areas threatene...
FIGURE 4.9 Graph of ocean surface temperature increase from 1880 to 2015.
FIGURE 4.10 Bar graph showing Atlantic hurricanes and tropical/subtropical s...
FIGURE 4.11 Bar graph of the number of tropical storms and typhoons to strik...
FIGURE 4.12 Map showing the track and intensity of Super Typhoon Haiyan. (a)...
FIGURE 4.13 Graph showing El Niño (orange) versus La Niña (blue) oscillation...
FIGURE 4.14 Diagram showing ocean surface, subsurface and atmospheric views ...
FIGURE 4.15 Top: Graph of the results of the tree‐ring and interpreted soil ...
FIGURE 4.16 Bar graphs of wildfires in the United States: (a) number of wild...
FIGURE 4.17 Map of the 1871 Peshtigo Fire in Wisconsin. Inset map showing lo...
FIGURE 4.18 Graph showing the major mass extinctions and their intensity ove...
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5.1 Two photos of mineral pools at Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming...
FIGURE 5.2 (a) Relief map of the Bangladesh area. (b) Map of Bangladesh show...
FIGURE 5.3 Dust storm approaching a town.
FIGURE 5.4 Saharan dust crossing the Atlantic Ocean and impacting the Caribb...
FIGURE 5.5 (a) Diagram showing the dust concentrations across Mongolia and C...
FIGURE 5.6 Uranium decay series showing the steps and daughter product eleme...
FIGURE 5.7 Diagram of how radon can enter a house from soil and water.
FIGURE 5.8 Map of the area of the Reading Prong province in eastern Pennsylv...
Chapter 6
FIGURE 6.1 Diagram of an atom with particles.
FIGURE 6.2 Diagrams showing ionic and covalent bonding.
FIGURE 6.3 Periodic table of the elements including the classes of elements ...
FIGURE 6.4 Diagram showing the types of silicates with the geometry of their...
FIGURE 6.5 Diagram showing horizontal drilling, fracking of shale for gas an...
FIGURE 6.6 (a) Map showing the Superfund site remediation areas in Libby and...
FIGURE 6.7 Diagram showing percolation of water through pores in sediments....
FIGURE 6.8 (a) Maps showing the location of WIPP in New Mexico and the Unite...
Chapter 7
FIGURE 7.1 1993 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines injects aerosols int...
FIGURE 7.2 (a) Geologic map showing the fissures and flows of the 1783 Laki ...
FIGURE 7.3 (a) Map of Hispaniola showing the location of major faults and th...
FIGURE 7.4 (a) Map of the epicenter and damage intensity of the 2008 Sichuan...
FIGURE 7.5 (a) Map of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake epicenter and damaged nucle...
FIGURE 7.6 (a) Satellite image of 2005 Hurricane Katrina just before it stru...
FIGURE 7.7 Classification of mass movements.
FIGURE 7.8 Map of the area of the 1987 damaged and destroyed pipeline in Ecu...
Chapter 8
FIGURE 8.1 Diagram showing the water table with the saturated zone below and...
FIGURE 8.2 Block diagram showing a cone of depression on the water table and...
FIGURE 8.3 Block diagram showing the recharge area for an aquifer confined b...
FIGURE 8.4 Block diagram of a fractured rock aquifer illustrating both the i...
FIGURE 8.5 Block diagram of a karst terrane showing that groundwater flows u...
FIGURE 8.6 Block diagram showing groundwater in a perched aquifer.
FIGURE 8.7 Block diagram showing the flow of groundwater down gradient (larg...
FIGURE 8.8 Block diagrams of streams showing the relation of groundwater to ...
FIGURE 8.9 (a) Map showing the contributing, recharge, transition, and artes...
FIGURE 8.10 Diagram showing the major sources of groundwater pollution both ...
FIGURE 8.11 (a) Map of New Jersey showing major roads and the location of Pl...
FIGURE 8.12 (a) Map of New England and major cities showing the location of ...
FIGURE 8.13 (a) Map of California showing the Pacific Electric & Gas (PG&E) ...
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9.1 Map‐view diagram of tributaries joining together to form a major ...
FIGURE 9.2 Block diagram of a drainage basin and watershed bounded by draina...
FIGURE 9.3 Drainage patterns for several river drainage systems based on the...
FIGURE 9.4 Block diagrams of streams and their relation to the groundwater t...
FIGURE 9.5 Diagram of a braided stream showing channels and channel bars dur...
FIGURE 9.6 Diagram of a meander belt with features.
FIGURE 9.7 Diagram showing the different sources of pollution in a river.
FIGURE 9.8 (a) Map showing the Cuyahoga River flowing through Cleveland, Ohi...
FIGURE 9.9 (a) Map showing the Hudson River from the upper portion near Troy...
FIGURE 9.10 The Hjulstrom diagram. The positive slope shows that it takes fa...
FIGURE 9.11 (a) Map showing the locations of the two mine flood disasters in...
FIGURE 9.12 (a) Map showing the area of high‐altitude lakes in the Peruvian‐...
FIGURE 9.13 Map showing the percent loss of wetlands in each state of the Un...
FIGURE 9.14 (a) Aerial photo looking over the Hackensack Meadowlands and Hac...
Chapter 10
FIGURE 10.1 Ternary diagram of clay, sand, and silt for the classification o...
FIGURE 10.2 Diagram showing the dominant soil horizons in a soil profile.
FIGURE 10.3 (a) Map of the Bunker Hill complex and Superfund site. Inset map...
FIGURE 10.4 (a) Topographic/land use map of Times Beach before the disaster....
FIGURE 10.5 Diagrams showing a meandering river (top) and the same river dur...
FIGURE 10.6 (a) Map showing the position of Midland, the Tittabawassee River...
FIGURE 10.7 Block diagram showing the sediments and glacial geomorphic featu...
FIGURE 10.8 (a) Map of the location of Usinsk and the Komi Republic in Russi...
Chapter 11
FIGURE 11.1 Map of North and South America showing migration paths of land a...
FIGURE 11.2 Bar graph showing the annual increase of invasive species in the...
FIGURE 11.3 Map showing the location of New Zealand in the southwest Pacific...
FIGURE 11.4 Illustration of the impact of ecosystem fragmentation on the amo...
FIGURE 11.5 (a) Photograph of monarch butterflies.(b) Map of North Ameri...
FIGURE 11.6 Illustration of the biomagnification of DDT from water through t...
FIGURE 11.7 (a) Photograph of a bald eagle in flight.(b) Graph of nestin...
Chapter 12
FIGURE 12.1 Map of the ocean floor bathymetry and continental topography....
FIGURE 12.2 Block diagram of a typical ocean basin with a passive margin on ...
FIGURE 12.3 Block diagram showing a coastline with a barrier island and lago...
FIGURE 12.4 Satellite image of the end of the Mississippi River delta in the...
FIGURE 12.5 Diagram of a polar view of the Earth showing the locations of hi...
FIGURE 12.6 Tidal ranges in (a) cross‐section showing neap and spring tide h...
FIGURE 12.7 Polar view of the Earth relative to the Sun and Moon showing (le...
FIGURE 12.8 Cross‐section showing parts of a wave.
FIGURE 12.9 Cross‐section of water particle motion as a wave passes through....
FIGURE 12.10 Block diagram of waves and their water particle orbitals as the...
FIGURE 12.11 Block diagram showing oblique approach of waves to the shorelin...
FIGURE 12.12 Diagram showing several major sources of ocean pollution.
FIGURE 12.13 Map showing the movement and timing of the oil slick produced b...
FIGURE 12.14 (a) Map of the oil spill, slick, and impacted beaches from the ...
FIGURE 12.15 (a) Map showing the location of the Beaufort Dyke between Scotl...
FIGURE 12.16 Map showing the location of Amantea in southern Italy.
Chapter 13
FIGURE 13.1 Diagram showing the decrease in temperature with height through ...
FIGURE 13.2 Diagram showing the straight path of a thrown ball with a non‐ro...
FIGURE 13.3 Diagram showing the simplified circulation of the atmosphere in ...
FIGURE 13.4 Diagram showing the actual convection cells of the rotating Eart...
FIGURE 13.5 Map of the Earth showing the major climatic belts. Note that tro...
FIGURE 13.6 Map of the North Atlantic Ocean basin showing the Gulf Stream oc...
FIGURE 13.7 Diagram showing the orographic effect of moist rising up the fro...
FIGURE 13.8 Block diagram of a cold front showing the front moving from back...
FIGURE 13.9 Block diagram of a warm front showing the front moving from fron...
FIGURE 13.10 Block diagrams of (a) a cold front moving from front (left) to ...
FIGURE 13.11 (a) Map of the Elizabeth, NJ area. (b) Newspaper clipping showi...
FIGURE 13.12 Map of the Poza Rica area, Mexico and the location of the Pemex...
FIGURE 13.13 Maps showing stagnation index in the United States. During the ...
FIGURE 13.14 Diagram showing a typical temperature inversion and the air pol...
FIGURE 13.15 (a) Map of London with inset showing the location in the United...
FIGURE 13.16 Diagram showing the effects of a subsidence inversion.
FIGURE 13.17 (a) Map of the Donora, PA area. Inset shows the location of Don...
FIGURE 13.18 (a) Geologic map of the Sudbury, Ontario area and the location ...
Chapter 14
FIGURE 14.1 Diagram of a kimberlite diatreme.
FIGURE 14.2 Diagram showing the development and ranks of coal. Light green =...
FIGURE 14.3 Diagram showing the access and mining structures in underground ...
FIGURE 14.4 Diagram showing the different types of surface mining types.
FIGURE 14.5 Map showing the rivers impacted by the by the Aurul gold mine sp...
FIGURE 14.6 Map of the Aberfan, Wales area. Inset shows the position of the ...
FIGURE 14.7 Diagram of a blast furnace showing inputs, temperatures, and out...
FIGURE 14.8 Diagram of a distillation tower in an oil refinery.
FIGURE 14.9 Map of the Texas City BP refinery showing the contoured toxic cl...
Chapter 15
FIGURE 15.1 Map of Europe showing the battling alliances and neutral countri...
FIGURE 15.2 Map showing the allies, axis, and neutral countries during World...
FIGURE 15.3 Map of North and South Vietnam before and during the Vietnam War...
FIGURE 15.4 (a) Photo of the damage done to the city of Hiroshima, Japan fro...
FIGURE 15.5 Map showing the location and actions of the 1991 Persian Gulf Wa...
FIGURE 15.6 Map of US Marine Corps Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, water suppl...
FIGURE 15.7 Map of the Nevada Test Site in the southern Nevada military comp...
Chapter 16
FIGURE 16.1 Map of the United States showing the distribution of Dust Bowl ...
FIGURE 16.2 Map of the Aral Sea area showing its shrinkage over 54 years. (...
FIGURE 16.3 Map of the High Plains Aquifer in the central United States sho...
FIGURE 16.4 Map of the Dead Zone in the Gulf of Mexico.(a) Photo of the...
FIGURE 16.5 Map of North Carolina showing the distribution of large hog farm...
Chapter 17
FIGURE 17.1 Diagram showing the range of wavelengths for electromagnetic ra...
FIGURE 17.2 Map of the world showing the locations of the nuclear device/bo...
FIGURE 17.3 Timeline showing the number of nuclear tests per year including ...
FIGURE 17.4 Graph showing the number of nuclear warheads in the US and USSR/...
FIGURE 17.5 Map of the southwestern United States showing the locations of s...
FIGURE 17.6 Diagram of a standard nuclear powerplant to generate electricity...
FIGURE 17.7 (a) Map of Ukraine and surrounding countries showing the locatio...
FIGURE 17.8 (a) Location of Lake Karachay and the Mayak complex in Russia. (...
FIGURE 17.9 (a) Map of Essex County, New Jersey showing the location of Oran...
Chapter 18
FIGURE 18.1 Photo of garbage in a municipal landfill.
FIGURE 18.2 General diagrams for landfills. (a) Old style landfill or dump w...
FIGURE 18.3 (a) Map of Centralia, Pennsylvania showing the location of the w...
FIGURE 18.4 Diagram of a standard hazardous waste landfill.
FIGURE 18.5 Diagram showing threats to the environment and public health fro...
FIGURE 18.6 (a) Map of the Manilla, Philippines area showing the location of...
FIGURE 18.7 (a) City map of Love Canal showing the evacuation zones. Inset s...
Chapter 19
FIGURE 19.1 Map of a pollutant plume in the groundwater in an urban area wit...
FIGURE 19.2 Block diagram showing a pollutant plume leaking from an undergro...
FIGURE 19.3 Diagram showing polluted groundwater being extracted, treated, a...
FIGURE 19.4 Diagram showing groundwater pollution being remediated using air...
FIGURE 19.5 Block diagram showing leaking drums of waste producing a polluta...
FIGURE 19.6 Diagram showing in situ chemical treatment of groundwater pollut...
FIGURE 19.7 Map of the Joint Base Cape Cod (JBCC) showing the locations of p...
FIGURE 19.8 Diagram showing a bioventing bioremediation configuration of a p...
FIGURE 19.9 Map of southern New England showing the location of Simsbury, Co...
FIGURE 19.10 Diagram of a standard bioreactor with input of polluted water o...
FIGURE 19.11 Diagram showing land farming bioremediation method.
Chapter 20
FIGURE 20.1 Map of the eastern Pacific Ocean showing the location and densit...
FIGURE 20.2 Graph showing the sharp increase of the persistent pesticides DD...
FIGURE 20.3 Graph showing the sharp decrease of lead in the air after action...
FIGURE 20.4 The annual average size of the Antarctic hole in the ozone layer...
FIGURE 20.5 Graph showing the increase and decrease of acid rain compounds N...
FIGURE 20.6 (a) Graph showing the reduction of mercury emissions from 2005 t...
FIGURE 20.7 Graph showing the rapid decrease of NO
2
in the atmosphere in the...
FIGURE 20.8 Graph showing the decrease of the criteria air pollutants, SO
2
, ...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Companion Website
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Appendix A: Pollutant List
Appendix B: Online Videos on Case Studies
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Polluted Earth
The Science of the Earth’s Environment
ALEXANDER GATES
Department of Earth and Environmental Science
Rutgers University
Newark, New Jersey, USA
Copyright © 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Preface
Most environmental textbooks are written in a scientific style and approach the subjects in a traditional manner. However, recent changes in society and especially in the outlook of young people have emphasized concern over environmental justice. Damage to the environment commonly includes injustice. Most environmental textbooks, however, deal only peripherally with this aspect and therefore do not engage students as well as they could. In contrast, this textbook introduces environmental justice, including environmental racism, in Chapter 2, thereby giving instructors the opportunity to set up the course to be viewed through that lens. Once students understand how environmental damage can be focused in areas and situations where socially and economically underprivileged people and groups are taken advantage of, they will be able to recognize it in all of the other chapters and examples in the book. This puts the importance of the course material in a much broader and more pertinent context. This allows the course to satisfy personal, department, and institutional priorities on social issues. Otherwise, instructors may skip Chapter 2 and present the course in a more traditional manner.
In addition, introductory environmental courses are primarily attended by non‐science majors. These students are commonly not accustomed to the organizational and writing style of science textbooks and consequently have a difficult time with them. Much of the problem is that chapters must be read sequentially in one sitting or students lose their train of thought and are forced to start over. Chapters typically involve increasing complexity of concepts. Wading through scientific information at college level is foreign to most of these students.
This book contains the chapters and organization needed for any environmental course but most of the content is delivered through a plethora of exciting case studies. These are short, self‐contained, and well‐illustrated stories of specific pollution disasters and their outcomes that are highly engaging for both science and non‐science majors. The stories incorporate the science into the description so students appreciate and remember it as part of the story. By relating the event to the impact on society and human lives, this method also places the science into a context that is important to the student. The case studies are self‐contained, so chapters can be read in pieces without losing continuity. However, the chapters are organized to deliver the material in the logical manner of the topical development. Therefore, the book can be used as a stand‐alone resource and be effective for exam preparation.
In addition, a list of readily available videos is compiled for all but a few of the case studies. They either provide interviews with victims of the pollution to give readers a look into the emotional aspect of being subject to pollution or they illustrate complex situations to give a better understanding. Reinforcement of reading the case studies with viewing a video leads to a better understanding and appreciation of the situation. It is recommended to watch the videos after reading the case study. The videos are primarily divided into short presentations, typically 3–5 minutes but less than 12 minutes in length. Long videos are typically 30 minutes or longer and are documentaries. These videos also enhance the impact of the course.
The book is organized to introduce the scientific basis of the polluted media either early in the chapter or in a separate leading chapter. These are interspersed with case studies or followed by a group of case studies to give the reader a flavor of the character of the processes and damage. This organization coupled with the exciting and highly illustrated stories is intended to enhance interest and understanding.
The other important feature is the visual support of the case studies. A number of artistic, highly detailed illustrations of regional pollution sources serve as lead‐ins to the case studies. The pollution types include point source versus non‐point source, groundwater pollution, surface water pollution, and ocean pollution. These illustrations show the spatial and temporal relations of the various sources. Each case study then describes a specific example of the pollution source and how it became a pollution disaster. The case study can then be related back to the illustration to place it in context. Case studies on interesting pollution disasters involving each of these is presented in two‐page stories illustrated with several photographs of the event and results.
There is also a compilation of pollutants, their health and/or environmental impact, and the regulated limits on exposure. In this way the students have a single location to view these pollutants and their attributes rather than having them repeated multiple times in the book.
Acknowledgments
The production of this book benefitted from testing ideas with Environmental Geology and Planet Earth classes at Rutgers University, Newark. Suggestions by Dr. David Valentino made excellent suggestions that helped guide the book. Dr. Robert Blauvelt identified some of the better case studies that are used in this book. Drs. Ismael Calderon, Cy Stein and Francisco Artigas reviewed a few chapters. Hydrogeologist Richard Fox performed a critical review of the entire book and provided helpful suggestions that improved it. Support and encouragement from family members including Dr. Colin Gates, Dr. Jill Stein and Thomas Gates are also appreciated.
About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/gates/pollutedearth
This website includes:
Powerpoints of all figures and tables from the book for downloading
Web links from the book for downloading
CHAPTER 1Humans and the Environment
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Human Impact on the Environment
1.2 Earth's Environments
1.3 Point Source and Non-Point Source Pollution
1.4 Pollution Affects Everything
1.5 What Can I Do About It?
Words you should know:
Cryptocurrency
– A digital or virtual money or asset that is built into a blockchain verification system. Mining of cryptocurrency is environmentally costly.
Ecology
– The branch of biology covering the interrelations of organisms and their relations to their surroundings.
Environment
– The interrelations of the chemical, biological, and physical natural world on a global or local level.
Point source pollution
– A single source of pollution that can be identified.
Non‐point source pollution
– Pollution for which the source is so diffuse or distributed that it cannot be absolutely identified.
Rachel Carson
– The pioneer and most impactful person on the American environmental movement.
1.1 Human Impact on the Environment
Aside from a possible major war or very deadly pandemic, the greatest challenge humans are facing and will face for the foreseeable future center around pollution of the natural environment. Climate change as a function of human impact has taken center stage over the past few decades. US Vice President Al Gore and, more recently, Swedish student activist Greta Thunberg have become media sensations by bringing climate change to public attention. Society has even made an attempt to address it with hybrid and electric cars, solar panels, and wind farms. However, climate change is only one small aspect of the horrific problems plaguing the natural environment. Dead zones in the oceans from overuse of fertilizers, loss of pollinators from overuse of pesticides and habitat destruction, invasive species destroying native species and resulting massive extinctions are some of the less prominent but just as deadly issues. The new environmental spokespeople are helping to bring attention to some of these issues but all pale in comparison to the original and true environmental champion in America and indeed the world, Rachel Carson. She has been called the “mother of the American environmental movement” but this title does not nearly reflect the magnitude of her impact. During a time when few gave more than a fleeting thought to the natural environment, Rachel Carson brought her serious concerns to the highest level of the government and to the attention of the general public both in the United States and internationally. Her work started the entire study of the environment. She is a true hero.
Humans are notoriously damaging to the natural environment. Even in primitive cultures, groups of humans would cut down trees, make fires, move and break rocks, leave excessive waste, and strip areas of game and vegetation. It took several decades of natural processes for the areas to recover. Once humans established permanent settlements, the environmental damage became very localized but much more intense. The permanent structures, agriculture, and concentrated waste completely disrupted the natural environment and would take centuries to recover once abandoned. The first serious chemical pollution coincided with the Bronze Age and Iron Age which added mining, smelting, and forging of metals. These caused poisoning of air, soil, and water, and death of plants and animals in localized areas.
As civilization advanced, the building of stone structures on ever grander scales led to even greater environmental disruption. Settlements grew ever larger into cities, requiring larger agricultural efforts to support them. Forests were removed to support the production of food. Cities and structures built thousands of years ago still scar the landscape even if they are abandoned. Several inventions occurred over the centuries that accelerated the environmental damage. Gunpowder and arms that utilize it was a major change in environmental damage in addition to the humans killed by them. Paints, dyes, glass, burning of coal, and other chemical developments furthered this damage.
The Industrial Revolution brought a drastic change to the level of environmental impact. The first major pollutant was from mining and use of coal. It produces soot from burning but also from mining and storage. Coal powered the Industrial Revolution and it was spread widely by trains. In addition to dust, the impurities such as sulfur, mercury and other heavy metals, and coal caused widespread soil pollution by emissions and dumping of waste. Dumping dangerous and unsightly waste and emissions was the norm for the Industrial Revolution. As more dangerous contaminants were developed, the pollution intensified and increased. It was not until the environmental movement of the 1950s through 1970s that these practices were even slightly controlled.
Concurrent with the advancement of technology and largely as a result, the human population ballooned. The world population increased slowly from less than one half billion in 1000 AD to 1 billion in 1800. The accelerated growth began soon after and the population reached 2 billion by 1930 (Figure 1.1). In 1950, the acceleration of world population became exceptional, growing from about 2.5 billion to 7.8 billion over the next 70 years. This is far more than the Earth can handle and most environmental systems, both chemical and biological, are being overwhelmed. So many people are contributing to pollution problems that they will be difficult to control, if they are controllable at all. It will take a cooperative effort to keep the run‐away overuse of resources and disruption of the environment not to destroy the human race and the planet.
FIGURE 1.1 Human population growth curve from 1800 to 2020 with projected possible growth to 2100
Source: Data from United Nations.
Pollution has now caused irreparable damage to the Earth for the foreseeable future. The result of human impact is that the Earth is experiencing what is widely believed to be the sixth major mass extinction event in the past 500 million years. It is estimated that more than 25% of all the known species will go extinct by 2050. It is not only the environment that is impacted by pollution but groups of humans are chosen to be more impacted than others based on economic status, whether they are in a developed country or not, and on race and ethnicity. This inequality has evolved into the field of environmental justice.
CASE STUDY 1.1 Rachel Carson (1907–1964)
Mother of the Environmental Movement
Rachel Carson is regarded as the mother of the American environmental movement (Figure 1.2). It was through her efforts that the first banning of pesticides and especially DDT occurred. Her work also led to the formation of the US Environmental Protection Agency. It is impressive that such a private, unassuming woman could influence such a major movement. Carson captured the interest of the American public and the top levels of government despite the efforts of major chemical companies to suppress her work and to professionally and personally discredit her. She testified before the US Congress about the dangers of pesticides. President Kennedy read her book Silent Spring, and as a result, he ordered an investigation of the pesticides that Carson identified as dangerous. They would be banned less than a decade later.
FIGURE 1.2 Portrait of Rachel Carson.
Source: Courtesy Everett Collection / Everett Collection / Adobe Stock.
Rachel Carson was born on 27 May 1907, in Springdale, Pennsylvania. She grew up on a small farm, where she developed her love of nature. In 1925, she enrolled in the Pennsylvania College for Women, which later became Chatham College. She began her studies as an English major but soon changed to biology and graduated magna cum laude in 1929 with a bachelor's degree. Carson received a scholarship to continue her education at Johns Hopkins University where she earned a master's degree in zoology in 1932. Her thesis was “The Development of the Pronephros during the Embryonic and Early Larval Life of the Catfish.” She then taught zoology at the University of Maryland and conducted research at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts during the summers.
Rachel Carson began a part‐time position at the US Bureau of Fisheries in 1935, writing science scripts for the radio show Romance Under the Waters. She also wrote articles on natural history for the Baltimore Sun. Her part‐time position transitioned in 1936 into a full‐time position as junior aquatic biologist. Carson was the first woman in the United States to take and pass the civil service exam. She rose through the ranks of the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the succeeding division, over the next 15 years, ultimately becoming the Chief Editor of its publications. Rachel Carson also wrote several books that were successful enough to allow her to retire in 1952 at age 45. She built a cottage on the Sheepscot River near West Southport, Maine, and also kept a residence in Silver Spring, Maryland. In retirement, she completely devoted herself to writing.
Rachel Carson's life included extensive personal tragedy. In 1931, the Carson family had to give up the farm because of pressures of the Great Depression but also because large chemical plants were built on both sides of the farm. They reduced the value of the property as well as its productivity. In 1935, Rachel's father died suddenly which left her to care for her mother. Her sister died the next year leaving Carson and her mother to raise her two orphaned children. Her niece then became ill in 1959 and died and Carson adopted her orphaned son. Her mother died that year and Carson was diagnosed with breast cancer. She battled the illness but succumbed to it on 14 April 1964 in Silver Spring, Maryland, at 56 years of age.
Rachel Carson faced many hurdles to publishing her work. Her first national article was published in Atlantic Monthly magazine in 1937 and entitled “Undersea.” Her first book was published in 1941 and entitled Under the Sea‐Wind. It received positive reviews but went largely unnoticed because America was focused on the start of World War II. Carson's writings became more geared toward environmental activism as her interest grew. Her writing on the origin and properties of the oceans was rejected by 15 magazines, including the Saturday Evening Post and National Geographic Magazine. It was finally published in the New Yorker magazine as a collection under the title A Profile of the Sea. Parts of it were also published by Nature, The Yale Review, and Science Digest. In 1951, the full collection was published as the book The Sea Around Us. It sold more than 200 000 copies in hard cover in its first year and was on the New York Times bestseller list within 2 weeks. It remained on the list for a record 86 weeks, 39 of which it was the top seller. As a result, it won the John Burroughs Medal, the 1952 National Book Award, and it was the Outstanding Book of the Year in The New York Times Christmas Poll. Carson was awarded honorary doctoral degrees from Oberlin College and Pennsylvania College for Women for these achievements. As a result of this popularity, Under the Sea‐Wind was rereleased and made the New York Times bestseller list. The next book, The Edge of the Sea, was released in 1955 and was also on the bestseller list. The National Council of Women of the United States named it the Outstanding Book of the Year, and Carson received the Achievement Award from the American Association of University Women as a result. Carson also published additional articles including “Help your Child to Wonder,” in Woman's Home Companion in 1956. The book The Sense of Wonder was released posthumously in 1965. She wrote her final and most famous book Silent Spring as a result of her environmental activism from 1957 to 1961. The writing was first published in installments in June of 1962 by the New Yorker before it was published as a book later that year. It was at the top of the bestseller list within two weeks and remained on the list for many years.
It was the book Silent Spring that elevated Carson to the position of leader of the environmental movement. In 1992, Silent Spring was declared the most influential book of the past 50 years by a US Congressional panel. It was ranked among the 25 greatest science books of all‐time by Discover Magazine. It has been compared to Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin and Charles Darwin's On the Origin of the Species in terms of overall impact. Silent Spring declared that chlorinated hydrocarbons and organophosphates were the most dangerous pesticide pollutants and it identified specific compounds, in particular DDT. It also proposed the term “ecosystem”, which is now an important concept in environmental research.
Carson reported the death of hundreds of songbirds in Massachusetts as the result of spraying for mosquitoes, damage from spraying DDT in Long Island, New York, poisoning of workers and farmers in the south from pesticide use on fire ants, and the banning of cranberries for Thanksgiving in 1959 because of overuse of pesticides. These events caused a public furor, setting the stage for Silent Spring. Several attempts to discredit Rachel Carson by chemical companies served to confirm her as the leader of the American environmental movement. Her writings were added to the US Congressional Record and she received an award from the Secretary of the Interior in 1962. Carson was introduced as the originator of the environmental movement when she testified to the US Congress in 1963. As a result of her work, in 1962, over 40 bills were introduced to regulate pesticide use in several states. On 3 April 1963, Carson appeared on national television to explain pesticide dangers. Her death from breast cancer in 1964 is suspected to have resulted from exposure to the chemicals she was attempting to protect the public from. Most of the pesticides identified by Carson were eventually banned. Time magazine named Carson as one of the most influential people of the twentieth century. In 1980, President Jimmy Carter posthumously awarded Carson the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Rachel Carson is a true champion of the environment.
1.2 Earth's Environments
The Earth has a multitude of environments (Figure 1.3) which can be divided by a number of factors both geographical and ecological. Only some of the major environments are described here. The main division is between marine and non‐marine or terrestrial. Marine environments are those not on land, so in oceans, seas, and gulfs. There are coastal environments at the marine‐continental boundary, primarily beach environments and including barrier islands with the lagoons landward of them. They also include deltas where rivers build land into the ocean and estuaries where ocean water floods back up the river. Areas that flood during high tide but are otherwise land are tidal flats. There are also ocean islands and atolls far from the shore.
FIGURE 1.3 Diagram illustrating several environment types.
FIGURE 1.4 Bar graph showing average annual precipitation for several environments.
Within the ocean itself, shelf areas are near‐shore and shallow. These are areas of continental crust covered by ocean. Sunlight can penetrate the entire water column in these areas. This is the photic zone and highly productive, including marine organisms inhabiting the seafloor. In contrast, the deep ocean only has the photic zone in the top part of the water column, with minimal life on the seafloor. The mid‐ocean ridge is a volcanic chain in the middle of the ocean that supports a variety of life below the photic zone, primarily on the seafloor.
Terrestrial environments are numerous and both climatic and geographic. Alpine environments are in the mountains and are typically colder, can have glaciers and only support limited life above a certain elevation. Deserts have less than 10 in. (25 cm) of precipitation per year (Figure 1.4). They can be tropical and hot or tundra/polar and cold. The hot deserts are the classic deserts with sand, caliche, and distinct biota. Alluvial environments are also deserts but typically occur in rugged terrains with a variety of geomorphic features and biota. Tropical rainforests typically have rainfall amounts between 69 in (175 cm) and 79 in (200 cm) but sometimes in excess of 390 in (1000 cm). Rainforests are home to 40–75% of all biotic species on Earth. They can be tropical or temperate and each contains a unique biota.
Temperate climates typically contain grasslands, savannas, and forests, though these biomes can exist in the tropics as well. As the name implies, grasslands contain virtually all grasses and are typically dry, with precipitation of 20–35 in. (50.8–88.9 cm) per year with broad temperature ranges. They can support herds of large grazing animals. Savannas are slightly wetter with 30–40 in. (76.2–101.6 cm) of precipitation per year and warmer temperatures than most grasslands. Savannas contain both trees and grasses but the trees are less dense than forests. Deciduous forests receive 30–60 in. (75–150 cm) of precipitation per year, with average temperatures ranging between −22 °F (−30 °C) and 86 °F (30 °C). They are typically composed of densely packed, primarily broad‐leafed trees and support a variety of animals. Aquatic environments in temperate climates are lacustrine, wetlands, and fluvial‐riparian. Lakes and ponds are lacustrine and they have broad expanses of still, open and variably deep water with free swimming fish, vertebrates, and other biota. Wetlands include swamps, bogs, and fens and also contain still water. Most only have minor and small fish, if any, and are dominated by plants, microorganisms, birds, and insects. Rivers and streams are fluvial and are marked by flowing open water capable of supporting fish. The areas along rivers are called riparian.
Very cold regions have several environments as well depending upon temperature and precipitation. Glacial ice forms in polar regions as well as alpine. Polar regions are the coldest regions and are also very dry having between 4 and 40 in. (10–100 cm) of precipitation per year. However, the higher precipitation amounts are at the edges of the glaciers near open water and, by far, precipitation is less than 10 in. (25 cm) per year making it a desert. The tundra is slightly warmer than polar regions and not covered by ice. Tundras are also deserts with less than 10 in. (25 cm) of precipitation per year but contain some permanent vegetation like grasses, moss, and lichen. The taiga is a bit warmer and wetter, with 12–20 in. (30–50 cm) of precipitation per year, 6 months of the year near or below freezing, and a cover of coniferous trees.
1.3 Point Source and Non‐Point Source Pollution
Pollutants emitted to the natural environment, to air, water, or soil are either from point sources or non‐point sources (Figure 1.5). The difference between them is that point source pollution is from a single identifiable source whereas non‐point source pollution is from diffuse sources that might not be easily identified. Point source pollution is usually at much higher concentrations than non‐point source pollution and it can result in disasters, including the loss of human life. On the other hand, they can be addressed quickly and directly. Non‐point source pollution is usually a long‐term effect that can slowly modify the environment to the point of large‐scale changes and problems. They are much more difficult to address.
1.3.1 Point Source Pollution
Point source pollution can be disastrous to the environment and public health but it is generally not aerially extensive. The concentration of the pollutant may be high but the volume of pollutant release is small compared to non‐point sources. Point source pollution is common in groundwater and can be from a number of sources such as landfills, leaking underground storage tanks (USTs) in gas stations, broken pipelines, overflowing septic systems, industrial spills, military facilities, waste pits and lagoons, mines and others where the pollution comes from a single identifiable place or group of related places. The chemistry of the pollution is unique for several of these sources.
Petroleum is a common point source pollutant in groundwater primarily home heating oil, diesel, or gasoline. It typically leaks from USTs at gas stations and homes with oil heat. Other point source pollution in groundwater can be industrial chemicals. BTEX is shorthand for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene, which are volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that commonly occur together. Other common groundwater pollutants include PCE (perchloroethylene) or perc, which is mainly from dry cleaners, and TCE (trichloroethylene), which is a solvent used in degreasing among many others.
Petroleum is also a common point source pollutant in surface water. Fuel spills from oil tanker accidents, oil transfer spills, and even some oil well leaks or blowouts, are more common in marine waters but raw sewage is more common in lakes and rivers. In the United States, raw sewage in lakes and rivers is less common today but in many less developed countries it is still a major problem. Animal waste from stockyards is generally a problem only during storms and floods in developed countries. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is common from active and abandoned mines and is tainted by sulfuric acid that lowers the pH of the surface water. AMD dissolves ions out of mine waste and can contain heavy metal contamination as well. Mines and mineral processing facilities can pollute surface waters with suspended particles of heavy metals and other pollutants. Gold processing can contain cyanide and mercury as point source pollutants.
Soil pollution from point sources commonly coincides with point source groundwater pollution because the liquid pollutant filters through soil to reach the groundwater and some adheres to the soil. Soil pollution is extreme around certain mines and is the source of pollutants in surface water runoff. Animal stockyards form soil pollution point sources. Soil may also contain point source pollution that does not impact water. In the past, most landfills were buried directly into the soil without any protection. Many industrial plants simply dumped waste materials behind or around the facilities. Metals like chromium, mercury, lead, and nickel and radioactive elements like radium were dumped into holes or on the surface.
Point source pollution into the air includes smokestack emissions from incinerators, coal‐fired powerplants, oil refineries, steel and metal refineries, and other sources. These sources produce particulate, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), benzene, CO, CO2, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and vaporized pollutants like mercury. There are many other point sources of air pollution like chemical and other manufacturing plants that use organic chemicals. Evaporation of these VOCs yield air pollutants that are abundant in the atmosphere. Particulate blown from mine spoils, waste piles at manufacturing facilities, trains and dump trucks in the form of dust also produces air pollution. They can contain heavy metals, asbestos, lime, phosphates and other fertilizers, sulfur, and sulfides among others. In addition, there are natural point sources of pollution like volcanoes and forest fires.
FIGURE 1.5 Diagram showing several point (PS) and non‐point sources (NPS) of pollution.
Point source pollution can also come from disasters such as industrial and transportation accidents, war and other attacks, or natural disasters like earthquakes, hurricanes, and volcanoes. If the human toll of these events is great, whether death, injury, loss of property, or just threat, the environmental impact is commonly overlooked. If the toll is not great, then environmental damage will be considered. The exception to this generality is if the environmental impact involves human health and is extensive. An example of this is the 9/11 World Trade Center disaster in which the first responders to Ground Zero have subsequently suffered extensive long‐term health effects.
CASE STUDY 1.2 9/11 World Trade Center Disaster New York
Collateral Air Pollution
The idea to build the world's tallest buildings on the 16‐acre (6.5‐ha) lot in lower Manhattan was planned in the early 1960s to revitalize the area (Figure 1.6a). Construction began in 1966 by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Five blocks were closed and 160 buildings were demolished to make room for the twin 110‐story high buildings. The towers were open in 1972 and quickly became the symbols of American trade and commerce. By 2001, 50 000 people worked in the World Trade Center and tens of thousands of visitors passed through it daily.
On 11 September 2001, terrorists hijacked two commercial passenger airplanes and crashed them into both the North and South Towers of the World Trade Center (Figure 1.6b). More than 2800 people were killed in the crash, fire, and collapse, and victims were still being identified using DNA through 2007. The attacks led the United States to take military action in Afghanistan and Iraq that lasted for decades. The death, destruction, and retaliation dominated the American attention. However, the explosion, fire, and collapse of the towers produced toxic smoke, particulate, and gas that engulfed the disaster area and damaged the health of tens of thousands of residents, emergency response personnel, and construction workers. Approximately 250 000–400 000 people were exposed to the toxic emissions.
The buildings that were directly destroyed included the 110‐story North and South Towers of the World Trade Center, the observation deck, and Seven World Trade Center, a 47‐story office building. The number three World Trade Center, Marriott Hotel was crushed by the tower collapses. Two nine‐story office buildings at four and five World Trade Center and the seven‐story building at six World Trade Center were badly damaged and demolished later. The disaster caused the deaths of 343 firefighters, 66 police officers, and 148 passengers and crew on the airplanes.
The outpouring of responders to assist in the rescue and relief of the disaster was immense. They included federal, state, and local government agency personnel, and volunteers from private organizations, as well as private citizens. Included among the responding federal agencies were the Environmental Protection Agency, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), US Marshals Service, Department of Energy, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), US Coast Guard, National Park Service, New York State agencies including the Department of Environmental Conservation, Emergency Management Office, National Guard, Office of Mental Health, Department of Health, and New York City offices including the Fire Department (FDNY) and emergency medical services (EMS), Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Police Department (NYPD), Department of Design and Construction, Department of Environmental Protection, Department of Sanitation, Office of Emergency Management, as well as the American Red Cross, and Salvation Army. These responders were exposed to the air pollutants of the disaster.
