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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: AGU Advanced Textbooks
- Sprache: Englisch
Earth System Geophysics
Geophysics helps us understand how our planet works by connecting complex real-world phenomena with fundamental physical laws. It provides the tools, both conceptual and quantitative, for understanding interactions between the different components of the Earth System: the solid earth, oceans, atmosphere, and biosphere.
Earth System Geophysics is a comprehensive textbook for upper-level undergraduate and graduate students in the Earth sciences that uses Earth System Science as the framework for learning about geophysics.
About this volume:
- Presents convection as the underlying paradigm that drives the Earth System
- Uses math and physics in an accessible way to understand processes on and within the Earth
- Frames natural processes and events in terms of cause and effect
- Builds gradually from basic to advanced concepts and equations
- Develops quantitative skills through applied examples
- Heavily referenced, allowing students to pursue topics in greater depth
- Relevant for students from across the physical sciences and engineering
The American Geophysical Union promotes discovery in Earth and space science for the benefit of humanity. Its publications disseminate scientific knowledge and provide resources for researchers, students, and professionals.
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Seitenzahl: 2471
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
An Earth System Science Approach to Geophysics, and a New Unifying Theme
Who This Book Is For
A Textbook for Different Courses
How to Read This Book
Acknowledgments
About the Companion Website
Part I: An Earth System Science Framework
1 The Birth of the Earth
1.0 Motivation
1.1 The Formation of the Solar System
1.2 Properties of the Solar System
1.3 Life in the Solar System, and Beyond
2 The Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere
2.0 Motivation
2.1 The Differentiation of the Earth
2.2 The Faint Young Sun
2.3 Constraints on the Evolution of Atmospheric CO
2
2.4 The Development of an Oxygen Atmosphere
3 The Climate System and the Future of Earth’s Atmosphere
3.0 Motivation
The Climate System
3.1 The Circulation of the Atmosphere
3.2 The Circulation of the Oceans
3.3 El Niño and the Southern Oscillation: A Coupled Atmosphere—Ocean Phenomenon
The Immediate Future of Our Atmosphere
3.4 Preliminary Comments
3.5 Solar Variability on Human Timescales
3.6 Anthropogenic Variations in Climate by the Emission of Greenhouse Gases
A Geophysical Perspective:
The Rest of This Textbook
Part II: A Planet Driven by Convection
4 Basics of Gravity and the Shape of the Earth
4.0 Motivation
4.1 The Nature of Gravity
4.2 Newton’s Second Law and the Gravity Field
4.3 The Gravity Field of a Three-Dimensional Earth
4.4 The Shape of the Earth, and Variations of Gravity With Latitude
4.5 Kepler’s Laws
5 Gravity and Isostasy in the Earth System
5.0 Motivation
5.1 Exploring the Earth System with Gravity
5.2 Isostasy and the Earth System
6 Orbital Perspectives on Gravity
6.0 Motivation
6.1 Tides
6.2 Precession of the Equinoxes and Orbital Effects on Climate
6.3 Satellite Geodesy
6.4 Tidal Friction
7 Basics of Seismology
7.0 Motivation
7.1 Stress and Strain
7.2 Relations Between Stress and Strain in Elastic and Nonelastic Materials
7.3 Elastic Waves
7.4 Surface Waves and Free Oscillations
7.5 Seismic Waves and Exploration of the Shallow Earth
7.6 Seismic Waves and Exploration of the Whole Earth: Preliminaries
8 Seismology and the Interior of the Earth
8.0 Motivation
8.1 Seismology and the Dynamic Earth
8.2 Seismology and the Large-Scale Structure of the Earth
8.3 Seismic Velocities and the State of Earth’s Interior
8.4 Using Earth Models to Learn About the Composition of the Interior
9 Heat From Earth’s Interior
9.0 Motivation
9.1 Measuring Heat Flow
9.2 Heat Sources
9.3 Transmission of Heat in Solids
9.4 Transmission of Heat in Fluids
9.5 More on Surface Heat Flow in the Earth System
10 Geomagnetism and the Dynamics of the Core
10.0 Motivation
10.1 The Earth’s Magnetic Field
10.2 Global Descriptions of the Internal Field
10.3 Snapshots in Time of the Geomagnetic Field
10.4 Generation of the Geomagnetic Field
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Planetary properties.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Categories of tropical storms, according to the National Hurricane...
Table 3.2 El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events since the latter part o...
Table 3.3 Circumstantial evidence of global warming.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Raw data and site information for a gravity survey across the Susq...
Table 5.2 A selection
a
of mantle viscosity estimates derived from observatio...
Table 5.3 A selection of mantle viscosity estimates derived from global cons...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Units for pressure, in the Earth System.
Table 7.2 Data for seismic refraction survey in a park near Binghamton Unive...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1
P
wave velocities measured in a sample
a
of rock types.
Table 8.2 Mean atomic weights of various minerals.
a
Table 8.3 Tests for material homogeneity in the mantle.
a
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Average surface heat flow in different regions of the Earth.
a
Table 9.2 Typical radiogenic heat production in different rock types.
a
Table 9.3 Summary of heat sources discussed in the text. Heat ‘events’ are l...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Satellite missions with a major focus on Earth’s magnetic field.
a
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 The planets of the Solar System: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jup...
Figure 1.2 (a) Ground-based photographs of Supernova 1987A by David Malin at...
Figure 1.3 (a) The evolution (marked by heavy red arrows) of the primitive s...
Figure 1.3 (b) An actual protoplanetary disk, around proto-star V883 Orionis...
Figure 1.4 (a) A picture of Halley’s comet in 1910. 1911 Encyclopedia Britan...
Figure 1.5 Turbulence evident in a cold cloud core, revealed in this image f...
Figure 1.6 (a) (top) Sketch of Herbig-Haro bipolar jets expelled from the Su...
Figure 1.6 (b) Hubble image of the Carina Nebula, one of the largest stellar...
Figure 1.6 (c) Close-up of HH901. M. Livio, Hubble 20th anniversary team / h...
Figure 1.7 Orion Nebula as seen with the Hubble Space Telescope. (a) NASA, E...
Figure 1.8 Comets originate in the Kuiper Belt or Oort Cloud, as debris—dirt...
Figure 1.9 Photograph of a somewhat potato-shaped Asteroid Ida taken by the
Figure 1.10 Photograph of the far side of the Moon, taken from the Apollo Co...
Figure 1.11 Photograph of the near side of the Moon, the side visible from E...
Figure 1.12 A photomosaic of the “mighty” multiringed Caloris Basin, the lar...
Figure 1.13 Lunar gravity reveals the existence of mascons.(a) Variations ...
Figure 1.14 The orientation of the Earth in space. Relative to the ecliptic,...
Figure 1.15 The tilt of the Earth is the main reason it has seasons. (a) A s...
Figure 1.16 The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) 2013 geologic...
Figure 1.16 (b) The various eras (on the left) and periods (on the right) co...
Figure 1.17 Titius-Bode Law predictions versus reality. Planetary distances ...
Figure 1.18 Alternative formulation of the Titius-Bode Law, relating log of ...
Figure 1.19 Tests of the Titius-Bode Law in four extrasolar planetary system...
Figure 1.20 The moment of inertia of a set of discrete masses. The particles...
Figure 1.21 The moment of inertia of a continuous mass. In this figure, one ...
Figure 1.22 The moment of inertia of a sphere with respect to its diameter.(...
Figure 1.23 Techniques for detecting extrasolar planets.(a) This graph (fr...
Figure 1.23 Techniques for detecting extrasolar planets.(b) A wavy path ta...
Figure 1.23 Techniques for detecting extrasolar planets.(c) (Left) The lig...
Figure 1.23 Techniques for detecting extrasolar planets.(d) Direct imaging...
Figure 1.24 (Left) Rock-dwelling bacteria. Electron micrograph of bacillus s...
Figure 1.25 The sea-floor environment near mid-ocean rifts—for example, hydr...
Figure 1.26 Photographs of Io taken by the
Galileo
space probe, NASA / https...
Figure 1.27 Photographs of Europa taken by the
Galileo
space probe (with fal...
Figure 1.28 (a) Deep trenches dug on Mars by the
Viking Lander I
as part of ...
Figure 1.29 The Martian meteorite ALH 84001. National Aeronautics and Space ...
Figure 1.30 Martian volcanoes.(a) Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the...
Figure 1.31 Features (images from the Mars Global Surveyor mission (upper) a...
Figure 1.32 Sedimentary rocks on Mars.(a) The Mars rover
Opportunity
took ...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 (a) The gross structure of Earth’s interior, based on its composi...
Figure 2.1 (b) The gross structure of Earth’s interior, according to its mec...
Figure 2.2 Convection in the Earth’s mantle. In this idealized view, the ent...
Figure 2.3 Basic concepts of plate tectonics. A tectonic “plate” is defined ...
Figure 2.4 Examples of the plate tectonic features sketched in Figure 2.3....
Figure 2.4 Examples of the plate tectonic features referred to in Figure 2.3...
Figure 2.5 Earth’s watery oceans and a predominantly carbon dioxide atmosphe...
Figure 2.5 Earth’s watery oceans and a predominantly carbon dioxide atmosphe...
Figure 2.6 (a) Evolution of the Sun over the past 4.5 Byr. As the Sun fuses ...
Figure 2.6 (b) Response of the Earth to the increased luminosity of the Sun ...
Figure 2.7 The Jack Hills in Western Australia—including, in particular, Era...
Figure 2.8 (a) Schematic illustration of the greenhouse effect. Radiation fr...
Figure 2.9 Examples of evidence showing that a region was glaciated, in this...
Figure 2.10 Selected estimates of the abundance of carbon dioxide in Earth’s...
Figure 2.11 Some of the oldest microfossils ever found.(a) Possible fossil...
Figure 2.12 Fossil structures suggesting the existence of microbes.(a) 3.4...
Figure 2.13 Banded iron formations (BIFs).(a) A 2
+
-Byr-old doorstop fo...
Figure 2.14 Correlations between production of banded iron formations (BIFs)...
Figure 2.15 (a) Variation in atmospheric oxygen levels since the Precambrian...
Figure 2.16 (a) Example of a one-celled eukaryotic organism, a Paramecium; t...
Figure 2.17 (a) Estimates of atmospheric oxygen abundance, pO
2
, expressed in...
Figure 2.17 (b) Close-up over the past 700 Myr, with pO
2
relative to PAL usi...
Figure 2.18 Simplified model of atmospheric O
2
evolution, based on data show...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 (a) An orbital view: the facing disk of the Earth receives a tiny...
Figure 3.2 Idealized explication of the global “three-cell” (per hemisphere)...
Figure 3.2 Idealized explication of the global “three-cell” (per hemisphere)...
Figure 3.2 Idealized explication of the global “three-cell” (per hemisphere)...
Figure 3.2 Idealized explication of the global “three-cell” (per hemisphere)...
Figure 3.3 Observed north-south circulation of the troposphere, averaged ove...
Figure 3.4 Simplified hemispheric profiles (equator to North Pole) of the me...
Figure 3.5 (a) Climate implications of the global “three-cell” (per hemisphe...
Figure 3.5 (b) Regional circulation of the troposphere in the northern hemis...
Figure 3.6 Jupiter, as seen by the Hubble Space Telescope on May 5, 2006, ex...
Figure 3.7 Cartoon depicting the jet streams. https://commons.wikimedia.org/...
Figure 3.8 Evolution of a storm into a nor’easter. The storm (“L”) may origi...
Figure 3.9 Hurricane breeding grounds.(a) Dark gray-green areas denote regio...
Figure 3.10 The “global conveyor belt” or thermohaline circulation of the wo...
Figure 3.11 The multilevel global conveyor belt (wind-assisted thermohaline ...
Figure 3.12 Creation of the gyre in the North Atlantic Ocean. The bottom edg...
Figure 3.13 Satellite image showing the Gulf Stream as it flows northeastwar...
Figure 3.14 (a) Idealized illustration of surface currents in the world’s oc...
Figure 3.14 (b) Surface currents in the world’s oceans, with velocities repr...
Figure 3.15 Sea surface temperatures inferred from satellite observations du...
Figure 3.16 Observations of (a) surface atmospheric pressure at Tahiti and D...
Figure 3.17 (a) High-resolution global contour map of sea surface temperatur...
Figure 3.17 (b) Sea surface temperatures inferred from satellite observation...
Figure 3.18 Sea surface temperature anomalies—that is, excess temperatures r...
Figure 3.18 (c) Sea surface temperatures inferred from satellite observation...
Figure 3.19 The two states of the coupled ENSO oscillator, in connection wit...
Figure 3.20 (a) Sunspots on the Sun, August 6, 2001. The large sunspot towar...
Figure 3.20 (b) Same image as in Figure 3.20a.
Bright areas, called faculae
,...
Figure 3.21 (a) Yearly averaged sunspot record from 1610 to 2000, showing th...
Figure 3.22
Winter Landscape with Skaters and a Bird Trap
by Pieter Bruegel ...
Figure 3.23 World population over the past 12,000 years, with some milestone...
Figure 3.24 (a) The colors in
Chichester Canal
, painted by J. M. W. Turner i...
Figure 3.25 Historical rise of CO
2
, quantified as parts per million (ppm)....
Figure 3.26 Historical rise of CH
4
over the past 10,000 years (ending at yea...
Figure 3.27 Pictures of clathrates. (a) At the bottom of the Gulf of Mexico,...
Figure 3.28 Population growth since 1750, predicted based on demographic ana...
Figure 3.29 Two views on the warming predicted by the end of this century.(a...
Figure 3.29 Two views on the warming predicted by the end of this century.(b...
Figure 3.30 A mechanism for the collapse of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.(a)...
Figure 3.31 Prediction by Bamber et al. (2009) of the rise in mean sea level...
Figure 3.32 Schematic effects of chlorine (
Cl
) on the stratospheric ozone la...
Figure 3.33 Polar stratospheric cloud (PSC) over Sweden, at latitude 68°N (c...
Figure 3.34 Cartoon suggesting very simply how tornadoes form. Wind shear pr...
Figure 3.35 With cooler (warmer) air masses north (south) of the jet stream,...
Figure 3.36 The potential for future drought, inferred from a variety of cli...
Figure 3.37 Predicted rates of change (per century) in temperature, precipit...
Figure 3.38 Effects of global warming on vegetation.(a) Potential vegetation...
Figure 3.39 Observed increase in internal and latent heat within various com...
Figure 3.40 The top graph reveals correlations between irregularities in the...
Figure 3.41 Hypothetical temperature data versus time at two sites. and ...
Figure 3.42 (a) (Top) Observed global annual temperature anomaly from 1880 t...
Figure 3.42 (b) (Left) Coverage by land-based stations that recorded surface...
Figure 3.43 Effects on world’s surface air temperature of removing all sulfa...
Figure 3.44 Changes in surface temperatures on a continental scale.(a) Decad...
Figure 3.44 Changes in surface temperatures on a continental scale.(b) Yearl...
Figure 3.45 Change in the yearly heat content of the upper 700 m of the ocea...
Figure 3.46 Examples of long-term ice melting around the world.(a) Trend in ...
Figure 3.46 Examples of long-term ice melting around the world.(b) Glaciers....
Figure 3.47 (a) Disintegration of the Larsen B Ice Shelf along the Antarctic...
Figure 3.48 (a) Mass balance in (top) Greenland and (bottom) Antarctica, qua...
Figure 3.48 (b) Mass change of the Greenland (top) and Antarctic (bottom) ic...
Figure 3.48 (c) Monthly variations (in Gt) in the combined mass of ice caps ...
Figure 3.49 (a) Thermosteric changes in global sea level, in units of mm, ba...
Figure 3.49 (b) Changes in terrestrial water storage between 2002 and 2014 f...
Figure 3.50 (a) Satellite altimetry determination of the global variation in...
Figure 3.50 (b) Comparison of predicted contributions to the change in mean ...
Figure 3.51 Measurements of anomalous stratospheric temperatures over time.(...
Figure 3.51 Measurements of anomalous stratospheric temperatures over time.(...
Figure 3.52 Characteristics of the Antarctic ozone hole. The hole is defined...
Figure 3.53 Number of large wildfires (defined as exceeding ∼1,000 acres) pe...
Figure 3.54 Intensification of hurricanes over time.(a) Proportion of major ...
Figure 3.54 Intensification of hurricanes over time.(b) The power dissipatio...
Figure 3.55 Extreme weather strikes Binghamton, NY. Towns along the Susqueha...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 The gravitational force exerted by one particle on another is a v...
Figure 4.2 With gravity being an inverse-square law force and no other force...
Figure 4.3 The vector is shown in bold; the dotted arrow in the
x
-
y
plane,...
Figure 4.4 The components of a position vector are also the Cartesian coordi...
Figure 4.5 The two points of mass,
M
1
and
M
2
, are located at the positions r...
Figure 4.6 Procedure for determining the sum of two vectors and . Move on...
Figure 4.7 In order to determine the vector spanning the distance between tw...
Figure 4.8 The gravitational force exerted by mass
M
1
on mass
M
2
attracts
M
2
Figure 4.9 If all the mass of the Earth is concentrated in a point at its ce...
Figure 4.10 The geometry behind Eratosthenes’ method of estimating Earth’s r...
Figure 4.11 The circumference of a circle of radius is 2π. The entire cir...
Figure 4.12 The horizontal pendulum used to ‘weigh the Earth’ consists of a ...
Figure 4.13 The large spheres, each of mass
M
, are placed in front of and be...
Figure 4.14 After the beam has come to rest, the separation between the larg...
Figure 4.15 Heyl’s modification of the Cavendish experiment.(a) The horizo...
Figure 4.16 The lower right section of this thin shell contains more mass th...
Figure 4.17 A1 and A2 are concentric spherical surfaces enclosing a particle...
Figure 4.18 Adding to the situation in Figure 4.17, the volume between A1 an...
Figure 4.19 (a) A collection of particles of mass
m
1
,
m
2
, …, located at posi...
Figure 4.20 To determine the net gravitational force exerted by a continuum ...
Figure 4.21 (a) Types of ellipsoidal shapes.(b) A side view of the Earth.
Figure 4.22 As interpreted by the general theory of relativity, the gravitat...
Figure 4.23 The white car speeds through the intersection in order to turn l...
Figure 4.24 The angular velocity of a mass orbiting an axis is a vector, def...
Figure 4.25 By displacing the position vector so that its direction and ma...
Figure 4.26 According to the right-hand rule, if is directed upward and (
Figure 4.27 As derived in the text, the direction of × () is straight inw...
Figure 4.28 As a particle sits at rest on Earth’s surface, the Earth’s rotat...
Figure 4.29 At different latitudes, gravity points at different angles (alwa...
Figure 4.30 The difference between a sidereal day and a solar day, shown hyp...
Figure 4.31 If we are located on Earth’s surface at latitude φ or colatitude...
Figure 4.32 The angle between and its vertical component is the latitude, ...
Figure 4.33
A
and
C
denote the moments of inertia of both objects about axes...
Figure 4.34 Ellipses are defined by the rule that the sum of the distances f...
Figure 4.35 In both cases (circular and elliptical orbits), Kepler’s Second ...
Figure 4.36 The planet, of mass
M
P
, is in a circular orbit at a distance
R
PS
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Examples of microgravity studies.(a) Two years of superconducti...
Figure 5.1 Examples of microgravity studies.(c) Change in gravity 1987–199...
Figure 5.2 A conceptual example of gravity measurements and corrections. The...
Figure 5.3 Relative gravity data across the Susquehanna River valley in Grea...
Figure 5.3 (c) Reduced gravity data based on different assumed densities for...
Figure 5.4 If the boat is at rest, Earth’s daily rotation (with angular velo...
Figure 5.5 The particle at latitude φ moving west‐to‐east along Earth’s surf...
Figure 5.6 The zenith angles to the chosen star are α at one site and β at t...
Figure 5.7 Setup for solving isostasy problems. To satisfy the principle of ...
Figure 5.8 Exploration of the Pratt mechanism of isostatic compensation. The...
Figure 5.9 As a consequence of Archimedes’ principle, hydrostatic equilibriu...
Figure 5.10 Exploration of the Airy mechanism of isostatic compensation. The...
Figure 5.11 Further exploration of Airy isostasy. The depth of compensation ...
Figure 5.12 Bouguer gravity anomalies in the central Andes, plotted versus s...
Figure 5.13 The oceanic response to atmospheric pressure variations in a hur...
Figure 5.13 The oceanic response to atmospheric pressure variations in a hur...
Figure 5.14 Response of oceanic lithosphere to the formation of an undersea ...
Figure 5.15 Gravity variations predicted around a seamount in a state of fle...
Figure 5.16 The flexural response of oceanic lithosphere to surface loads, a...
Figure 5.17 Uses for isostatic anomalies unrelated to isostasy.(a) Isostat...
Figure 5.17 Uses for isostatic anomalies unrelated to isostasy.(b) Isostat...
Figure 5.18 Raised beaches in Bathurst Inlet, Nunavut (formerly part of the ...
Figure 5.19 (a) One possible reconstruction of the North American ice load (...
Figure 5.20 Crustal uplift observed in Finland and Scandinavia by the BIFROS...
Figure 5.21 Climate study from the geochemistry of ice cores.(a) “Pushing ...
Figure 5.22 Response of (a) continental and (b) oceanic lithosphere to the e...
Figure 5.23 Evidence of postglacial uplift in the Finland–Scandinavia region...
Figure 5.24 (Right) Pleistocene lakes (darker blue, with purple labels) and ...
Figure 5.25 (a) Contours (mm/yr) of the current rate of crustal uplift in so...
Figure 5.26 Velocity profiles—velocity as a function of height (
z
) within th...
Figure 5.27 Velocity profiles for different situations, as discussed in the ...
Figure 5.28 Dependence of mantle flow accompanying lithospheric flexure on t...
Figure 5.29 Example from Peltier (1998) / John Wiley & Sons of the ‘far‐fiel...
Figure 5.30 Map of the world, centered on the Pacific Ocean. Subsidence of t...
Figure 5.31 Current wobble and (approximate) true polar wander depicted usin...
Figure 5.32 Deglaciation causes a drift of the rotation pole. (a) The undist...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Tidal imbalance for a planet in a circular orbit about the Sun. T...
Figure 6.2 Tidal forces acting on the Earth. The Earth’s relative size is ex...
Figure 6.3 Tidal forces experienced on Earth’s surface. For simplicity, the ...
Figure 6.4 The tidal bulge created in the Earth’s oceans by the Sun. For sim...
Figure 6.4 The tidal bulge created in the Earth’s oceans by the Sun. For sim...
Figure 6.5 A comet pays the price for crossing the Roche limit. Comet Shoema...
Figure 6.6 An example of tidal heating: water vapor and ice crystals erupted...
Figure 6.7 Earth experiences a precessional torque because its bulge is tilt...
Figure 6.8 (a) Stability of a moving bicycle.As discussed in the text, a t...
Figure 6.8 (b) Precession of a spinning top. The top (brown shape) experienc...
Figure 6.9 The Earth’s axial precession is characterized by its rotation axi...
Figure 6.10 To an observer sitting on Earth’s surface, Earth’s rotation appe...
Figure 6.11 The effect of precession on the seasons. The Earth’s orbit is sh...
Figure 6.12 Geometry of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun, looking down from ...
Figure 6.13 (a) Eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun over the pa...
Figure 6.14 Oxygen isotope analysis in marine sediment cores from the southe...
Figure 6.15 Inference by Ruddiman ([2014] / Macmillan Learning; his Fig. 10...
Figure 6.16 Oxygen isotope variations (increasing downward) from a sediment ...
Figure 6.16 (b) On closer inspection, the transition period between ∼1.3 Myr...
Figure 6.17 Hubble space telescope images showing stages of a dust storm on ...
Figure 6.18 Laminated terrain in the south polar region of Mars, thought to ...
Figure 6.19 Torques (orange arrows) caused by the gravitational attraction o...
Figure 6.20 Satellite laser ranging.(a) Photograph of LAGEOS I. This satel...
Figure 6.21 Map of gravity anomalies relative to the Spheroid, based on trac...
Figure 6.22 Satellite altimetry.(a) Schematic of the altimeter satellite T...
Figure 6.23 Every fluid surface at rest must be perpendicular to the local g...
Figure 6.24 Altimetry satellite ground tracks. As the world turns beneath th...
Figure 6.25 (a) The mean sea surface (altimetric Geoid), based mainly on alt...
Figure 6.25 (b) Marine gravity anomalies based on satellite altimetry data, ...
Figure 6.26 Evolution of satellite altimetry: improvement in orbit determina...
Figure 6.27 (a) Tropospheric water vapor in Spring 1997 measured by the TOPE...
Figure 6.28 Determination of the velocity of an ocean current (e.g., the Gul...
Figure 6.29 Profiles of the Spheroid and Geoid in some region of the Earth; ...
Figure 6.30 Newer approaches to measuring Earth’s gravity field.(a) Nomina...
Figure 6.31 Gravity model GGM03S, based on ∼4 years of GRACE data. Note that...
Figure 6.32 (a) Free-air gravity anomalies with respect to the Spheroid (app...
Figure 6.32 (b) High-resolution Geoid (2.5″ × 2.5″) based on the combination...
Figure 6.33 The geostrophic currents constituting the steady circulation of ...
Figure 6.34 The long-wavelength variations in geoidal heights, also called t...
Figure 6.35 Variation in Earth’s oblateness as measured by changes in
J
2
bet...
Figure 6.36 Residual annual variation in the Geoid based on early GRACE data...
Figure 6.37 Changes in gravity associated with the December 2004 Sumatra ear...
Figure 6.38 Cartoon illustration of waves breaking as they approach the coas...
Figure 6.39 Forcing of a damped harmonic oscillator.(a) The dashpot on the...
Figure 6.40 (a) Frictionless oceans would respond instantaneously to the Sun...
Figure 6.41 The Sun’s gravitational pull on the tidal bulge it raised in the...
Figure 6.42 (a) (Left) Rugose coral from the middle Devonian Bell Shale, found in M...
Figure 6.42 (b) (Left) Stromatolite from upper Cambrian Conococheague in Mar...
Figure 6.43 Tidal friction and the lunar orbit. The Earth as a whole pulls t...
Figure 6.44 Effect of tidal friction on the Earth’s spin, measured relative ...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Stress in a sedimentological setting.(a) Illustration of the ki...
Figure 7.2 The components of a stress vector, and hints of a bigger picture....
Figure 7.3 General analysis of stress.(a) The orientation of any surface, ...
Figure 7.4 Idealized types of strain, applied to a bar of material (extendin...
Figure 7.5 Tidal strain. In response to tidal forces, the solid earth assume...
Figure 7.6 Rigorous description of strain.(a) Before forces are applied to...
Figure 7.7 Schematic illustration of stress versus strain in some materials,...
Figure 7.8 Ideal models of different materials, characterized by their strai...
Figure 7.8 (c) Strain (
e
) versus time is graphed on the left, and the ideal ...
Figure 7.9 Examples of the Earth System’s responses to applied stresses.(a...
Figure 7.10 Experiments to measure elastic parameters. In all cases, forces ...
Figure 7.11 Analysis of ripples spreading in a pond, after a rock had been t...
Figure 7.12 Deformation during a
P
wave.(a) A hammer blow or other compres...
Figure 7.13 Propagation of shear strain through a long cylindrical rod. If a...
Figure 7.14 Snell’s Laws. When a wave encounters a boundary, its energy is p...
Figure 7.15 (a) Critical refraction. If the seismic velocity in the second l...
Figure 7.16 (a) The variation of
P
wave (sound) velocity with depth in the o...
Figure 7.17 Long-distance propagation of sounds through the SOFAR channel....
Figure 7.18 Snell’s Laws can be viewed as a consequence of a ‘sensibility’ r...
Figure 7.19 Fermat’s Principle of Least Time. Whether considering a light wa...
Figure 7.20 Conversion of reflected elastic waves at a boundary. Illustratio...
Figure 7.21 Setup for Snell’s Laws including converted waves. The incident w...
Figure 7.22 A sampling of the variety of body waves resulting from reflectio...
Figure 7.23 Ground motion at the earth’s free surface due to the passage of ...
Figure 7.24 Dispersion of Rayleigh waves, expressed in terms of the wave per...
Figure 7.25 Digital seismograms from IRIS station CMB in Columbia, CA, showi...
Figure 7.26 Dispersion of surface waves can shed light on the earth’s near-s...
Figure 7.27 Free oscillations, produced when an earthquake causes the Earth ...
Figure 7.28 Free oscillations, produced when an earthquake causes the Earth ...
Figure 7.29 (a) (Left) Strain measured at a site in central California. Top ...
Figure 7.29 (b) A ‘beating’ phenomenon created by adding two sinusoids of si...
Figure 7.30 (a) Spectra of free oscillations (low-frequency band) observed g...
Figure 7.30 (b) Mode splitting as seen in close-ups of free oscillation spec...
Figure 7.31 Earth hum around the world. Spectra of the horizontal ground mot...
Figure 7.32 Hum in the Sun.(a) Doppler observations of the Sun’s “photosph...
Figure 7.33 Refraction surveys. (a) Geophones (receivers) are set up along t...
Figure 7.34 Refraction survey at a park near the Binghamton University campu...
Figure 7.35 Travel time graph (
t
versus
x
) for the first arrivals in a four-...
Figure 7.36 (a) For distant earthquakes, their distance from a seismographic...
Figure 7.37 Examples of early travel-time curves.(a) From Gutenberg & Rich...
Figure 7.38 Examples of modern travel-time curves, model iasp91 from Kennett...
Figure 7.39 Locating earthquakes using travel-time curves.(a) Travel time ...
Figure 7.40 Use of travel-time curves to interpret seismograms.(a) Digital...
Figure 7.40 Use of travel-time curves to interpret seismograms.(b) The sei...
Figure 7.41 Travel times of surface waves.(a) Basically, the time-distance...
Figure 7.41 Travel times of surface waves.(b) However, the surface waves g...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Map of global seismicity for 2000–2008. This is a map of epicente...
Figure 8.2 Ideal types of faults.(a) In strike-slip faults, the sudden dis...
Figure 8.3 Determination of relative plate motions.(a) Inference of spread...
Figure 8.3 Determination of relative plate motions.(b) In each region, onc...
Figure 8.4 Recent plate models. (a) Model PB2002, with 52 plates; hatched ar...
Figure 8.5 Evolution of the Farallon plate.(a) Overall evolution of the pl...
Figure 8.5 Evolution of the Farallon plate.(b) The Farallon split.(Left)...
Figure 8.6 Residual horizontal motion around Hudson Bay detected by both con...
Figure 8.7
P
wave travel times were compared by Smith et al. (2009) / Elsevi...
Figure 8.8 The Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain.2006 digital global relief ...
Figure 8.9 The effect of a core with lower seismic velocities than the mantl...
Figure 8.10 Travel-time analysis for a hypothetical homogeneous spherical Ea...
Figure 8.11 Comparison of
P
wave travel times for a homogeneous spherical Ea...
Figure 8.12 Body-wave velocities versus depth.(a) Model iasp91, adapted fr...
Figure 8.13 Velocity of
S
waves (actually
SV
waves) in the upper mantle bene...
Figure 8.14 Schematic depiction of Birch’s Rule, after Birch ([1961a], b).
P
Figure 8.15 (a) Mean atomic weight of the core, inferred from high-pressure ...
Figure 8.15 (b) Mantle and core properties can be inferred from high-pressur...
Figure 8.16 Scenario for understanding hydrostatic equilibrium. The tank of ...
Figure 8.17 Gravity within the Earth. The Earth is modeled as spherically sy...
Figure 8.18 Physical state of Earth’s interior.(a) Density profile in gm/c...
Figure 8.18 Physical state of Earth’s interior, based mainly on normal mode ...
Figure 8.19 Tomographic delineation of the mantle plume beneath Hawaii; cros...
Figure 8.20 Global tomographic analysis, based on travel times of five types...
Figure 8.20 Global tomographic analysis, based on travel times of five types...
Figure 8.20 Global tomographic analysis, based on travel times of five types...
Figure 8.21 Comparison of global tomographic analyses in the lowermost 250 k...
Figure 8.22 Idealized conception of mantle convection, illustrating the poss...
Figure 8.23 Tomographic structure of the mantle, from a model by Masters et ...
Figure 8.24 Diagram illustrating crystal structure of olivine both in the or...
Figure 8.25 Phase diagrams for the olivine→ringwoodite (spinel) phase transi...
Figure 8.25 Phase diagrams for the olivine→ringwoodite (spinel) phase transi...
Figure 8.25 Phase diagrams for the olivine→ringwoodite (spinel) phase transi...
Figure 8.26 (a) Crystal structure of perovskite minerals. Two of the possibl...
Figure 8.26 (c) Phase diagram for spinel→perovskite (ringwoodite→bridgmanite...
Figure 8.27 Transition zone topography as determined by Flanagan and Shearer...
Figure 8.27 Transition zone topography as determined by Flanagan and Shearer...
Figure 8.28 The need for a light alloy in the outer core.(a) High-pressure...
Figure 8.28 The need for a light alloy in the outer core.(b) Fractional ab...
Figure 8.29 One reason sulfur might be a light alloy in the outer core.Thi...
Figure 8.30 The existence of the asthenosphere is more than a temperature
ve
...
Figure 8.30 The existence of the asthenosphere is more than a temperature
ve
...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Heat flow in the solid earth under three different situations. At...
Figure 9.2 Evidence of a radiogenic source for continental heat flow in earl...
Figure 9.3 Implications of oceanic heat flow.Regional surface heat flow me...
Figure 9.4 State-of-the-art map of global heat flow, constructed by Davies (...
Figure 9.5 Pleochroic haloes. These rings or ‘shells’ of darkening and disco...
Figure 9.6 Heat flow through a volume (“parcel”). The volume is aligned with...
Figure 9.7 Illustration of positive and negative curvature. The curve shown ...
Figure 9.8 Depiction of how temperature evolves over time. For simplicity, i...
Figure 9.9 Depiction of how a naturally irregular temperature profile evolve...
Figure 9.10 Comparison of solutions to the diffusion equation for a flat ste...
Figure 9.11 Predicted temperatures within an Earth in steady state that cont...
Figure 9.12 Solution to the unsteady diffusion equation versus time, for a ‘...
Figure 9.12 Solution to the unsteady diffusion equation versus time, for a ‘...
Figure 9.13 (a) Numerical example of fluids that are stable, neutral, and un...
Figure 9.13 (b) Cartoon illustration of stable, neutral, and unstable atmosp...
Figure 9.14 Advection in action.(a) View from above of a river flowing to ...
Figure 9.14 Advection in action.(b) Advection of temperature within a fluid ...
Figure 9.15 Derivation of the pressure force. An infinitesimal cubic volume ...
Figure 9.16 Depictions of experimental simulations of horizontal convection ...
Figure 9.16 Depictions of experimental simulations of horizontal convection ...
Figure 9.17 Alternating (summer and winter) monsoonal wind patterns, viewed ...
Figure 9.18 Bénard convection: idealized convection in a flat pan heated fro...
Figure 9.18 Bénard convection: idealized convection in a flat pan heated fro...
Figure 9.18 (c) Bénard convection in the Sun?This high-definition image, f...
Figure 9.18 Bénard convection: idealized convection in a flat layer heated f...
Figure 9.19 Hypothetical scenario of temperatures within the mantle, both th...
Figure 9.20 (a) Temperature variations over time versus depth in the ocean, ...
Figure 9.20 (b) Illustration of the skin effect. Observed surface air temper...
Figure 9.20 (c) Illustration of the challenges in using borehole temperature...
Figure 9.21 Hypothetical example of borehole temperature measurements.Brow...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Dipole fields.(a) The field of a bar magnet. Field lines (also...
Figure 10.1 Dipole fields.(b) Thought experiment with a bar magnet. The ma...
Figure 10.1 Dipole fields.(c) The magnetic field produced by a circular lo...
Figure 10.2 The magnetic field as a vector quantity.(a) The field created ...
Figure 10.3 Changes in declination (
x
-axis) and inclination (
y
-axis) over ti...
Figure 10.4 Magnetic field measurements in Hermanus, South Africa. The horiz...
Figure 10.5 Magnetic field generated by the oceanic motions of the principal...
Figure 10.6 Magnetization of the sea floor. As newly formed oceanic lithosph...
Figure 10.7 Depiction of the geomagnetic field measured at Earth’s surface, ...
Figure 10.7 (b) The inclination of the field during 2020, from IGRF-13, cont...
Figure 10.8 The ‘spread’ or wavelength of a magnetic field due to a buried d...
Figure 10.8 The ‘spread’ or wavelength of a magnetic field due to a buried d...
Figure 10.9 Sources of non-dipole magnetic fields.(a) Current loops or bar...
Figure 10.10 Magnetic field ‘tree:’ classification of the components of the ...
Figure 10.11 Components of Earth’s magnetic field measured by the CHAMP sate...
Figure 10.12 Illustrations of the Ørsted, CHAMP, and Swarm satellites (in cl...
Figure 10.13 Electrical conductivity of the mantle inferred from satellite d...
Figure 10.14 The World Digital Magnetic Anomaly Map (WDMAM) depiction of the...
Figure 10.15 Spherical harmonic spectrum (traditional formulation, formally ...
Figure 10.15 Spherical harmonic spectrum (traditional formulation) of Earth’...
Figure 10.15 (c) Spherical harmonic spectrum (traditional formulation) of Ea...
Figure 10.16 Spherical harmonic representation of induced and remanent anoma...
Figure 10.17 The vertical (radial) component of the geomagnetic field, as se...
Figure 10.18 The secular motion of the magnetic and geomagnetic poles (defin...
Figure 10.19 Geomagnetic jerk, as seen in observations at magnetic observato...
Figure 10.20 Aspects of westward drift.(a) The non-dipole field drifts wes...
Figure 10.20 Aspects of westward drift.(b) Center of the South Atlantic An...
Figure 10.20 Aspects of westward drift.(d) Westward drift of the geomagnet...
Figure 10.21 The paleomagnetic field as a vector quantity.(a) At site on...
Figure 10.21 The paleomagnetic field as a vector quantity.(b) A sample at th...
Figure 10.22 Alternative views of secular variation and westward drift.(a)...
Figure 10.22 Alternative views of secular variation and westward drift.(b)...
Figure 10.22 Alternative views of secular variation and westward drift.(c)...
Figure 10.23 The dipole field over the past 10 Kyr.(a) Strength of the dip...
Figure 10.24 The role of the core’s southern hemisphere in explaining the re...
Figure 10.25 Paleomagnetic data reveals that Earth’s field has undergone pol...
Figure 10.26 Geomagnetic polarity timescale for the past 160 Myr, as inferre...
Figure 10.27 Rate of polarity reversals over the past half billion years bas...
Figure 10.28 Possible dependence of paleomagnetic field intensity on length ...
Figure 10.29 (a) Intensity of the dipole field during the past 800 Kyr from ...
Figure 10.29 (b) Dipole intensity before, during, and after a reversal.The...
Figure 10.30 Duration of reversals depends on latitude.(a) Duration (in ye...
Figure 10.31 Dependence of planetary dipole moment on rotation rate. Both qu...
Figure 10.32 Stretching of field lines by shear flow in a highly conducting ...
Figure 10.32 Stretching of field lines by shear flow in a highly conducting ...
Figure 10.33 The magnetic fields (black) associated with two different confi...
Figure 10.34 How a disk dynamo works.(a) Setup for the disk dynamo. An ele...
Figure 10.35 Alternatives to a simple disk dynamo.(a) Coupled disk dynamo....
Figure 10.36 The Parker-Levy mechanism for regenerating the magnetic field o...
Figure 10.37 Exploration of the Taylor-Proudman theorem.(a) Experimental d...
Figure 10.37 Exploration of the Taylor-Proudman theorem.(b) Bénard convect...
Figure 10.37 Exploration of the Taylor-Proudman theorem.(c) Taylor-Proudma...
Figure 10.37 Exploration of the Taylor-Proudman theorem.(d) Taylor-Proudma...
Figure 10.38 Using convective Taylor columns to achieve steps of the Parker ...
Figure 10.39 Conceptual evolution of a dynamo, clockwise from the lower left...
Figure 10.40 Evolution of
Homo sapiens
and other hominin species over the pa...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Companion Website
Begin Reading
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Advanced Textbook Series
Unconventional Hydrocarbon Resources: Techniques for Reservoir Engineering Analysis
Reza Barati and Mustafa M. Alhubail
Geomorphology and Natural Hazards: Understanding Landscape Change for Disaster Mitigation
Tim R. Davies, Oliver Korup, and John J. Clague
Remote Sensing Physics: An Introduction to Observing Earth from Space
Rick Chapman and Richard Gasparovic
Geology and Mineralogy of Gemstones
David P. Turner and Lee A. Groat
Data Analysis for the Geosciences: Essentials of Uncertainty, Comparison, and Visualization
Michael W. Liemohn
Earth System Geophysics
Steven R. Dickman
Earth’s Natural Hazards and Disasters
Bethany D. Hinga
Advanced Textbook 6
Earth System Geophysics
Steven R. Dickman
Binghamton University, USA
This Work is a co-publication of the American Geophysical Union and John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
This edition first published 2025
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Published under the aegis of the AGU Publications Committee
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The right of Steven R. Dickman to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Dedication
—to Al Gore, for leading congressional support for the Internet, without which completing this book would have taken another decade.
—to Avraham Sternklar, for always reminding me to bring out the melody.
—to Bob Dickman, for early guidance on scientific writing (and thinking!).
—most of all, to Barb and Jennifer Dickman, for being Barb and Jennifer Dickman, and especially to Barb, for extreme patience as days and weeks stretched into months and years; this book would not have happened without her support.
Preface
An Earth System Science Approach to Geophysics, and a New Unifying Theme
Geophysics—the physics of the Earth—has always been a powerful way to understand the world. Connecting complex real-world phenomena to fundamental physical laws, and using those connections to deduce the nature of otherwise inaccessible regions of the Earth; framing natural processes and events in terms of cause and effect (which, after all, is what Newton’s Second Law, usually written = , embodies); constructing order-of-magnitude relationships to determine the relative importance of causative factors; and, of course, mathematically modeling and successfully predicting the future behavior of components of the Earth—all of these clarify the world around us wonderfully.
There was a time when geophysics was mainly devoted to the study of the ‘solid earth’—the crust we stand on and the mantle and core below. That was a time when the theory of plate tectonics ruled as the unifying theme of Earth science; when the Cold War focused scientific research, demanding tools to (among other things) distinguish earthquakes from underground nuclear tests; and when our knowledge of the nature and behavior of the oceans and atmosphere was just beginning to blossom.
That time is past. We now see plate tectonics as part of a bigger process, whether on Earth or the other planets and moons. And, although seismology is crucial in defining the structure and properties of Earth’s interior, it is no longer necessary to treat it as the central discipline of geophysical research. It can also be argued that our understanding of the atmosphere and oceans is now comparable to our understanding of the solid earth.
Over the past few decades, a newer and equally revolutionary paradigm—Earth System Science—has gained popularity in studies of the Earth. This paradigm recognizes the critical importance of interactions between the components of what is seen as an Earth System: the solid earth, oceans, and atmosphere, and even the biosphere (from a ‘sphere’ perspective, we could add the celestial sphere as well).
Geophysics is, at its essence, a multidisciplinary field. And even solid-earth geophysics provides invaluable tools to understand Earth System Science better, both conceptually and quantitatively. It makes sense to learn geophysics from an Earth System Science perspective.
In Earth System geophysics, it is not plate tectonics but rather the more fundamental theme of convection—defined generally as a circulation of material driven by density differences, with lighter stuff rising and denser stuff sinking—that connects the components of the System. Mantle convection drives tectonics (with tangible consequences for the crust), but the core, oceans, and atmosphere also exhibit convective behavior; for that matter, within all stars, some planets, and even a few moons, convection of some type is the rule. Convection is indeed universal.
This textbook is a modest attempt to expand solid-earth geophysics within the framework of Earth System Science. Hopefully, such a perspective will increase the accessibility, and even popularity, of geophysics to Earth science students.
Who This Book Is For
Undergraduate and graduate students majoring in geophysics, physics, and engineering, as well as students working toward a master’s in Earth science teaching, have all benefited from the courses this textbook is based on. However, this book’s intended audience is primarily students of geology at the senior undergraduate or beginning graduate level, whose exposure to basic physical geology has been supplemented by at least one semester each of calculus and college physics but who may be somewhat unconfident about using math and physics to understand the Earth. This textbook builds gradually to advanced math and physics applications and should therefore be read in sequential order.
As an accompanying goal, then, this book can enhance the quantitative skills of the reader. After completing this textbook, the student will be familiar with such second-order partial differential equations governing Earth System processes as the diffusion equation and various fluid dynamic equations. Such familiarity will include an understanding of the origin, components, and uses of those equations; the ability to verify specific solutions mathematically; scaling techniques for interpreting and evaluating the equations; and a simple numerical technique for obtaining approximate solutions. Students with such familiarity should be well prepared for more advanced geophysics courses.
A Textbook for Different Courses
This textbook is designed for a full-year (two-semester) upper-level introductory course on the geophysics of the Earth System. But its breadth also allows for its use as the primary textbook in a variety of semester-long courses. Possibilities include the following:
A traditional, solid-earth geophysics approach—but with applications to the Earth System—is possible by focusing (sequentially!) on
Chapters 4
through
8
and portions of
10
.
Students with a major interest in global warming could start with
Chapters 2
and
3
, and then learn the geophysics behind some of their remote-sensing data (satellite geodesy) in
Chapter 6
before finishing with some of the basics of fluid dynamics in
Chapters 8
(hydrostatic equilibrium) and
9
(heat transmission, rigorously).
Students with an interest in planetary geophysics would enjoy
Chapter 1
on the origin and properties of the Solar System and the question of life beyond Earth; the section of
Chapter 3
on solar variability; the orbital perspectives of
Chapter 6
(the latter, including the Milankovitch hypothesis and tidal friction, would be preceded by
Chapters 4
and
5
for background); and portions of the remaining chapters with comparisons to other planets and the Sun.
For advanced students who have already taken an introductory geophysics course, the numerous references cited throughout this textbook (and available as a full bibliography in the Companion Website) could serve as guidance in an advanced geophysics seminar course, providing a ‘starting point’ for their journal research, while the book itself provides common background material for the rest of the class.
