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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
This book offers an insight into how to create aesthetically pleasing, environmentally integrated, multi-functional developments in the ocean or on the coastline. Eco-design of Marine Infrastructures provides practical and realistic solutions for delivering projects that strive to minimize negative environmental impacts. Using case studies and examples, this book presents a toolkit of options, allowing decision makers and planners to see what is possible and to make informed choices about the risks and benefits of eco-design. It is intended for researchers, engineers, students and decision makers, or anyone who is curious to see how nature can be integrated into development.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Principles and Genesis of Maritime Eco-design
1.1. Principles of maritime eco-design
1.2. Definition of eco-design of marine infrastructures
1.3. Japanese inspiration
1.4. Assessing the effects of a project on the environment: the impact study
1.5. The “no net loss of biodiversity” objective: a regulatory obligation for developers, an opportunity for eco-design
1.6. Specificities of the environmental assessment related to the marine environment: the “natural” public maritime domain concept
2 Maritime Civil Engineering
2.1. General information
2.2. Typology of coastlines
5
2.3. Coastal defense works
2.4. Port structures
2.5. Design approach
3 Eco-design of Marine Infrastructures
3.1. The evolution of research work towards the eco-design of marine structures
3.2. The modernized approach to project management
3.3. The methodological approach to eco-design: responding to the expressed need
3.4. Infrastructure as a new support for marine life
3.5. Eco-design at the material level: the example of concrete
26
4 Evidence Through Experience: Examples of Eco-designed Marine Projects
4.1. Mayotte submarine pipeline: an initial eco-designed marine structure
4.2. Bio-inspiration and nature-based solutions for artificial reef design
4.3. The scope of port eco-design
4.4. Eco-design for coastal protection
4.5. Biomimetic artificial reefs in Corsica (Ajaccio)
4.6. Artificial island eco-design
4.7. Eco-design of mooring systems
4.8. Eco-design of offshore viaduct piles
4.9. Offshore wind farm project eco-design: multi-use perspectives
Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1. Public presentation panel on port biodiversity in the port of Kernév...
Figure 1.2. Eco-design project methodology (top blue arrow) compared to a standa...
Figure 1.3. Diagram of the definition of nature-based solutions, proposed by the...
Figure 1.4. Kushimoto Marine Park, protected for the value of underwater landsca...
Figure 1.5. The concept of Sato-umi, where humans interact with the aquatic envi...
Figure 1.6. General approach to conducting an environmental impact assessment (F...
Figure 1.7. The extent of the natural public maritime domain in France (Article ...
Figure 1.8. Maritime boundaries and spaces of coastal state jurisdiction (MEB 20...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1. Coastal stages, domains, zones and maritime provinces. For a color v...
Figure 2.2. World surface covered by the continental shelf represented in bluish...
Figure 2.3. Sea-level evolution over the past 40,000 years (source: Pinot (1998)...
Figure 2.4. The pink sandstone coast in Erquy, Côtes-d’Armor. Coastal landscape ...
Figure 2.5.
Cliffs at Étretat in France (photo: J.-C. Souche)
Figure 2.6. Profile of a beach exposed to prevailing westerly swells at Étel in ...
Figure 2.7.
Beach and dune of Espiguette in the Gard (photo: J. Bougis)
Figure 2.8.
Coastal mudflat in the cove of Sauzon (photo: J. Bougis)
Figure 2.9. Seabeds colonized by coral reefs (red), seagrass beds (green) and ma...
Figure 2.10.
Coral bleaching in 2016, Reunion Island (photo: MAREX/J.-B. Nicet)
Figure 2.11. Rockfill groins, Espiguette beach, Gard, Mediterranean Sea (photo: ...
Figure 2.12.
Rock breakwater, port of Bastia (photo: J.-C. Souche)
Figure 2.13.
Ospedaletti-type ECOPODE™ and ACCROPODE™II blocks (photo: E. Cunge)
Figure 2.14. Geotube® breakwater (source: commercial documentation – TenCate Geo...
Figure 2.15. Narbonne-Plage, low wall at the top of the beach to contain the san...
Figure 2.16. La Flotte-en-Ré, Louis-Philippe-era masonry riprap (built in the mi...
Figure 2.17. La Ciotat, wave protection wall of the shipyards at the top of the ...
Figure 2.18. View of the port of Marseille, old port and western basins (photo: ...
Figure 2.19.
Criteria used to establish a port
Figure 2.20. a) Example of a marina, Grande-Motte harbor; b) Example of a commer...
Figure 2.21. Example of a typical cross-section of a coastline to be developed9 ...
Figure 2.22. Example of the operation of a dry dock (source: B. Sigros and J.-C....
Figure 2.23. Bassin du Roy, boats at anchor, port of Le Havre (photo: J.-C. Souc...
Figure 2.24. Example of the operation of a deepwater port (source: B. Sigros, J....
Figure 2.25.
Example of the marina of La Rochelle (photo: J.-C. Souche)
Figure 2.26. Example of the operation of a wet dock (source: B. Sigros and J.-C....
Figure 2.27.
Example of the Sables-d’Olonne wet dock (photo: J.-C. Souche)
Figure 2.28.
Example of the Saint-Malo wet dock (photo: J.-C. Souche)
Figure 2.29.
Design phase execution process of a development
Figure 2.30.
Diagram of the semi-diurnal tidal cycle
Figure 2.31. Photograph of the swell (photo: course materials from the École des...
Figure 2.32.
Characteristic parameters of the swell
Figure 2.33. Three types of breakers according to the slope of the seabed (sourc...
Figure 2.34. Reflection of the swell on a vertical wall and the formation of the...
Figure 2.35. Wave diffraction in the vicinity of a harbor breakwater (source: ma...
Figure 2.36. Stages of project implementation and phasing of associated geotechn...
Figure 2.37. Identification of high corrosion zones based on water levels (sourc...
Figure 2.38. Typical identification of a concrete for the ready-mix concrete pla...
Figure 2.39. Synoptic of the approach of performance formulation of concretes (N...
Figure 2.40. Synoptic outline of the tasks and missions of the marine civil engi...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1. Photomontage of an eco-designed offshore wind turbine foundation (La...
Figure 3.2.
Presence of mussels (
Mytilus galloprovincialis
) and barnacles (
Chtha...
Figure 3.3. Biophysical functioning: example of a port project in an estuarine a...
Figure 3.4. Simplified example of an objective of bio-inspiration from natural h...
Figure 3.5. Estuarine ecological functioning: the eco-designed harbor is integra...
Figure 3.6.
From the concept to the marine eco-design approach (S. Pioch)
Figure 3.7. Proposal for the five principles for the implementation of an eco-de...
Figure 3.8. Stakeholders involved in an eco-design approach and the relationship...
Figure 3.9. The eco-design approach, a systemic, AGILE approach. For a color ver...
Figure 3.10. Project owner programming stage, supplementary to the eco-design. F...
Figure 3.11. Usual project management assignments for a marine engineering offic...
Figure 3.12. The eco-design approach for engineering, a systemic and ambitious a...
Figure 3.13. Adaptation of project management assignments for the consideration ...
Figure 3.14. Port of Sète, dock H, presence of mussels on a metal ladder (photo:...
Figure 3.15. Compositional, structural and functional approach to a biocenosis (...
Figure 3.16. Organization and connectivity of critical habitats for marine organ...
Figure 3.17. Movement between critical fish habitats: a) continuous ecosystem; b...
Figure 3.18. Illustration of the effect of substrate and habitat on colonization...
Figure 3.19. Three harbor areas (in particular, the hydrodynamics), creating thr...
Figure 3.20. Port and periportal species and their developmental stages in the M...
Figure 3.21. Intra-port species in a Mediterranean port from top left to bottom ...
Figure 3.22. Types of target species based on their relationship with artificial...
Figure 3.23.
Summary diagram of the constituents of concrete (J.-C. Souche)
Figure 3.24. Methodology of the performance approach (from CIMbéton documents). ...
Figure 3.25. Methodological parallel between the performance approach (in red) a...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1. Photos of colonization of concrete disks after immersion in the port...
Figure 4.2. Test tubes in a controlled environment at the Ifremer marine experim...
Figure 4.3. References and feedback presented in this book. Geographical locatio...
Figure 4.4. Map of Mayotte and in the blue ellipse the DWS pipeline between Mamo...
Figure 4.5. Boundary flag indicating the underwater route (yellow dashes) of the...
Figure 4.6. Cubic concrete weights classically used in marine civil engineering ...
Figure 4.7.
Sketch of an
“écocavalier” with habitats created to reduce the impac...
Figure 4.8. Ground plan of the route and distribution of the different types of ...
Figure 4.9. Reinforcement of the pipe weights, functional drawing (design: J.-C....
Figure 4.10. Monitoring of the colonization of structures in 2009 after one mont...
Figure 4.11. Ecocavaliers for ballasting the Mayotte marine pipeline (photo: R. ...
Figure 4.12.
Immersion of artificial reef by Seaboost (photo: R. Dumay)
Figure 4.13. Developing rocky seabeds with artificial fishery habitats ecologica...
Figure 4.14. Example of an artificial habitat mimicking a natural drop-off shelt...
Figure 4.15. Example of increase in total biomass through the installation of ar...
Figure 4.16. Schematic of the design of artificial habitats inspired by nature t...
Figure 4.17. Ecological functions for the maintenance and development of target ...
Figure 4.18. a) Immersion of two prototype structures off Agde in September 2009...
Figure 4.19.
Adult seabream (
Diplodus sargus) during the breeding season, settle...
Figure 4.20. Proposed overall concept of port eco-design from 2009 where the por...
Figure 4.21. Map cross-referencing ethological information and the different art...
Figure 4.22. Pilot applications of eco-designed dock for port structures with th...
Figure 4.23.
Photomontage of the Calais Port 2015 extension project
10
Figure 4.24. Three-part segmentation of the north jetty for the protection of th...
Figure 4.25. Photo of seabass shelter, in a typical habitat adapted to resting a...
Figure 4.26.
General view of the Sand Motor project site (photo: M. Stive)
Figure 4.27. Locations of ECO Armor Blocks and standard blocks on the dike (Perk...
Figure 4.28. Comparative colonization of standard “control” Antifer blocks (left...
Figure 4.29. Headland Park seawall and detail of a basin created in sandstone, i...
Figure 4.30. Ospedaletti Ecopode™ and Accropode™II. In this project, the Ecopode...
Figure 4.31. Examples of colonization of artificial blocks of embankment shells ...
Figure 4.32. View of the intertidal basins on the dike (photos: P. Hymery, Suez ...
Figure 4.33. Location of the immersion site for the eco-designed artificial reef...
Figure 4.34. Immersion sites for the structures (red square) at Ricantu bay (sou...
Figure 4.35.
Eco-engineered mooring for cardinal beacons (photo: J.-C. Souche)
Figure 4.36. Concrete elements cast by Isula Services: a) counter-mold; b) mold ...
Figure 4.37. Eco-designed artificial reefs and environmental monitoring (Gulf of...
Figure 4.38. Plan view of the Principality of Monaco in 1880 (source: Princely G...
Figure 4.39. Plan view of the Principality of Monaco in 1970 (source: Princely G...
Figure 4.40. Artist’s plan view of a) the project and b) its waterfront (source:...
Figure 4.41. Artist’s view of a) the harbor and b) the urban context (source: Pr...
Figure 4.42. Layout of the offshore extension of the Portier cove (light blue ha...
Figure 4.43. Elevation of the caissons with the planned eco-design provisions (s...
Figure 4.44. Details of the “Amur” die-cutting on the posts of the Jarlan caisso...
Figure 4.45. a) Grooving of the caissons, and b) sanded concrete surfaces (sourc...
Figure 4.46. a) Diagram of the functioning of the ecosystem surrounding the arti...
Figure 4.47. Artist’s view of the structures integrated into the design of the f...
Figure 4.48. a) Effects of anchors on the seabed of the Caribbean coast; b) wild...
Figure 4.49. Natural habitat-inspired skirts attached to buoys to prevent access...
Figure 4.50. Eco-designed mooring system (design: S. Pioch, drawing: J.-C. Ascio...
Figure 4.51. Juvenile colonization of an ecologically designed mooring system af...
Figure 4.52. Location of the three sites (document: S. Delavigne, source: Caraïb...
Figure 4.53.
a) “Prison bar” effect of stilt roots of red mangrove (
Rhizophora m...
Figure 4.54. Eco-designed mooring system, artist’s view (design: S. Pioch and J....
Figure 4.55. Mooring system for the HLP Bouillante operation in Guadeloupe (phot...
Figure 4.56. The Abeille Flandres moored in the Gulf of Saint-Florent in Corsica...
Figure 4.57. Docking capacities for yachts over 25 m in the Mediterranean (Desse...
Figure 4.58. Schematic layout of the planned mooring installation in the Gulf of...
Figure 4.59. The 34 ton eco-designed mooring ballast manufactured by LIB Industr...
Figure 4.60. Example of small concrete anchors for side marker buoys; photos tak...
Figure 4.61. Photomontages of mooring system ready to be equipped (mooring line ...
Figure 4.62. New Coastal Road Project, Reunion Island, route and infrastructures...
Figure 4.63. Eco-design of the medium part of the pillar (-5 to 10 m, colored in...
Figure 4.64. Eco-design of the deeper part of the pillar (−10/20 m, colored in o...
Figure 4.65. Offshore wind turbine installation on soft seabeds and biological f...
Figure 4.66. Eco-design of offshore wind turbine foundations and cables: left, “...
Figure 4.67. Ecological design of wind farms that also promotes multi-use throug...
Conclusion
Figure C.1. Photograph from the “Ecoreef” series, where an artificial reef was i...
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1. Average net primary production and surface area of the major global e...
Table 2.2.
The main structures used in maritime sites
Table 2.3. Main tides and their associated coefficients and tidal range in Brest...
Table 2.4. Different mooring and berthing arrangements (source: marine works cou...
Table 2.5. Criteria for the choice of technical solutions according to determini...
Table 2.6.
Main exposure classes of concrete
Table 2.7. Main exposure classes for concrete structures used in marine areas (...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1. Evolution of research themes on the relationship between coastal infr...
Table 3.2. List of target species (benthic, demersal and pelagic) in port and pe...
Table 3.3. Preferred agitation conditions vary according to the adult or juvenil...
Table 3.4.
Relationship between target species types and eco-design (S. Pioch)
Table 3.5. List of different materials used, excluding waste, in the manufacture...
Table 3.6. Summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the main materials use...
Table 3.7.
Effect of environmental conditions on marine colonization
Table 3.8.
Effect of substrate on marine colonization
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
Conclusion
References
Index
Other titles from iSTE in Ecological Science
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Series EditorFrançoise Gaill
Eco-design of Marine Infrastructures
Towards Ecologically-informed Coastal and Ocean Development
Sylvain Pioch
Jean-Claude Souche
First published 2021 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2021
The rights of Sylvain Pioch and Jean-Claude Souche to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2021940543
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-711-8
Foreword
Grown-ups never understand anything by themselves, and it is tiresome for children to be always and forever explaining things to them.
Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
Our planet and our ecosystems are in danger and we must act. Of course, we hear this message every day and most of us are now aware of it. However, it is not easy to exactly identify the different challenges ahead, and it is even less easy to act accordingly.
Intended for a wide audience, this book can help provide answers. It presents, through concrete examples and testimonies, an exhaustive state of the art allowing everyone to better understand marine eco-design and the issues it addresses. It also proposes a methodology for acting differently. Although this book is primarily intended for technicians, engineers, scientists and students, it may be of interest to anyone who is curious to see how we can “develop” by taking inspiration from nature. For this book is not only the story of two men of art, it is also the work of two marine enthusiasts who, for more than 30 years, have been working for the preservation of the seabed; passionate people who have spent hundreds of hours in the water observing, marveling at marine life and trying to understand the combination of elements and the consequences on biodiversity. I have shared this passion with them for many years.
Through this book, Sylvain and Jean-Claude, who are great professionals and long-time friends, will share their universe with you. Through concrete experiences, you will discover the marine world, see through their eyes the underwater biotope and how to preserve it and perhaps feel its mysteries in order to reconcile what seems irreconcilable: the human impact of a maritime infrastructure and the preservation of biodiversity. Sylvain Pioch combines both a sixth sense of this wilderness and an exceptional scientific knowledge. His ability to understand and predict the behavior of fish and marine life will always amaze me. He is, at the same time, a renowned professor, a researcher and a talented designer, recognized throughout the world. Jean-Claude Souche is the one who makes it possible to transform concepts into sustainable developments and infrastructures. Today, Jean-Claude is a professor at IMT Mines Alès, a French engineering school, where he heads the civil engineering and sustainable building department. His international experience in marine works, his operational background as an engineer and doctor and his unwavering will to move forward make him a valuable person. With their common conviction, on a professional level, Sylvain and Jean-Claude are incredibly complementary. In this book, they have produced a thorough work on the eco-design of marine infrastructures, which for them is definitive work. This book highlights one of the great challenges of our century, that of preserving marine biodiversity through our land use planning policy and the construction of coastal and port infrastructures. The protection of the environment in terms of maritime development is no longer based on simple compensatory measures, but must, by definition for any project, preserve and promote the development of life and its diversity. I am deeply convinced that project owners, engineers, scientists and contractors can and must play a major role in promoting biodiversity and thus protecting the marine environment. One of the major challenges to come will be to know how to create industrial policies that are economically efficient and respectful of our environment. It is no longer a question of opposing environment and economy or human technology and nature, but, on the contrary, of reconciling them. This requires skill and conviction. Even though science and technology are not the only solution to the problems of today’s world, they provide technical innovation that can lead to changes in human behavior. This is the goal of this book, to allow as many people as possible to understand the stakes, to act intelligently and, finally, to think differently.
Also, throughout these pages, I urge you to think about what we will leave to future generations, I urge you to become the children of the Little Prince because it is possible to change the world, provided we all change, provided we first change ourselves.
Enjoy reading this book.
Régis DUMAYDeputy Managing Director, Egis
Preface
The distance of man’s emancipation from the sea is equal to the distance of our cells from the composition of sea water.
Loren Eiseley
The purpose of this book is to strengthen the path towards a coastal maritime management where civil maritime engineering is intimately linked with environmental engineering, within a socio-ecosystem where humanity is an integral part of nature. The multiple consequences of the mistreatment of nature by a denatured human will not be discussed in this book. Indeed, it seems to us that the links between the artificialization of the seabed, climate change, pollution, the introduction of invasive species or the overexploitation of natural resources with a deregulated, predatory and irresponsible anthropic activity for the future of ecosystems and the survival of humanity (on our unique Earth) are obvious (IPBES 2019). Neither are we prophets, as the concepts discussed here have already been the subject of modern works (Belknap et al. 1967; Falque 1972; Tarlet 1977) or of older, empirical findings, where humans have also illustrated themselves in their capacity for positive interactions with nature (McHarg 1969; Lassus 2002).
The geographer and planner McHarg (1969)1 detected that in our current modern societies (since the second half of the 20th century), technicists, industrialists and urbanists have an attitude to the human that is dissociated, pre-Copernican and dominant towards nature. The source of this segregative reflection is that we have been fed by an ancient instinct of revenge towards nature, born of a 1,000-year-old resentment of having held so little influence before nature. Psychoanalysts would call this a “complex of cultural inferiority, with perverse aggressive tendency”, that is, without consideration, nor empathy, nor feeling for the tormented object. This conception of nature, which is the subject of our predation, would satisfy the desire for primacy buried deep within the human being, for a long time inoffensive since impossible to achieve technically. How can we make this resentment, which we have historically inherited as a consequence of our environment, null and void? How can we prevent it from poisoning the objective of survival and evolution of a human who can now “stand up among the other forms of life” (McHarg 1969)? The expression of our work on eco-design is rooted in our enthusiasm to assert our talents as creators, rather than those of destroyers who are less worthy to represent responsible humans, the managers of their environment and thus of their future.
This exercise is, moreover, made difficult by the Western conception founded on an anthropocentrism disassociated with nature, notably spiritually (Berque 1986). The oriental approach, for example, the Japanese approach using Tao, Shinto or Zen, has sometimes ignored the human as an individual to focus on the human within nature (the garden being the metaphysical symbol par excellence).
In short, two reverse postulates exist: in the West, the human at the expense of nature, and, in the East, nature at the expense of the individual human. The third view would be that of a balance, which does not mean a fusion, where the human is considered as an individual, rather than as a species, within nature.
To date, however, this way has not been expressed in human “works” presented on the maritime domain (principally the submerged part), which have never taken into account natural facts in their intrinsic conception. It is the human against nature, which is understood in maritime engineering as a vocabulary of work or technique: works of defense against the sea, breakwaters, dikes, wave-breaking walls, seawalls, dredging, etc.
On the contrary, land constructions have long been based on a local empirism (the vernacular), allowing humans to observe nature and to settle there harmoniously. The low stone walls follow the curves of hillsides where the peasantry, better than any other profession, know by observation how to exploit and manage the land. There are also our medieval “circulade” Mediterranean villages, where the air circulates wonderfully and naturally refreshes the shaded alleys, offering nesting boxes to swallows and swifts feasting on mosquitoes near the houses. Contrast this with the modern suburbs on the outskirts of these same villages which are asphyxiated, overheated by increasing heat waves and have often disfigured the harmony of the landscape.
We are convinced that the construction of structures must be sensitive to the laws and needs of nature, to ecosystems, to materials and forms adapted to human needs and to the beauty of life, and thus offer sustainable achievements. Eco-design will therefore be adapted to the place and will bring long-term benefits to humans and nature. It is based on ecology, from the Greek oikos, or house, that is, the science of the dwelling, an obvious prerequisite for any development whose objective is to arrange with order (and according to the rules of ecology, of the human in nature) human settlements, with a view to sustainable and desirable development: managing life to ensure our survival.
The temptation and the drift towards a cosmetic nature, a simple green washing, is always present, but a detailed knowledge of the natural functioning and of the typical ecosystem for each site and each project, targeting an integration between the ecological and aesthetic landscape, as well as an ecological follow-up of the developments, are the guarantees to keep a good course. We will have at least tried to advance the notion that the human can play the role of positive creator for their environment, improving the biosphere with new symbioses of humans in nature.
In this work, we propose to focus on marine structures. Indeed, coastal structures, although not specifically designed for this purpose, generate new biotopes that are particularly attractive for coastal species at the juvenile stage: for example, 30–109 times more juveniles are welcomed on dikes and harbors than on natural rocky habitats in the western French Mediterranean (Pastor 2008).
However, these ecological potentialities are ignored, or at best incidentally recognized and very rarely enhanced by specific eco-designed and nature-inspired infrastructures. Marine works are generally designed with regard to functional, technical, economic or hydro-sedimentary marine environment considerations, not as supports to maintain or increase marine biodiversity.
The objective is now to develop their functional aspects from an ecological point of view so that the structure becomes a proactive element for the environment. It becomes part of a dynamic ecosystem by creating habitats and ecological functions: shelter for juveniles, feeding areas, habitats for fixed fauna and flora, etc.
This book first offers the reader two chapters related to the developments in the fields of environmental regulation and maritime civil engineering, increasingly expressing a social expectation towards the prefix “eco-”. Indeed, every planner must design a facility in response to a functional and technical need, meeting regulatory standards.
However, beyond this “classic” approach to marine development projects, the eco-design approach presented in Chapter 3 allows environmental impacts to be taken into account from the technical definition of the works. The authors illustrate this approach in Chapter 4 with practical examples that they have dealt with, complemented by feedback from projects carried out according to these principles and attempting to avoid running the risk of justifying avoidable projects by their “green” appearance. It is always preferable to abandon a project if its negative effects on the environment are unavoidable, because offset is a Trojan horse for the development that is thus facilitated, as denounced by Firth et al. (2020): “Greening of grey infrastructure should not be used as a Trojan horse to facilitate coastal development.”
Sylvain PiochJean-Claude SoucheJuly 2021
1
The work of McHarg in the area of landscape architecture, gathered in his famous
Design with Nature
, served as a basis for our extrapolation to the submerged, underwater marine domain.
Acknowledgments
This book is dedicated to our families: Élise, Guilhem, Céleste, Raphaëlle and Julianne, and Sophie, Juliette, Rémi, Éloïse and Alexis, who are the driving force of our lives. We would also like to thank all those who, through their lives, actions and convictions, seek to build a fairer and more beautiful world where humankind will be able to consider all the other forms of life on the planet of which it is only the host.
This book is the compilation of 30 years of professional practice acquired as an environmental engineer in planning and impact studies (S. Pioch) and as a civil engineer (J.-C. Souche), then as lecturers and researchers in University Montpellier 3 and Mine Telecom Institute of Alès or simply as divers.
Beyond our common passion for the sea, it seemed unavoidable to merge our experiences as the need to design and build marine structures differently is urgent. It is also with modesty that we propose this work to readers, without claiming it to be exhaustive or the absolute truth. We simply provide a testimony and methodological tracks that we have tested in the field, with actors involved in development.
We would like to thank Régis Dumay, Marie Salgues, Jean Bougis, Philippe Saussol and Jean-Marie Miossec for their active help in the elaboration of this book, as well as the company Beuchat for the diving equipment. A special thought for Françoise Gaill for her constant support. We would also like to thank all the contributors who shared their testimonies with us in order to make this book a moment of sharing of experiences in France and abroad, which we hope the readers will appreciate:
– Alexandra Agostini, Anne Rioux, Aurore Léocadie, Osanne Paireau, Katherine A. Dafforn (Australia), Louise Firth (UK) and Shimrit Perkol-Finkel (Israel);
– André Grosset, Bernard Sigros, Cyril Giraudel, Cyrille Taioni, Etienne Cunge, Fabrice Javel, Frédéric Martarèche, Jean-Louis Gaziello, Jean-Michel Cathala, Michel Fons, Patrick Guiraud, Pierre Roy, Romaric Vicente, Marcel Stive (Netherlands), Jean-Luc Nguyen (Monaco) and Richard Spieler (USA).
May this modest work inspire us to think differently and to eco-design marine works, for the mutual benefit of the sea and humankind.
1Principles and Genesis of Maritime Eco-design
The global ecological crisis is concomitant with the Anthropocene, this new geological era in which humans have become the central actors of pressures on the planet (Crutzen 2006). Indeed, the recent IPBES report (IPBES 2019) makes a damning assessment of the state of biodiversity since the beginning of the industrial era two centuries ago: 75% of the land has been altered by humans (one-third of the land consuming three-quarters of the available water resources is agricultural), 66% of the oceans are threatened by humans and more than 85% of wetlands have been destroyed. It is therefore our actions on this unique planet that are holding back our own future. The logic of this observation would lead us to stop, or at least to slow down, the well-known causes of this disaster (in decreasing order): (1) artificialization and land use; (2) resource exploitation (fishing, forestry, etc.); (3) climate change; (4) pollution (plastics, chemical residues, etc.); and (5) invasive species (IPBES 2019). Thus, artificialization and land use would be our main problem. In addition to agriculture, it is the issue of urbanization and its consequences (cities, ports, mines, industries and roads) that is the most important because it leads to an artificialization of environments that is difficult to reverse. If we look at the forecasts, we can see not only a continuity but also an acceleration of global urbanization, both on the continents and at sea. No less than 60,000 billion US dollars will be invested in infrastructure between 2019 and 2040 (in the 56 countries representing 88% of the world’s GDP (Global Infrastructure Hub and Oxford Economics 2017)), more than 1.2 million km2 will be urbanized by 2030, in just 10 years, that is, an increase of 185% compared to 1970–2000 (Seto et al. 2012), and 3–4.7 million km2 of roads will be created by 2050, an increase of 25% compared to the current annual rate (Meijer et al. 2018).
This phenomenon is particularly prevalent in coastal areas, as 8 of the 10 global megacities are located on shores, such as Lagos, Tokyo, Jakarta and New York. The global maritime infrastructure footprint was approximately 32,000 km2 in 2018 (Bugnot et al. 2021). It is expected to reach 39,400 km2 by 2028, a territory equivalent to the state of Bhutan! However, the area of seascapes impacted by these structures was also estimated to be between 1 and 3.4 million km2 in 2018, with an increase of 50–70% expected by 2028, which is comparable to the global extent of urbanized areas (estimated at 0.02–1.7% of the land mass (Bugnot et al. 2021)). On the French coast, the rate of occupation doubled between 1965 and 19801. Between 2000 and 2006, no less than 6,809 ha were destroyed for the construction of harbors, dikes, embankments and other structures2. For example, in Hérault, a department in the Occitanie region, close to the Mediterranean Sea (southern France), the level of urbanization in 2015 on a narrow coastal strip of 15 km was close to 70%, with no less than three-quarters of the population concentrated there (DREAL Occitanie). In the international literature, we speak of a global “coastal squeeze”. This phrase, introduced by Doody (2004), is based on the threat to coastal development caused by the dual effect of rising sea levels and the explosion of human activities. There is an incoherence between human and the needs of our planet, especially in the urgent matter of the artificialization of natural environments, notably coastal ones. Urbanization remains the result of a development that is still too predatory of space.
Faced with the enormous challenge of a renaturation of culture (Pelt 1977), for a livable future of humankind, it becomes crucial to improve the consideration of biodiversity in territorial planning projects. We will focus here on the potential for nature-friendly planning, trying to integrate its functional needs as a fully-fledged objective in the design of infrastructures.
1.1. Principles of maritime eco-design
The actions taken to allow for the “natural” environment (we will use this term here in relation to the word “ecosystem”) for the operation of maritime works are varied. In the case of ports, these include the control and reduction of discharges, energy, sediment, waste and water management, environmental management plans (compliant since 2013), natural infrastructure master plans – including a natural heritage master plan – and Natura 2000 operators within the port perimeter (e.g. the Grand Port Maritime of Dunkirk).
At the same time, several tools designed to provide (voluntary) environmental certification are also available to project owners: AFAQ Clean Ports, ISO 14001, Blue Flag and the latest “Clean Port” certification active in biodiversity3, in March 2018. These certifications are often accompanied by communication programs, such as the “Green Port”4, “Year of Biodiversity” and “Port Biodiversity Index”, or information panels and stands proposed by the ports’ sustainable development departments, suppliers of “eco-” equipment or operators (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1.Public presentation panel on port biodiversity in the port of Kernével, one of the first two ports in Brittany to be certified “Clean Ports Active in Biodiversity”5 in 2018 (photo: ©APPB)
Political actions or the dissemination of good environmental practices have been strengthened in recent years. At the international level, for example, we can cite the Working with Nature program (from the International Association of Ports and Canals, 2008), based in particular on the experience of Port 2000 in Le Havre and the numerous guides produced PIANC6 (2011a, 2019, 2020); the World Harbour Project7 (Steinberg et al. 2016), which brings together 15 ports around the issues of ecological engineering, nature-based solutions and the resilience of natural port environments; at the European level, the CWA 16987 (Clean Harbour Guidelines); and at the national level, the reflections initiated as part of the Grenelle mission on the “Port of the Future” (led by CEREMA8), or regional variations, such as for the major seaport of Marseilles and the “GIREL” 9 research program, which was carried out in 2010.
In spite of these virtuous impulses, in the field, during the first design phases of a project, the objectives are primarily to propose a structure that meets technical constraints (resistance, durability) with a controlled cost, aligned with socio-economic objectives that meet a functional need: a marina or a commercial port, an offshore wind turbine, a breakwater, an offshore wastewater treatment plant, etc. The environmental question is applied to justificatory and secondary considerations which are dealt with once the technical and socio-economic choices have been made, under regulatory “constraint” (Airoldi et al. 2021).
This is where the purpose of eco-design, or oekodesign10, takes root, for its objective is to design a project, from sketch or feasibility phases (within the meaning of Act no. 85-704 of July 12, 1985, on public contracting and its relationship with private contracting, known as the MOP Act), according to ecological performance or co-benefit objectives. The aim is not to “wipe the slate clean” for the past but, based on technical engineering knowledge, to introduce biophysical considerations, in connection with the need to protect and develop the natural environment in the project to develop the sea.
1.2. Definition of eco-design of marine infrastructures
The eco-design of marine infrastructures is the result of recent cultural evolutions, as mentioned above. It is part of the interdisciplinary field of ecological engineering, which includes human sciences (geo-planning, law), engineering sciences (civil engineering, materials science) and natural sciences (biology, ecology). It responds to a major challenge for responsible human societies and biodiversity managers.
For Francis and Lorimer (2011), reconciling human and non-human in the project of developing urban territories, by integrating the conservation of nature, is undoubtedly the greatest challenge of the 21st century. For these same authors, the contribution of ecological engineering, a discipline that is still in its infancy in terms of the solutions it proposes, is a decisive factor in ecodevelopment. It was Odum, in 1962, in the context of his work on energy flows in marine ecosystems, who proposed the term “ecological engineering” (Odum et al. 1963). The most widely accepted definition today is that of B. Mitsch, a student of Odum, associated with S.E. Jørgensen (Mitsch and Jørgensen 1989): “Ecological engineering uses ecology and engineering to predict, design, construct or restore, and manage ecosystems that integrate human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both.”
The intimate link between ecology, land use planning and civil engineering is underlined by Van Bohemen (2004) who makes it the key to its diffusion and application. According to Bergen et al. (2001), the design of development projects must integrate the issues of human societies in an ecological approach, for a mutual human–nature benefit, following steps that ratify its application, the first three of which are:
1) design in accordance with ecological principles;
2) design adapted to the environmental specificity of each site;
3) maintaining the functional requirements of the structures, regardless of environmental requirements.
While ecological engineering includes eco-design in its definition, this term seems important to us because it underlines a crucial aspect in the success of a project benefiting human and nature; that is, to apply ecological concerns at the feasability step, to guide the project design from the beginning. Indeed, all too often, so-called eco-designed infrastructures take into account environmental aspects once the technical-economic aspects have been resolved (Figure 1.2).
According to the French engineers’ union Syntec Ingénierie, this approach can be defined as follows: “Eco-design is the technical design of projects by also considering global and local ecological concerns”. It is “an approach that can be applied to a large number of sectors, without generating additional costs in the long run” (Les Cahiers de l’Ingénierie 201011).
We will complete this definition with the idea that ecological added value can also improve the technical performance of a structure, as a co-benefit. This would be the case, for example, of a desired effect of bioprotection of an eco-designed quay enabling, by its colonization, the promotion of protection of concrete from chloride ions (gain on the aging of the structure which is avoided).
Figure 1.2.Eco-design project methodology (top blue arrow) compared to a standard approach (middle slice of the figure)12. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/pioch/marine.zip
We will therefore propose as a definition of eco-design of marine infrastructures the process of “designing sustainable maritime development projects with precise/specific technical and ecological functions13, which generate socioecosystemic co-benefits, without generating additional costs in the long term”.
It also seems important to us to address an aesthetic aspect for better integration into the underwater landscape. The aesthetic question of an object placed within a still “natural” environment, the seabed, seems essential to us. Indeed, addressing the “classic” needs of development meets precise rules of art, currently the subject of specifications, never integrating values of landscape aesthetics. However, the “beautiful” and “good” are always at the center of the concerns of humans, when they have the ambition to see their creations endure in the objective of being “well-made” and when they have the financial means to fully undertake this ambition. The morphologies of submerged elements are resolutely human and far from the soft forms usually found under the sea: cubes, trapezoids, beams, chaotic heaps, etc. A landscape approach would allow a better visual integration of these developments under the sea and undoubtedly a better acceptance of projects by the concerned actors and the general public. The contributions of bio-inspiration, more modest than the idea of biomimicry, can also usefully be called upon here, not only in terms of mechanisms that favor biodiversity (roughness, quality of materials, etc.), but also in terms of the overall visual aspect of a structure in a natural underwater environment. An eco-designed structure is a structure whose forms are bio-inspired and which integrates ecosystem conservation objectives into its functions, as well as its technical functions.
PIANC also emphasizes the need to design works according to the concept of sustainable development and publishes professional recommendations with this in mind (PIANC 2011a). This is the idea of “working with nature”, developed by Dorien Korbee, which is defined as:
an integrated process which involves working to identify and exploit win-win solutions which respect nature and are acceptable to both project proponents and environmental stakeholders. It is a philosophy which needs to be applied early in a project when flexibility is still possible (PIANC 2011b).
Nature-based solutions, popularized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), include infrastructure eco-design in their definition (Cohen-Shacham et al. 2016): “Nature-based solutions are actions built on ecosystems to address global challenges such as climate change or natural risk management”, for example, the biogenic seawall for coastline protection (Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3.Diagram of the definition of nature-based solutions, proposed by the IUCN, where “conventional” infrastructure is cited as an application (Cohen-Shacham et al. 2016). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/pioch/marine.zip
Internationally, our definition of eco-design is related to the terms “green engineering”, “eco-engineering”, “nature-based solution” and “eco-design” (Pioch et al. 2018). It now seems interesting to us to better draw the spirit of this approach from the sources of inspiration of eco-design dedicated to marine environments, through the Japanese experience.
1.3. Japanese inspiration
It is in Japan, an archipelago country turned by necessity towards the sea, where the observation of nature is an art as much as a deep aspiration, that the ideas on the development of the seabed have been developed.
It was around the 17th century, during the reign of Emperor Jôo, that fish houses, reefs and artificial fishing habitats were built near the coast. It is within this culture of Sato-umi, literally “the sea where people live”, and this vision of a fertile and rich sea for those who know how to change it that the Japanese idea of eco-design was developed (Yanagi 2012).
The very root of the word œkodesign (oikos, from the Greek word for home or house) is completely in line with that of Sato-umi, based around the notions conveyed by ecumene14 and ecology. We can also find in this vision the inspiration developed by Rosenzweig and Michael (2003) for the ecology of reconciliation, where biodiversity and human development are closely intertwined in our “common home”.
1.3.1. Influence of the Japanese vision for sea-friendly development projects
François Doumenge15, in his book Le Japon et l’exploitation de la mer (1961), was impressed by “the incredible creativity of this people towards maritime productive development”. He emphasized the empirical and traditional approach of Asian societies, where the observation of nature, expressed in the Shinto spiritual tradition (or Kani-michi
