Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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• Sprache: Englisch

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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

Comprehensive and timely, Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Technology and Applications provides the most up to date information on the various edible mushrooms on the market. Compiling knowledge on their production, application and nutritional effects, chapters are dedicated to the cultivation of major species such as Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus, Agaricus subrufescens,  Lentinula edodes, Ganoderma lucidum  and others. With contributions from top researchers from around the world, topics covered include:

• Biodiversity and biotechnological applications
• Cultivation technologies
• Control of pests and diseases
• Current market overview
• Bioactive mechanisms of mushrooms
• Medicinal and nutritional properties

Extensively illustrated with over 200 images, this is the perfect resource for researchers and professionals in the mushroom industry, food scientists and nutritionists, as well as academics and students of biology, agronomy, nutrition and medicine.

Leseprobe

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Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

Begin Reading

List of Tables

Chapter 4: Genetic Aspects and Strategies for Obtaining Hybrids

Table 4.1 Variation in type of basidia in two varieties of

Agaricus bisporus

(button mushroom).

Chapter 7: Casing Materials and Techniques in Agaricus bisporus Cultivation

Table 7.1 Interrelated factors involved in mushroom fruiting.

Table 7.2 Main parameters and methods used in the analysis of casing soils and their components.

Chapter 10: New Technology in Agaricus bisporus Cultivation

Table 10.1 Sample of managing environmental conditions for fruiting of

A. bisporus

for the fresh market.

Chapter 14: Mushroom Farm Design and Technology of Cultivation

Table 14.1 Edible specialty mushrooms/optimum temperature for cultivation.

Chapter 16: Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus

Table 16.1 Species of

Pleurotus

spp. commercially or experimentally cultivated around the world.

Table 16.2 Nutritional composition (fat, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and protein) of different edible mushrooms (numbers are percent of the fresh weight).

Chapter 17: Characteristics, Production, and Marketing of the Sun Mushroom: The New Medicinal Cultivated Mushroom

Table 17.1 Yield (kg mushroom/12 kg of compost) obtained for five strains of Sun mushroom in three different composts.

Table 17.2 Formulation of Sun mushroom compost, for the final production of 15 tons; first and second formulation “without manure,” and third formulation classic compost.

Table 17.3 Operations to be carried out during composting (first formulation).

Table 17.4 Values of yield (kg of mushrooms/12 kg of compost); unit weight of mushrooms (yield divided by the number of mushroom), and number of mushrooms (collected in 12 kg of compost).

Table 17.5 Recommended environmental conditions for the cultivation of Sun mushrooms after casing application.

Table 17.6 Price of the most commonly cultivated mushroom species in different countries, comparing them to the commercial price of Sun mushrooms in Brazil.

Table 17.7 Mycochemicals characteristics of mushrooms depending on physiological and morphologic characteristics.

Chapter 21: Chemical, Nutritional, and Bioactive Potential of Mushrooms

Table 21.1 Approximate composition and energy values of wild and cultivated mushroom species.

Table 21.2 Main fatty acids (relative percentages) found in wild and cultivated mushroom species.

Table 21.3 Main sugars (g/100 g dw) found in wild and cultivated mushroom species.

Table 21.4 Trace metals (µg/g dw) found in wild and cultivated mushroom species.

Table 21.5 Free amino acids (g/100 g dw) found in wild and cultivated mushroom species.

Table 21.6 Antioxidant activity of mushroom species.

Table 21.7 Antimicrobial activity of mushroom species.

Table 21.8 Antitumor activity of mushroom species.

Chapter 22: Medicinal Properties and Clinical Effects of Medicinal Mushrooms

Table 22.1 Levels of evidence.

Table 22.2 Therapeutic activities of medicinal mushroom compounds and extracts evaluated in clinical studies.

Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms

Technology and Applications

Edited by

Diego Cunha Zied

Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Brazil

Arturo Pardo-Giménez

Centro de Investigación, Experimentación y Servicios del Champiñón (CIES), Spain

This edition first published 2017

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List of Contributors

Edgardo Albertó

Laboratory of Mycology and Mushroom Cultivation

Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas-

Instituto Tecnológico Chascomús (UNSAM-CONICET)

Buenos AiresArgentina

Johan Baars

Wageningen UR, Plant Breeding WageningenNetherlands

Jos Buth

Viña del Mar

Region VChile

Ângela Fernandes

Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO)

ESA, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança

BragançaPortugal

Isabel C.F.R. Ferreira

Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO)

ESA, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança

BragançaPortugal

Francisco J. Gea

Centro de Investigación

Experimentación y Servicios del Champiñón (CIES)

Quintanar del Rey (Cuenca)Spain

Arcadio Gómez

Mushiberica Consultores

AlbaceteSpain

Sandrina A. Heleno

Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO)

ESA, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança

BragançaPortugal

Behari Lal Dhar

NNMushroom Consulting India/ICAR-Directorate of Mushroom Research SolanIndia

Shwet Kamal

ICAR-Directorate of Mushroom Research, SolanIndia

Kasper Moreaux

Mycelia, Spawn Production and School for Professionals in the Mycelium IndustryNeveleBelgium

María J. Navarro

Centro de Investigación

Experimentación y Servicios del Champiñón (CIES)

Quintanar del Rey (Cuenca)Spain

José Emilio Pardo González

Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos y de Montes (ETSIAM)

Universidad de Castilla-La ManchaAlbaceteSpain

Arturo Pardo-Giménez

Centro de Investigación

Experimentación y Servicios del Champiñón (CIES)

Quintanar del Rey (Cuenca)Spain

John Pecchia

Plant Pathology and Environmental Microbiology

Penn State University

University Park, PAUSA

Danny Lee Rinker

University of Guelph

Guelph, ONCanada

Manuela Rocha de Brito

Department of Biology, University of Lavras (UFLA)Brazil

Alma E. Rodriguez Estrada

Biology Department

Aurora University

Aurora, ILUSA

Daniel J. Royse

Department of Plant Pathology and Environmental Microbiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PAUSA

Raymond Samp

Agari-Culture Consulting Services

San MarcosTexasUSA

Manjit Singh

ICAR-Directorate of Mushroom Research, SolanIndia

Eustáquio Souza Dias

Department of Biology, University of Lavras (UFLA)Brazil

Qi Tan

Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences ShanghaiChina

Juan Valverde

Food Research and Technology Programme

Research and Development Department

Monaghan Mushrooms

MonaghanIreland

Solomon P. Wasser

Institute of Evolution and Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology

Faculty of Natural Sciences

University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel

and N.G. Kholodny Institute of Botany

National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine

KievUkraine

Katsuji Yamanaka

Director

Kyoto Mycological Institute

KyotoJapan

Xuan-Wei Zhou

School of Agriculture and Biology

Engineering Research Center of Cell & Therapeutic Antibody (Ministry of Education)

Shanghai Jiao Tong University

ShanghaiPeople’s Republic of China

Diego Cunha Zied

Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP)

São PauloBrazil

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all the people who contributed to the development of the chapters that make up this book and, in particular, to the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) in Brazil and the Patronato de Desarrollo Provincial of the Diputación de Cuenca and the Consejería de Agricultura, Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo Rural of Castilla-La Mancha in Spain, for their financial support for our research and allow for the advancement in science.

Preface

The term Mushrooming, or mushroom cultivation, refers to the intentional and directed production of mushrooms as a substitute for wild collection in fields and forests with a harvest under defined conditions of growing, resulting in strict quality control and food safety without risk of consumption of poisonous or toxic species, and with guaranteed benefits from fungi.

Although knowledge about the cultivation of edible and medicinal mushrooms is practically the same throughout the world, there are significant differences between countries and even within the same country. These are primarily associated with different socioeconomic conditions. In this way, just as there are large-scale growers, other smaller-scale plants act as a complement to the family economy, while very basic and rustic facilities coexist with others that operate on a high technological level.

This book involves a multidisciplinary approach that includes aspects of agriculture and agronomy, microbiology, biology, biotechnology, chemistry, environmental management, food technology, and health, among others. With a global and collaborative purpose, the book consists of 22 chapters written by 28 authors, from 15 different countries, who are recognized experts in the different areas that compose this activity. We thank them all for their participation.

The different areas of the science of cultivation are approached, so the book can serve as a tool for researchers, professors, technical specialists, and growers, and as an introduction for both students and anyone interested in the world of mushrooming knowledge as a business opportunity or out of simple curiosity.

Diego Cunha Zied, Ph.D.Professor and Head of Centro de Estudos em CogumelosFaculdade de Ciências Agrárias e TecnológicasUniversidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP – Campus de Dracena)Brazil

Arturo Pardo-Giménez, Ph.D.Researcher of Centro de Investigación, Experimentación y Servicios del ChampiñónPatronato de Desarrollo Provincial, Diputación Provincial de CuencaSpain

Chapter 1Mushrooms and Human Civilization

Behari Lal Dhar

NNMushroom Consulting India/ICAR-Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan, India

Mention of mushrooms has been reported in ancient literature since the inception of human civilization. Mushrooms find mention because of their wide range of properties from being poisonous to being beneficial and edible. Their poisonous nature was their most intriguing quality in early history. Throughout the centuries, poisonous fungi/mushrooms have remained a useful means of disposing of adversaries. Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) gives details of how the Emperor Claudius was poisoned by his fourth wife Julia Agrippina. Emperor Jonan followed in 364 AD, and Pope Clement VII in 1394. In addition, the antipope Urban VI, the French King Charles VI, and the German/Spanish king Joseph Ferdinand were all poisoned with mushrooms (van Griensven, 1988). Knowledge about fungi developed slowly. In the fourth century BC, Theophrastus gave a scientific description of fungi and considered these fungi as part of vegetable kingdom, even though they have no buds, leaves, or roots.

With the decline of classical civilization, interest in science also declined. The scholastics of the Middle Ages made no contribution to science. Scientific study made little progress in the Western World up until the late Middle Ages. Names were given, morphological descriptions were made, and mushrooms find mention as “surplus moisture from the ground and trees, from rotting wood and other things.” This particularly applies to edible varieties, through the influence of thunder, lightning, and rain (van Griensven, 1988).

In China, however, as early as 1245 AD, Chen Yen-Yu had published a fungus flora, describing in detail the development, morphology, seasonal influence, growing method, harvesting, and preparation (as food) for 15 varieties of mushrooms (Wang, 1987). In 1588 Giambattista Porta published his Phytognomoniica. He was the first person to describe the spores of fungi. Like his contemporaries, he held the view that parasitic plants, among which he counted tree mushrooms, were unnatural and could be used against lumps and tumors on human limbs (van Griensven, 1988).

According to Theophrastus, practically everything was missing from the mushroom, and eating mushrooms was therefore harmful to human body. Clausius (1525–1609) was the first to describe the Bird's Nest (Nidularia).

The “hidden power” of earth is responsible for the occurrence of mushrooms. That is why mushrooms were known as “excrementa terrae” in the seventeenth century. It was, of course, reprehensible to eat these excretions of the earth.

In the early seventeenth century, the Italian Count Margigi describes how a white, mold-like web appears when mushrooms and truffles are carefully dug up. He calls this web, which smells of mushrooms and has tiny buds, “situs” (Lutjehmas, 1936). By this time all edible mushrooms including truffles were found in Europe, collected from the wild.

The Chinese and the Japanese were probably the first to cultivate mushrooms professionally, and a brief description of history published in English (Wang, 1987) refers to Shiitake mushroom cultivation by Wang Zeng in 1313 AD. The culture of the paddy straw mushroom Volvariella volvacea is also centuries old.

Linnaeus (1707–1778) gave the field mushroom (white button) the name Agaricus campestris. Finally, in his Systema Mycologicum (Kleiju, 1961; Poppe, 1962), Elias Fries (1707–1778) gave a methodical description of all varieties of mushrooms known at that time (van Griensven, 1988).

1.1 Domestication of Mushrooms

The mushroom is the most important horticultural cash crop grown indoors, compared to other traditional crops grown outdoors, and is the only non-green crop grown for commerce with attractive profits. Mushroom is the fruit body of a fungus, which is neither a plant nor an animal, but has a separate kingdom of its own. Fungi as a broad group either live parasitically on plants and animals or live saprophytically on dead organic matter. Fungi cause numerous diseases of plants and animals and have been reported to cause considerable crop losses with tremendous suffering to mankind from time immemorial. The role of fungi as being beneficial to humans is of recent origin, with the generation of information on existence of microorganisms and their importance to man on Earth. Today, the science of study of mycological applications for human welfare has touched greater heights with the application of molecular biological techniques to improve useful fungal cultures of yeasts and mushrooms.

The fact that certain fungi are edible has been known for many centuries, and in various European countries up to 80 distinct varieties of wild fungi are offered for sale on the market (Pinkerton, 1954). Though many edible fungi have been domesticated and are in production, the most commonly cultivated are shiitake (Lentinula edodes), oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.), white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), black fungus or wood-ear mushrooms (Auricularia auricula and Auricularia polytricha) and paddy straw mushroom Volvariella spp. The cultivation of shiitake by Japanese on logs dates back at least 2000 years (Ainsworth, 1976), but button mushroom cultivation is comparatively recent. Today, the button mushroom is the most widely grown in many countries, although it is the fourth mushroom most produced in quantity (see chapter 2), with most of the development of cultivation technology confined to improving this mushroom for reasons of its larger acceptability by the consumer.

The first record of (button) mushroom cultivation dates back to Abercrombie (1779), who wrote that this plant is of so very singular growth and temperature, that unless a proper idea of its nature and habit is attained, and the peculiar methods and precautions pursued in the process of its propagation and culture, little success will ensue; the whole management of it differs remarkably from that of every other species of the vegetable kingdom; and it is the most liable of any to fail without very strict observance and care in the different stages of its cultivation.

Tournefort (1707) gave a comprehensive description of the commercial production of button mushrooms. These observations recorded in earlier times bear comparison with the methods used today. At that time mushrooms were cultivated on open ground, but around 1810, Chambry (a French gardener) began to cultivate mushrooms in underground quarries in Paris, all year round. Later Callow (1831) showed that mushroom production was possible all year round in England in rooms specially heated for the purpose. Callow gave details of the design of cropping houses (crediting it to Oldacre, a garden superintendent in UK) and later successfully grew mushrooms all year round in such a structure producing a yield of 7.3 kg m–2 in 24 weeks of cropping, as compared to mushroom yields of 10 kg m-2 obtained in 1950 in the UK. It is now accepted that protected cropping of mushrooms was pioneered in caves in France, though the earliest mushroom houses were developed in England.

Large-scale mushroom production is now centered in Europe, North American (USA, Canada), Australia, South East Asia (China, Korea, Indonesia, Taiwan), and South Asia (India). The notable contributions to mushroom science in recent times were made at the beginning of the twentieth century when pure cultures of button mushrooms were grown by Duggar (1905). Other notable contributions were the preparation of mushroom compost from agro-byproducts using the short method by Sinden and Hauser (1950, 1953).

Contributions by Fritsche (1985) in breeding two new strains of white button mushroom A. bisporus U-1 and U-3 revolutionized commercial mushroom growing across the world. With the refinement of cultivation technology of button mushrooms on a continuing scale, it was possible to harvest more and more quantities of mushrooms per unit area/unit weight of compost. Demonstration of steam pasteurization of mushroom compost in bulk (Derks, 1973) further helped commercial mushroom growing to increase the productivity per unit area/unit weight of compost.

Finally, increased understanding of crop management techniques resulted in substantial increases in mushroom yields per unit weight of compost in a reduced cropping period, thereby giving greater profitability to the mushroom grower. Today, mushroom growers worldwide have a wide range of button mushroom cultivars available for cultivation. Computer control of cropping room environments for climate creation/simulation has made it possible to harvest mushroom yields of 30–45 kg from 100 kg compost within a cropping period of 3–4 weeks in 2–4 flushes.

With the introduction of the use of phase-I aerated bunkers for environmental protection, the composting process has become precision controlled with reduced emission of foul harmful gases without affecting mushroom yield. Use of indoor aerated bunkers has become very popular all over the world for reasons of economy in addition to being environmentally friendly. Phase-I bunkers are less space demanding and less labor oriented than traditional outdoor phase-I ricks, with the advantage of lower emission of foul gases during solid state fermentation controlled by restricted/controlled oxygen availability in the bunker.

A current science of mushrooms is presented in detail in this book, along with specific approaches in the main species of cultivated mushrooms and their technologies in different countries and continents. All steps and applications of “mushrooming” are detailed in the following 21 chapters.

References

Abercrombie J. (1779).

The Garden Mushroom, Its Nature and Cultivation

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Ainsworth GC . (1976).

Introduction to the History of Mycology

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Callow E. (1831).

Observations on methods now in use for the artificial growth of mushrooms, with a full explanation of an improved mode of culture

. Fellowes: London. (Reprinted, 1965, by W. S. Maney and Son Ltd: Leeds),

Derks G. (1973). 3-phase-1.

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Duggar BM . (1905). The principles of mushroom growing and mushroom spawn making.

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Fritsche G. (1985). Breeding mushroom strains.

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Poppe JA . (1962). De champignonteelt en haar problem. Thesis for degree of agriculture engineer. Ghent Agricultural College. (Mushroom cultivation and its problems).

Sinden JW and Hauser E . (1950). The short method of mushroom composting.

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Sinden JW and Hauser E . (1953). The nature of the composting process and its relation to short composting.

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Chapter 2Current Overview of Mushroom Production in the World

Daniel J. Royse1, Johan Baars2 and Qi Tan3

1Department of Plant Pathology and Environmental Microbiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

2Wageningen UR, Plant Breeding, Wageningen, Netherlands

3Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China

Edible, medicinal, and wild mushrooms are the three major components of the global mushroom industry. Combined, the mushroom industry was valued at approximately $63 billion in 2013. Cultivated, edible mushrooms are the leading component (54%) accounting for approximately $34 billion, while medicinal mushrooms make up 38% or $24 billion and wild mushroom account for $5 billion or 8% of the total (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1 Components (edible, medicinal, and wild) of the world mushroom industry based on percentage of total value ($63 billion) (2013).

World production of cultivated, edible mushrooms has increased more than 30-fold since 1978 (from about 1 billion kg in 1978 to 34 billion kg in 2013). This is an extraordinary accomplishment, considering the world's population has increased only about 1.7-fold during the same period (from about 4.2 billion in 1978 to about 7.1 billion in 2013). Thus, per capita consumption of mushrooms has increased at a relatively rapid rate, especially since 1997, and now exceeds 4.7 kg annually (vs 1 kg in 1997;