Edible Oil Processing E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 540

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Oils and fats are almost ubiquitous in food processing, whether naturally occurring in foods or added as ingredients that bring functional benefits. Whilst levels of fat intake must be controlled in order to avoid obesity and other health problems, it remains the fact that fats (along with proteins and carbohydrates) are one of the three macronutrients and therefore an essential part of a healthy diet.

The ability to process oils and fats to make them acceptable as part of our food supplies is a key component in our overall knowledge of them. Without this ability, the food that we consume would be totally different, and much of the flexibility available to us as a result of the application of processing techniques would be lost. Obviously we need to know how to process fatty oils, but we also need to know how best to use them once they have been processed. 

This second edition of Edible Oil Processing presents a valuable overview of the technology and applications behind the subject. 
It covers the latest technologies which address new environmental and nutritional requirements as well as the current state of world edible oil markets. 

This book is intended for food scientists and technologists who use oils and fats in food formulations, as well as chemists and technologists working in edible oils and fats processing. 

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

List of Contributors

List of Abbreviations

Introduction

Chapter 1: Composition and Properties of Edible Oils

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Components of natural fats

1.3 Fatty acid composition

1.4 Physical properties

1.5 Chemical properties

1.6 Effect of processing on food oil components

References

Chapter 2: Bulk Movement of Edible Oils

2.1 Oil production and exports

2.2 Cargo damage

2.3 Quality of oils shipped

2.4 Codex Alimentarius

2.5 Oil shipments: systems and regulations

2.6 Shore storage

2.7 Movement and storage costs

2.8 Refinery location

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 3: Production of Oils

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Seed handling and storage

3.3 Preparation of oilseeds

3.4 Preparation of soybean

3.5 Preparation and pressing of rapeseed (canola)

3.6 Preparation and pressing of sunflower seed

3.7 Full pressing

3.8 Oil from other seeds

3.9 Olive oil production

3.10 Palm oil production

Chapter 4: Solvent Extraction

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Solvent extractor

4.3 Meal desolventiser toaster

4.4 Meal dryer cooler

4.5 Miscella distillation system

4.6 Solvent recovery system

4.7 Heat recovery

References

Chapter 5: Edible Oil Refining: Current and Future Technologies

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Next-generation chemical refining with nanoneutralisation

5.3 Enzymatic degumming: a missing link in the physical refining of soft oils?

5.4 Bleaching: from single-stage colour removal to multistage adsorptive purification

5.5 Deodorisation: much more than just a process for the removal of off-flavours

5.6 Short-path distillation and supercritical processing: refining technologies for the future?

References

Chapter 6: Oil Modification Processes

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Hydrogenation

6.3 Interesterification

6.4 Dry fractionation

References

Chapter 7: Enzyme Processing

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Enzyme applications before oil refining

7.3 Applications within edible oil modification

7.4 Improving processing sustainability through enzyme usage

References

Chapter 8: Application of Edible Oils

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Physical chemistry of triacylglycerides

8.3 Fat crystal networks

8.4 Design of functional TAG compositions

8.5 Application in fat-continuous emulsions (spreads)

8.6 Application in water-continuous emulsions

8.7 Application in other fat-continuous products

8.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9: Quality and Food Safety Assurance and Control

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Analytical methods for measuring oil and fat composition

9.3 Quality analyses

9.4 Supply chain contaminants

9.5 Quality and food safety assurance

References

Chapter 10: Oil Processing Design Basics

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Refining and modification process routes for most common oil types

10.3 Oil processing block diagram design

10.4 Effective equipment capacity

10.5 Tank park design rules

10.6 Design estimates for utilities consumptions and effluent production

10.7 Occupational safety by design

References

Further Reading

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 8

Chapter 10

Index

This edition first published 2013

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Cover image: Main image © Desmet BallestraOil and water © Thomas Vogel/istockphoto.comOilseed rape © Matthew Dixon/istockphoto.com

Cover design by Meaden Creative

List of Contributors

Dr Arjen Bot, Unilever R&D Vlaardingen, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands

Dr Gijs Calliauw, Development Manager Modification, Desmet Ballestra Oils and Fats, Zaventem, Belgium

Dr David Cowan, CS Application Scientist/Global Coordinator, Novozymes, Chesham, UK

Dr Wim De Greyt, R&D Manager, Desmet Ballestra Oils and Fats, Zaventem, Belgium

Gerrit den Dekker, Retired, Unilever R&D Vlaardingen, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands

Professor Eckhard Flöter, Technical University Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Frank D. Gunstone, Professor emeritus, St Andrews University, St Andrews, UK

Wolf Hamm, Retired, Harpenden, UK

Dr Marc Kellens, Group Technical Director, Desmet Ballestra Oils and Fats, Zaventem, Belgium

Timothy G. Kemper, Global Technical Director, Solvent Extraction, Desmet Ballestra, Marietta, GA, USA

Philippe van Doosselaere, Retired (formerly Product Manager, Crushing, Desmet Ballestra Oils and Fats), Brussels, Belgium

Dr Gerrit van Duijn, Maas Refinery, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Mar Verhoeff, Laboratory Dr A. Verwey B.V., Rotterdam, The Netherlands

List of Abbreviations

ADI

Acceptable Daily Intake

ARfD

Acute Reference Dose

AMF

Anhydrous Milk Fat

ALARA

As Low As Reasonably Achievable

ATEX

Atmospheres Explosive

AES

Atomic Emission Spectroscopy

Barg

Bar gauge

CBE

Cocoa Butter Equivalents

CBI

Cocoa Butter Improvers

CBS

Cocoa Butter Substitutes

DSC

Differential Scanning Calorimetry

DHA

4,7,10,13,16,19-Docosahexaenoic acid

DACC

Donor Accepted Column Chromatographic

DOBI

Deterioration of Bleachability Index

EPA

5,8,11,14,17-Eicosapentaenoic Acid

ECD

Electron Capture Detection

EDTA

Ethylene Diamine Tetra-acetic Acid

EU-27

European Union – 27

FOSFA

Federation of Oils, Seeds and Fats Associations

FID

Flame Ionisation Detection

FFA

Free Fatty Acids

GCFID

Gas Chromatography–Flame Ionisation Detection

GC-MS

Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry

GPC

Gel Permeation Chromatography

HACCP

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points

HAZOP

Hazard and Operational Study

HPLC

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

ICP

Inductively Coupled Plasma

IMO

International Maritime Organization

MARPOL

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

ISO

International Organization for Standardization

LOD

Limit of Determination

LDL

Low-Density Lipoprotein

MRL

Maximum Residue Limits (s)

3-MCPD

3-Monochloropropane-diol

NIOP

National Institute of Oilseeds Products

NORES

Neutral Oil Recovery System

NPD

Nitrogen Phosphorus Detection

BOB

2-Oleo-1.3-dibehenin

EO

Operational Efficiency

PFAD

Palm Fatty Acid Distillate

PFR

Plug-Flow Reactor

PAHs

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

PG

Propyl allate

POP

Oleo-dipalmitin

POS

Oleo-palmitin – stearin

POSt

Oleo-palmitin – stearin

PStP

Stearo-dipalmitin

SSHEs

Scraped-Surface Heat Exchangers

Silver-ion HPLC

Silver ion High Performance Liquid Chromatography

SFC

Solid Fat Content

SBDD

Soybean Deodoriser Distillate

SOS

Oleo-distearin

SUS

Saturated Unsaturated Saturated triglyceride

StOSt

Oleo-distearin

UUS

Unsaturated Unsaturated Saturated triglyceride

USU

Unsaturated Saturated Unsaturated triglyceride

USS

Unsaturated Saturated Saturated triglyceride

TBHQ

Tertiary Butyl hydroquinone

Introduction

In the years since the first edition of Edible Oil Processing was published (in 2000), there have been many changes in the processing of oils. Two major factors have been involved: first, the need to reduce the hydrogenated fats in food products, and second, the move to use enzymes. These two issues both originate from an overall increased awareness of the possible impact of processing on consumers' health and on the environment. This edition tries to bring this awareness, and the way in which it has altered the nature of edible oil processing, to the forefront of the discussion.

In Chapter 1, Gunstone outlines the makeup of fats and oils, from the major components such as triacylglycerols (TAGs) to minor constituents such as squalene. He illustrates the changes in oils that have been obtained by seed breeding procedures, such as Nu Sun oil. He also deals with the physical properties on which much of the processing of oils is based.

In Chapter 2, Hamm explains how multi-compartmented parcel tankers play a major role in the transport of oils and fats. He highlights the systems and regulations pertaining to oil shipments, and he deals with the role of FOSFA and NIOP in greater detail than in the first edition.

In Chapter 3, van Doosselaere describes how important seed handling and storage are to the overall production of good-quality oils. In sampling incoming seeds, moisture, foreign material, damaged or broken seeds, protein content and oil content must all be controlled. He explains the methods of storing seeds used to maintain their high quality. Preparation and extraction of seeds are covered in a general way before the special care that must be taken for soybean, rapeseed, cottonseed, corn germ, copra, peanut, rice bran, olive and of course palm oils is discussed.

In Chapter 4, Kemper describes how hexane became the industry's solvent of choice for the extraction of oils, and considers the effects of various plant and processing parameters on solvent extraction plant performance. He also records how important solvent recovery and heat recovery are to the overall economy of the process. The chapter provides a comprehensive overview of solvent extraction as used in edible oil production.

In Chapter 5, De Greyt deals with the refining of food oils in a sustainable manner. He explains how new technologies have become available and how some have been employed commercially, such as hydrodynamic Nano Reactors and enzymatic degumming. Some processes are still at the pilot plant stage, such as the use of chlorophyllases. He finishes with a look at the future for short-path distillation and supercritical processing, and what this might bring to this field of oil processing.

In Chapter 6, Kellens and Calliauw describe how hydrogenation, interesterification and fractional crystallisation are still used to modify oils and fats. Health concerns have led to a large reduction (6–30 million tonnes) in the amount of oil being hydrogenated, and the authors touch on the proposed newer methods of cutting down on trans fatty acid composition. They elaborate on the discussion of fractional crystallisation given in the first edition, examining everything from intersolubility to industrial practice, and noting that multistage processing and continuous operation hold the most promise for oil modification technology.

In Chapter 7, Cowan shows the considerable change that has occurred in the use of enzymes since the first edition of this book. By using gene transfer between microorganisms and low-cost immobilisation techniques, it has been possible to move the technology from one restricted to high-value products to one with much wider applications. He covers the use of cellulases, proteolytic enzymes, phospholipases, esterase and lipases, and considers their environmental impacts.

Chapter 8 deals with the applications of edible oils and the considerable reformulation resulting from the reduction of the use of hydrogenated oils. Bot and Flöter also explain fat crystal networks, the polymorphic changes in spreads, the lower-fat versions of mayonnaises and the use of tropical fats in nondairy creams.

Verhoeff and van Duijn concisely describe in Chapter 9 the methods used to measure the natural components of edible oils, including free fatty acids (FFA), peroxides, phosphorus, moisture, dirt, colour, metals and tocopherols, as well as contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, hydrocarbons and mycotoxins. The authors go on to describe the crude oil risk matrix and finish with a consideration of hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP).

In Chapter 10, van Duijn and den Dekker explain the steps needed to decide whether the building of a new refinery can be justified. They outline the process routes to a fully refined oil based on lowest costs. Batch and continuous processes and chemical and physical refining are contrasted, and the design parameters for storage tanks and piping are fully covered. The authors provide estimates based on best-practice data, which can be used for first-design purposes. They then explain that occupational safety hazards must be considered from an early stage in the planning.

Wolf HammRichard J. HamiltonGijs Calliauw

Chapter 1

Composition and Properties of Edible Oils

Frank D. Gunstone

Professor emeritus, St Andrews University, St Andrews, UK

1.1 Introduction

According to US Department of Agriculture (USDA) statistics, the production of nine vegetable oils from seven seeds and from palm fruit and olive was 153 million tonnes worldwide in 2010/11 (Table 1.1). In addition, production of four animal fats (butter, lard, tallow and fish oil) amounted to about 25 million tonnes. Over time, animal fats have fallen in market share, and they now make up only 15% of total annual production. Among vegetable oils, palm, soya, rape and sun oils have become increasingly important, with palm and soya dominant (Table 1.1). It is interesting that these four vegetable oils are produced in different parts of the world (Table 1.2). It should also be noted that crops grown in the southern and northern hemispheres are harvested at different times of the year, with the exception that palm oil is produced in all months of the year. This is particularly significant for soybeans, grown predominately in North and South America. Palm oil and olive oil are obtained by pressing the fruits in the countries where they grow, and trade is confined to the oil or to downstream products. Exports/imports of vegetable oils represent 41% of total production, but there is also considerable trade in unprocessed seeds (24%), especially in soybeans, with extraction occurring in the importing country.

Table 1.1 Annual production of major vegetable oils (million tonnes) between 2007/08 and 2010/11, 2011/12 (estimate) and 2012/13 (forecast).

Table 1.2 Major geographical regions for the production of oilseeds and vegetable oils in 2011/12.

Product

Weight (million tonnes)

Major producing countries/regions (percentage of total)

Seven oilseeds

Total

437.0

Soya

236.4

USA (35), Brazil (28), Argentina (18), China (6), India (5)

Rape

60.7

EU-27 (31), Canada (23), China (21), India (11)

Sunflower

39.1

Russia (25), Ukraine (24), EU-27 (21), Argentina (9)

Cottonseed

46.6

China, India, USA, Pakistan

Groundnut

35.5

China, India

Palm kernel

13.3

Indonesia, Malaysia

Copra

a

5.5

Philippines, Indonesia, India

Nine vegetable oils

b

Total

153.48

Palm

50.67

Indonesia (50), Malaysia (37), Thailand (3)

Soya

41.85

China (25), USA (21), Argentina (17), Brazil (17), EU-27 (5), India (4)

Rape

23.76

EU-27 (37), China (23), Canada (12), India (10), Japan (4)

Sunflower

14.14

Ukraine (26), Russia (23), EU-27 (21), Argentina (10)

Cottonseed

5.32

China (28), India (23), USA (6)

Groundnut

5.24

China (48), India (26)

Palm kernel

5.84

Indonesia, Malaysia

Coconut

3.56

Philippines, Indonesia, India

Olive

3.10

EU-27 (77)

aCopra is the source of coconut oil.

bVegetable oils may be extracted from indigenous and/or imported seeds.

Source: USDA figures (June 2012).

Oils and fats are used mainly for food purposes, but both oilseeds and extracted oil are also used in some part as animal feed. Oils also have industrial uses. Traditionally, these have been mainly in the production of soap and other surface-active molecules, but increasingly they are for energy-producing purposes, such as transport use by automobiles, trains, aeroplanes or boats, or the direct production of energy. These new uses underlie the food versus fuel debate (Gunstone, 2011).