Eighteenth Century Scotland E-Book

Tom M. Devine

• Herausgeber: John Donald
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Seitenzahl: 721

Beschreibung

This impressive collection of essays is based on a two-year seminar series of the Research centre in Scottish History at the University of Strathclyde. New and original research, as well as historiographical overviews and commentaries, illuminate the study of this formative century in the creation of modern Scotland. Contributors are leading figures in their fields, and the Scottish experience is examined within an international dimension. Topics include Scottish modernisation before the Industrial Revolution, the Union of 1707, Scotland and British expansion, Scottish Jacobitism, the Catholic underground, Scottish national identity, the Scottish Enlightenment, urbanisation, demographic change, Scottish Gaeldom, Highland estate management and tenant emigration, and Scottish radicalism. Contributors: Thomas M. Devine, John R. Young, Michael Fry, Allan I. Macinnes, James F. McMillan, Alexander Murdoch, Richard J. Finlay, Jane Rendall, Bernard Aspinwall, Ian D. Whyte, Robert E. Tyson, T. C. Smout, Andrew Mackillop, Christopher A. Whatley, Elaine W. McFarland.

Leseprobe

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SCOTLAND

EIGHTEENTHCENTURY SCOTLAND:NEW PERSPECTIVES

Edited by

T.M. Devine and J.R. Young

TUCKWELL PRESS

First published in Great Britain in 1999 by

Tuckwell Press

The Mill House

Phantassie

East Linton

East Lothian EH40 3DG

Scotland

Copyright © The Editors and Contributors severally, 1999

ISBN 978 1 78885 553 2

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available

on request from the British Library

Typeset by Hewer Text Ltd, Edinburgh

Printed and bound by Cromwell Press, Trowbridge, Wiltshire

ForMargaret Hastie

in appreciation of her outstanding service to theResearch Centre in Scottish History, University of Strathclyde

Contents

List of Contributors

1.Thomas M. Devine

PREFACE

2.Richard Saville

SCOTTISH MODERNISATION PRIOR TO THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, 1688–1763

3.John R. Young

THE PARLIAMENTARY INCORPORATING UNION OF I707: POLITICAL MANAGEMENT, ANTI-UNIONISM AND FOREIGN POLICY

4.Michael Fry

A COMMERCIAL EMPIRE: SCOTLAND AND BRITISH EXPANSION IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

5.Allan I. Macinnes

SCOTTISH JACOBITISM: IN SEARCH OF A MOVEMENT

6.James F. McMillan

MISSION ACCOMPLISHED? THE CATHOLIC UNDERGROUND

7.Alexander Murdoch

SCOTLAND AND THE IDEA OF BRITAIN IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

8.Richard J. Finlay

KEEPING THE COVENANT: SCOTTISH NATIONAL IDENTITY

9.Jane Rendall

CLIO, MARS AND MINERVA: THE SCOTTISH ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE WRITING OF WOMEN’S HISTORY

10.Bernard Aspinwall

WILLIAM ROBERTSON AND AMERICA

11.Ian D. Whyte

URBANIZATION IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY SCOTLAND

12.Robert E. Tyson

DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE

13.T.C. Smout

THE IMPROVERS AND THE SCOTTISH ENVIRONMENT: SOILS, BOGS AND WOODS

14.Thomas M. Devine

A CONSERVATIVE PEOPLE? SCOTTISH GAELDOM IN THE AGE OF IMPROVEMENT

15.Andrew Mackillop

HIGHLAND ESTATE CHANGE AND TENANT EMIGRATION

16.Christopher A. Whatley

THE DARK SIDE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT? SORTING OUT SERFDOM

17.Elaine W. McFarland

SCOTTISH RADICALISM IN THE LATER EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: ‘THE SOCIAL THISTLE AND SHAMROCK’

Index

List of Contributors

Bernard Aspinwall Honorary Research Fellow, Research Centre in Scottish History, University of Strathclyde

T.M. Devine University Research Professor in Scottish History and Director of the Research Institute of Irish and Scottish Studies, University of Aberdeen

R.J. Finlay Senior Lecturer in Scottish History and Director of the Research Centre in Scottish History, University of Strathclyde

Michael Fry Independent Scholar

A. Mackillop Lecturer in Scottish and Imperial History, University of Aberdeen

Alexander Murdoch Senior Lecturer in Scottish History, University of Edinburgh

Allan I. Macinnes Burnett-Fletcher Professor of History, University of Aberdeen

James F. McMillan Professor of European History, University of Strathclyde

Elaine W. McFarland Senior Lecturer in History, Glasgow Caledonian University

Jane Rendall Senior Lecturer in History, University of York

Richard Saville Lecturer in Modern History, University of St. Andrews

T.C. Smout Director of the Institute of Environmental History, University of St. Andrews and H.M. Historiographer Royal in Scotland

R.E. Tyson Senior Lecturer in Economic History, University of Aberdeen

Christopher A. Whatley Professor of History, University of Dundee

I.D. Whyte Professor of Geography, University of Lancaster

John R. Young Lecturer in Scottish History, University of Strathclyde and Assistant Director of the Research Centre in Scottish History, University of Strathclyde and Assistant Director of the Research Centre in Scottish History, University of Strathclyde

One

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Preface

T.M. DEVINE

FEW PERIODS CONTAIN as much interest and significance for the historian of Scotland as the eighteenth century. This was the time when the Union was forged with England and its longer-term political and economic effects started to become apparent. In the later decades of the century there were the first signs of the major industrial and agrarian changes which were soon to transform the way of life of the Scottish people. It was a time too of remarkable intellectual and cultural vitality which has come to be known as the Scottish Enlightenment, a period when Scots philosophers, historians and scientists were at the very cutting edge of European thought. Nearly thirty years ago, in their introduction to Scotland in the Age of Improvement (Edinburgh, 1970), still a valuable survey of key aspects of the eighteenth century, Rosalind Mitchison and Nicholas Phillipson lamented the absence of serious study of so many of the factors which helped to shape Scottish development in this seminal period. The same pessimistic verdict would not be as convincing in 1998. As part of the wider surge of interest in Scottish historical studies, major works have appeared on subjects as varied as the Union, Jacobitism, the Highlands, industrialisation, rural transformation and political radicalism. The Enlightenment itself has become a veritable cottage industry, attracting scholarly attention from Europe and North America as well as from students in Scottish universities.

This boom in research has inevitably produced revised views on old themes, new perspectives and fresh controversy. To encourage debate further on important issues the Research Centre in Scottish History at Strathclyde University organised a seminar in 1996–7 on Eighteenth Century Scotland to which many of the most influential researchers in the field were invited. This book is the edited proceedings of the seminar and is produced with the help of the participants. The volume is not to be seen as a textbook of eighteenth century Scottish history. Some key issues, such as education, are omitted and in other cases, such as the Enlightenment, the examination is confined to specialist aspects of a much broader and more complex subject. But a significant number of the classic themes of the eighteenth century, such as the Union of 1707, Jacobitism, Scottish Identity, Emigration, Radicalism, the Origins of Scottish Modernisation, the Highlands, the Improvers and Urbanisation are given treatment at length. It is intended, therefore, that the book should prove useful to undergraduate students and a general audience as well as to professional scholars working in the subject areas who wish an up-to-date critical coverage of important aspects of Scotland in the eighteenth century.

What general issues emerge from the collection? A concern of several writers was to place the Union in perspective by stressing that the Scottish economic miracle of the later eighteenth century, demonstrated in I.D. Whyte’s chapter on the extraordinary pace of urbanisation, did not depend exclusively on the benefits of 1707. The Union did not, in Michael Fry’s phrase, ‘change almost everything about Scotland as it raised her from primitive darkness into the light of modernity’. As Fry argues, to accept such a Whig conclusion would be to ignore the advances made before 1707 and the difficulties in the Anglo-Scottish relationship at least two decades after that date. Both Fry and Richard Saville trace Scottish imperial expansion and a national strategy of economic improvement to the later seventeenth century. Saville stresses that insufficient attention has been given to the Revolution of 1688–9 which proved a decisive break in economic policy and inaugurated, according to him, a new age of ‘economic politics’. The illstarred Darien Scheme, usually accounted an unmitigated disaster, fits into this new emphasis on national economic aggrandisement. The attempt to establish a Scottish settlement on the isthmus of Panama may have failed but the strategy to establish a commercial emporium was an original and visionary idea which collapsed because of incompetent planning and inefficient implementation.

Nevertheless, debate on the nature of the pre-Union economy and Scotland’s capacity ‘to go it alone’ without inclusion in England’s markets remains unresolved. While arguing that 1688–9 might have been a new start, Saville concludes that Scotland in 1707 was still a country ‘with exceptional economic problems’ induced by the bad harvests of the 1690s and the impact of war and mercantilism on Scottish trade. T.C. Smout’s analysis in this volume also suggests Scotland remained poor and the economy balanced precariously between sufficiency and severe shortage. When dearth did come in the last decade of the seventeenth century it triggered massive emigration to Ulster, increased mortality and an estimated 13 per cent fall in population. Smout concludes: ‘Revisionist historians and others who seek to put the brightening days of Scottish economic history decisively back to the seventeenth century need to come up with a better supported case’. In a sense, then, the balance between progress, stagnation and crisis in the years immediately before the Union remains an enigma and a question which deserves more research. Official policy was changing before 1705. Indeed, the turning can be pushed back further than Saville’s 1688 to the launching of colonial schemes to South Carolina and New Jersey in the reign of James VII and II during the 1680s. But the new ‘economic politics’ may have been temporarily aborted by the sheer magnitude of the crisis at the very end of the century.

The older historiography argued that these disasters had a decisive effect on the passage of the Parliamentary Union of 1707. The Scots were locked, so it was suggested, in a contracting economic vice while at the same time they had come to depend on English markets for the vital trades of cattle, wool, sheep, linen and coal. They, therefore, had little choice but to accept the terms of a closer association with Westminster. John Young shows that this deterministic interpretation is misleading because it fails to take account of the angry surge of protest against Union throughout both towns and rural localities in the Lowlands which alarmed the governing party in Scotland and the Westminster authority. This in turn resulted in a new emphasis on political management to ensure the progress of the Treaty through the Scottish Parliament and military preparations to protect English security in the event that popular unrest became uncontrollable.

The Union long remained unpopular and one of the most dramatic manifestations of dissent was Jacobitism which spawned major risings in 1715–6 and 1745–6 and minor ones in 1708 and 1719 in support of the exiled House of Stewart. Allan Macinnes demonstrates that Jacobitism is not only to be associated with Highland clanship as by no means all clans were Jacobite and among the most fervent supporters of the Stewarts were non-juring Episcopalians from the Lowland counties north of the Tay. Nevertheless, as Macinnes concedes, the clans bore ‘the brunt of the fighting and dying in the front lines during the major risings’. James McMillan’s study of Scottish Catholics, whose small numbers were mainly concentrated in the western Highlands and Islands, stresses their strong sympathy for the cause. Missionaries were ‘Jacobites to a man’ and Catholic priests were appointed chaplains to Bonnie Prince Charlie’s forces in the ’45 with the rank of captain. Ultimately, however, this intimate relationship between Jacobitism and Catholicism and the refusal of the Stewarts to renounce the old faith until after 1750 were key factors in their failure to effectively exploit Scottish disaffection with the Union. The presbyterian Church of Scotland, which brought majority Lowland opinion behind it, remained resolutely hostile throughout.

However, the death of Jacobitism as a political force soon led to its resurrection in another form. By the 1750s growing prosperity was consolidating the Union relationship. The historical debate in this later period concerns the development of Scotland’s identity as a stateless nation which had entered a politico-economic union with the most advanced society in Europe and feared for its sense of historic and cultural identity. A few decades after it had been ruthlessly crushed in 1746 Jacobitism started to develop ‘an emotional response for a stateless nation and by the early nineteenth century Jacobite song had become second only to love song in the popular canon. Bonnie Prince Charles was transformed into a national icon and the gallant clansmen who had fought and died at Culloden were now seen to have been heroic Scottish warriors rather than as heretical supports of the Catholic House of Stewart. Jacobitism’s most enduring impact was on the national psyche long after its political relevance had disappeared.

The sentimental appeal of Jacobitism was the manifestation of Scotland’s developing identity within the Union. But debate still rages on the timing and extent of Scottish acceptance of ‘Britishness’ in the eighteenth century. The chapters by Alexander Murdoch and Richard Finlay demonstrate how far we are from any consensus on this important issue. Both would probably agree that what emerged in the decades after c.1750 was a system of concurrent identities in which a continued sense of ‘Scottishness’ could coexist and interact with the growing influence of ‘Britishness’. What is more at issue, however, is the balance between the two identities and the extent to which the mass of the population as well as the elite had been affected. Finlay argues that ideas of North Britain were mainly confined to a small group and that more attention might be paid to the rampant Scottaphobia which existed in elite circles in ‘South Britain’. The common Protestantism of both England and Scotland should not be overemphasised as a force for unity. Protestantism can also be seen as a force for division given the presbyterian inheritance in Scotland and its traditional role in the formation of Scottish national identity.

However, in one important respect both England and Scotland were travelling the same route though at a somewhat different pace. By 1800 industrialisation was fashioning a new social order in both countries but economic growth, as evidenced by Iain Whyte’s statistics on comparative urban development, was considerably faster in Scotland. R.E. Tyson also notes that though population was rising in both countries one crucial factor, age at marriage, was demonstrably lower in England because of significant differences in the agricultural labour market and welfare provision in each country. The nature of rural change in each society also stands out. England had no ‘Highlands’, a regional society which was transformed from feudalism/ clanship to capitalism over less than two generations. The nature of and response to these cataclysmic changes is explored in two revisionist chapters by Andrew Mackillop and T.M. Devine which critically evaluate some of the most enduring beliefs in eighteenth century Highland history. Throughout these discussions and the chapters by T.C. Smout on the Improvers and Christopher Whatley on collier serfdom the vital influence of ideas in giving momentum to economic change is stressed. The Scottish Enlightenment, aspects of which receive special treatment in this volume by Jane Rendall and Bernard Aspinwall, was also at the heart of the economic revolution and by no means confined to the lecture room and the salon.

It was a revolution, however, that was remarkably peaceful. In the 1790s considerable discontent was manifested, most obviously in the development of the Scottish Friends of the People Societies and the United Scotsmen. Elaine McFarland demonstrates how in the aftermath of the stimulus of the French Revolution ideas, organisation models and radicals moved from Ireland to Scotland. Nevertheless, political protest in Scotland remained united and there was nothing to compare with the disturbances which culminated in the carnage of the 1798 rebellion in Ireland. In Scotland, by the turn of the century the forces of conservatism held the whip-hand, the old regime seemed rock solid and such political dissent as survived had had to adopt clandestine methods and go underground. In Scotland the old order was buttressed, despite the manifest venality of the political system, because it was delivering for those who mattered in society. The economic revolution created a veritable material bonanza for landowners, merchants, manufacturers and professionals. This was not simply in Scotland itself. In the period after c.1750, as Michael Fry shows in his chapter, landed and bourgeois Scots penetrated the British Empire in increasing numbers as to the same extent soldiers, planters, teachers, doctors, merchants, officials and government servants. Ireland did not have such a safety-valve to the same extent for its ‘restless spirits’. In Ireland too, both the vast Catholic majority and the presbyterian minority faced legal exclusion in varying degrees. After 1707 the Scots retained control over their Church and their laws and so avoided the kind of large-scale discrimination which not only scarred Irish society but also stored up the kind of deep-seated bitterness which was finally unleashed with a vengeance in 1798. In Scotland, on the other hand, the hereditary governing class who held control at the beginning of the eighteenth century were still well-entrenched in 1800, despite the tensions and stresses of industrialisation. There could be no better illustration of change and continuity in the complex period considered in this volume.

Two

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Scottish Modernisation Prior to the Industrial Revolution, 1688–1763

RICHARD SAVILLE

THIS CHAPTER ADDRESSES economic aspects of the modernisation of Scotland from the late seventeenth century, down to the industrial revolution.1 This was an awkward era in Scottish history, beginning with the intense inheritance of internal divisions, ambiguities and political rivalries. About these enough has been written to question any suggestion of a smooth progression to a more enlightened world. Moreover, contemporaries were only too aware of the apparently intractable economic fault lines in the early eighteenth century to display much confidence about employment and incomes. By 1763, in contrast, we have a clear picture of Whiggish processes built into Scotland’s economic and political life, now shorn of the old-style obstacles of earlier decades. The questions long addressed by historians remain valid: how and why did this relatively impoverished and socially backward country manage to catch up with England and enjoy the benefits of the industrial revolution and foreign trade? How much of the catching up was due to indigenous sources, and how much to imported men, ideas and machines, and further, alongside the economic fault-lines, how did the positive processes work, which, eventually, made the result inevitable? While Scotland was not, at the later date, on a par with England in respect of incomes, and its middle classes were disproportionately smaller, the country was able to accumulate capital, generate new incomes, and grow new businesses. There were also advantages in banking and the organisation of enterprise which England did not enjoy, and by 1763 the overall growth rate was similar on both sides of the border.

The study of this ‘old modernisation’ in Scotland has broadened in recent years, as a range of interesting questions have elbowed their way into view: we now consider education and training as more relevant, especially so for artisans and the middle classes; there were subtle changes in the position of women, in the range of ideas that made up the ‘common weal’, including changes in religious attitudes, and the significance of the middle class family in raising expertise from one generation to another. For the more peaceful times after 1688 the Scots generated new ways of conducting business, and gradually altered the way social life fitted together. By the middle decades of the eighteenth century this was a cohesive society, in which the underlying attitudes focused on work-discipline and progress, together with a determination to increase the number of economic opportunities. The circulation of new ideas, many drawn from abroad, confirm the outward-looking nature of the middle-class, and the openness of the leading institutions. This was an expanding universe, and, by the onset of industrialisation, Scottish social life was much more diverse and sophisticated. The way progress was understood by contemporaries also changed: at the revolution politics and the military were the main avenues through which economic advance, and family wellbeing, could be guaranteed. While these still loomed large by the close of the Seven Years War, the earlier views were less appropriate. This shift in understanding was one of the key benefits of modernisation, and is why some thought must be given to the change in government ushered in with William and Mary, and also to its limitations.

The revolution foreshadowed a decisive break in economic policy and the direction of government in Scotland. The overthrow of the old regime was a joint English-Scottish-Dutch enterprise, was well-planned, and conducted with huge popular support. There was close co-operation between Whigs on both sides of the border, and from the time William landed in England (November 1688), Scots remained close to the highest ranks of Government and Army. There was a new potential for economic change in Scotland, which imparted a sharper edge to economic debate than had been possible before, and a more deliberate effort on the part of the leaders of society to modernise. This allowed possibilities, latent prior to the arrival of William and Mary, to emerge in the freer conditions. While some of the political elites, perhaps the majority, may not have fathomed all aspects of economic debate, it is striking how many nobles and landowners were determined to make the new times an economic as well as a political divide. What is so interesting is that these conclusions were reached on both sides of the border. In particular, property rights, industrial growth, and political power would run together, although, in practice, Scots adopted some very different methods for this new ‘economic politics’ and, in their enthusiasm, made serious mistakes which a richer country would have absorbed more easily than Scotland did.

The new settlement ushered in a range of opportunities suppressed, or unavailable, under the regimes of Charles II and James VII, two of the most hated monarchs ever to rule Scotland. Just how wide-ranging became clear from the debates in Parliament, at the Privy Council, before the Court of Session (which dealt with most civil and business cases), and in the larger of the royal burghs. These institutions, through their openness and by their inclusion of substantial property owners, were able to fashion a model system of aristocratic and business decision-making, based on the idea that ‘inclusive’ politics would augment economic wellbeing, and government administration should work for all property-owners. This ‘economic politics’ thus linked the owners of landed and commercial property, and aimed to strengthen their wealth by utilising the restoration of political powers rusty from nearly three decades of subservience to royal despotism.

From the time when the Convention Parliament of 1689 considered the pleadings of James VII, and William and Mary, few among the nobility, and the more economically significant of the lairds, could doubt the renewal of the landowners’ role as the natural leaders of Scottish society, and as the years passed their interests and connections grew stronger. But the story was more complicated than it seemed at first: the years before the Union of 1707 witnessed severe economic and climatic obstacles which emphasised the limitations of the new ‘economic politics’ and impeded efforts to improve the condition of the country. Scotland was to remain poor, relatively backward, and geographically fragmented, with the many disadvantages of a semi-autonomous commercial and trading position within a union of crowns, where the more powerful partner vigorously protected its own trading and colonial interests. It was to take much longer for Scots landowners and business people to reach the economic security and wellbeing that seemed so close in 1688.

After the revolution there was a clear sequence of events: the supporters of William and Mary, including many who returned from exile, were determined to secure the military situation, and to right the wrongs inflicted on their families and recover estates seized by the Crown. The security situation was stable by 1692, apart from the rumours and speculation of wartime, and the military and personal processes merged into the programme of national rejuvenation. The speed of the repossessions of forfeited estates encouraged a swift transition to the ‘national’ phase of recovery. The reason was clear: virtually every family who recovered estates by Parliamentary legislation, found their inheritance mired in seemingly intractable legal disputes in which the central problem was a mismatch between credit and debt, together with a thin cash flow. Indebtedness had been a way of surviving the ravages of the previous regime, as it made estates less attractive to royal predators, although it was often unavoidable for straightforward business reasons. Initially, there were few routes to debt repayment: the rapacious, cut-throat, attitude to public office informs one answer, but there were limits to the extent of income available. This left cash flow from rents, sales of agricultural produce, trade and commerce, thus encouraging landowners to consider ways the institutions of state could encourage new incomes, without penalising anyone for merely political and religious beliefs.

It is not a simple matter to typecast the range of economic and financial ideas and decisions which emerged from the institutions of state and law, and it should be reiterated that the basic framework rested on the enlargement of the body politic, sweeping away the narrowly-based, capricious power of the royal stranglehold, and the ill-thought out attempt to borrow ideas from the absolutist tradition of royal power. The new system sought the in-bringing of the whole of the landowning class who supported, or acquiesced, in the new constitutional settlement, and allowed a new awareness of, and a positive attitude towards, the regulation of financial and economic affairs. The system also required the removal of James’ supporters from the courts of session and justiciary, and their replacement by judges who supported the political settlement, and the new economic organisation which came with the politics. This was the underpinning of the new ‘economic politics’.

The income problem encouraged a severe inquiry, as to how national progress in trade and industry could be achieved so as to cut the burdens of interest payments on estates and the costs of legal dispute; it also focused the minds of legislators on the sheer scale of the effort required to catch up with the English economy. In the sessions of 1693 and 1695, the Parliamentary Commissioners, as members of Parliament were termed, opened up the joint-stock company procedure with important trading innovations, large-scale joint-stocks were established, including the Bank of Scotland, founded in July 1695, and the Company of Scotland trading to Africa and the Indies in the previous month. Scots law was supportive of partnerships forming jointstocks, and thus business and landed wealth could easily co-operate through existing legal structures: 47 such companies were formed by 1695, now secure from asset seizures by courtiers or licensed-to-plunder Highland clans.2 Also passed in 1695 was the ‘Act anent lands lying run-rig’ which gave landowners the right to change, arbitrarily, existing land systems, including run-rigs. A month later, another Act overrode parts of the land laws, in respect of common rights, and thus reduced potential costs of estate re-organisation. These were important devices for improvers, and firmly shifted the legal process in favour of a market economy, away from customary rights and obligations which might have impeded a single-minded focus on increasing rents.3

There was a fiscal aspect to government deliberations: few landlords could afford to burden their estates with the additional costs of the European war: defeating the Scots Jacobites had been expensive, though involved such widespread voluntary and clan commitment that costs for most families were contained. But war overseas was a different matter, and the English Whigs realised that the Scots could not match their resolution with cash. The level of taxes on land (the cess) remained low, at under 1/40 of the English level of land tax, and the income was re-cycled within Scotland. Thus the majority of Scots lowland landowners, and the Highland clans who opposed James VII, including the many houses of Clan Campbell, were able to rely on the new English financial revolution, and Dutch finance, for their ultimate security. Most landowners realised that with France supporting James VII, war was likely for the foreseeable future and the main Scots contribution to this was the supply of troops. Dozens of landed families had members in the Scots brigade paid for by the States General, or in the Scots regiments in Flanders funded by the English: their numbers far exceeded those Scotsmen in arms for Louis XIV, both in the war which ended with the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, and the subsequent war of the Spanish Succession, 1702–1713.

The memory of the old regime long remained an aspect of the Scots thought and contributed to a new, historical, tradition.4 It focused on the distress of the restoration, the abuse of state powers, the favouritism shown to courtiers, and the transient nature of decision-making, which, all too often, had looked to the short-term income of government, at the expense, for example, of the integrity of the coinage, or expenditure on social overhead capital. There were numerous illustrations of Restoration government canvassed by historians in the olden days, and one of the valuable aspects of the recently published history of Glasgow has been to remind a modern audience of these bleak years. The burgh suffered at the hands of Highland looting expeditions, and the effects of the laying waste parts of the west of Scotland, including the seizure and destruction of much of value on the Campbell estates from 1685 to 1688. It seems extraordinary to the modern world that in June 1679, following the defeat of the Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge, senior military officers, including John Graham of Claverhouse, wished to ‘plunder the west’ and destroy Glasgow, Hamilton and Strathaven. In the years 1660–88 the population of Glasgow, the most important burgh in the west, fell by 2700.5 This new Scots memory notwithstanding, we should notice that the ‘persecution’ focus of Scots Calvinism altered. In lowland Scotland the pre-1688 church policy was tainted with a lethargy on economic matters, but, with the removal of the bishops from the Presbyterian church, and at ease with the new politics, it focused on economic wellbeing, and in the long-term became less tolerant of persecution.6 Some of this did not obviously favour economic progress as we understand it, though, on questions of traditional social and wage costs the Church worked to support progress and its effects on the national psychology should be emphasised.

This view of exceptional Scottish, literary and intellectual advantage may be strengthened: there was abundant commentary, on both sides of the border, about how modernisation might proceed, and the choices which legislators could make. Ideas which had hung around the exiles in the coffee houses in Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and common to the many who engaged in business overseas, were soon in print, and there was a considerable interchange of manuscripts. All sorts of schemes, many, no doubt, exaggerating the rewards to be reaped from their plans were put before the public. Leslie Stephen noticed this drawback: many of these tracts involved the contemplation of the planet as a whole, coupled with the vision from the horizon of a shop window.7 Yet, individual trades always involved special pleading, which was not necessarily a bad thing, given the increase in business opportunities based on new trades in the seventeenth century, which helped, for example, to alter the ambivalent attitude to what was, and was not, a luxury trade.8 Eventually, later in the eighteenth century in Scotland than in England, questions appropriate to a static and unsure society disappear from economic literature. In fact, most schemes faded from view, unless they enjoyed backing from business, or landed wealth. This was the fate, for example, of no fewer than four ‘land-bank’ schemes put forward in Edinburgh by Hugh Chamberlain; the first, in 1693, was rejected by a committee of the Scots Parliament, the last in a much diluted form went down in the aftermath of the economic and financial crisis of December 1704.9 These, and other projects possessed a touching faith in the possibility of apparently endless cheap credit spun out of land, Parliamentary edict, or share-dealing, and the sceptical reception of these ideas, and the arguments over company formation and tax-raising, confirm the effectiveness of Parliamentary mediation of trade and business ideas. Further, we should remember that the Scots legislators, their English counterparts, and the rapidly expanding personnel of the departments of state, understood business and land at first hand. This was then an intellectual process, augmenting the knowledge within the governing classes: and for which Archdeacon Cunningham observed in the English context, was perceived as affording subsidiary help to the statecraft of the epoch he designated ‘Parliamentary Colbertism’.10 In the more limited Scottish context, historians and other intellectuals, assisted in the remarkable shift to a broadly based ‘economic politics’ by posing questions about Government, regulation and law, which were in abeyance in the cautious times preceding 1688.

Whilst one may contend that the intentions of the new Scottish ‘economic politics’ were sound in 1695, the argument fails to take into account that England’s ‘Parliamentary Colbertism’ was built on a much richer economy, and a more robust credit base. The English East India Company had almost a century of trading, the Levant Company also went back to the sixteenth century, and the English shipbuilding and shipowning industries were among the largest in the world. Their colonial empire was long-established, their slave trades were growing, and the royal navy by 1695 contained over 100 vessels from first to sixth rates. There was a real breadth to the English industrial base. The new government policies thus augmented a strong position. Contrasts can be drawn at some length, and the Scottish position, which was always difficult, was aggravated by the de-facto declaration of war against Spain with the first expedition of the Company of Scotland trading to Africa and the Indies in 1698. Scotland was a minor, peripheral, country, with no colonies, little trading base in the Americas, and no navy; yet it intended to invade and seize territory in central America which had been under Spanish control for nearly two centuries. Moreover, the high costs of the Company were exacerbated because much of the equipment for the two expeditions to the Darien peninsula had to be purchased abroad, as they were not made in Scotland. Coinciding with this aggressive military endeavour came the dreadful dearth of 1695–1700. This was no ordinary famine, purchasing power in town and country collapsed, highland bands resumed their marauding, barter became common, tax-collecting was especially fraught, and merchants exported much of the good coin to buy food.11 The results were etched on the memory of several generations of Scots. In contrast, the English economy surged ahead in the interval between the Peace of Ryswick, 1697, and the resumption of war in 1702.

Balance of payments studies for the Scots Parliament showed a dire situation by 1704.12 Although these exaggerated the trade gap (the more detailed study gave a gap of almost 50 per cent), and omitted invisibles, such as soldiers’ pay, they appear to confirm that there was a deterioration on the foreign exchanges compared with the early 1690s: each year the Scots had to send out gold and silver to meet the trade imbalance between low exports and high imports, although a certain, varying amount of overseas debt was accumulated in balances in the main trading burghs. A Glasgow merchant, knowledgeable in the cattle, linen and wool trades, put the trade gap somewhat lower, at 20 per cent, or £31,000 Scots sterling, after allowing for payments by nobles in London.13 To ordinary Scots these imbalances were obscure; what was noted was the shortage of good silver coin, compared with the middle 1690s, and Government edicts trying to force worn and clipped silver failed to convince.14 This problem was grappled with by the Duke of Argyll in 1705, as part of a concerted attempt to seize the assets of the Bank of Scotland, and the Duke’s chief propagandist, the soon to be famous John Law, tried to blame the Bank’s £1 Scots sterling notes, introduced in late 1700, for driving out silver. The problem was more subtle and embraced England as well as Scotland: the exodus followed a temporary demand (and hence higher price) for silver in Holland for export to the East Indies, and for their renewed war efforts against Louis XIV.15 But ordinary folk could only see less silver, and that of poorer quality, and this doubtless contributed to the lowering of morale in Scotland which was evident in the pamphlets of this time. The struggle over credit, and the attempted seizure of Bank of Scotland, thwarted by politicians worried about the rise of Campbell power, marks the close of the unity forged in the Parliament sessions of the 1690s: independent ‘economic politics’ had run its course, replaced by faction-fighting, special pleading, and the run-up to the Union of Parliaments.

With the dearth of the 1690s came an exodus of skilled workers. Emigration was a long established route for impecunious, though employable, artisans.16 Some writers now realised the significance of the loss of these skills: ‘great numbers of people, after the expense bestowed on their education, being yearly forced out’.17 Few skilled Protestant immigrants came in, the bulk of the thousands of Huguenots driven out by Louis XIV after 1685 moved to England, Holland and the colonies. This undoubtedly improved the quality of English and Dutch textiles, and may have been the occasion for the many adverse comparisons on quality, between Scots and others’ textiles. There may have been some deterioration in the quality of other manufactures although this was more likely as a comparative problem, with foreign products improving faster, and widening the existing gap with the Scottish product. The evidence also suggests that there remained pockets of high quality textiles, especially in the linen trades in the Glasgow area, and in the north-east, though this was the preserve of a limited number of families and particularly women, including the ‘many young gentlewomen that have little or no portions’; alongside, inevitably, the ‘poor women who have no way to live’, involved in large numbers in the coarser linen and stocking trades.18 There were also unfounded worries over the droving trade, which had suffered during the dearth due to a shortage of stock. Our interest in this economic commentary in early 1700s Scotland is in the shift from confidence to worry, in particular the concern over the potential for erosion of the fine textile markets, and the other export planks of the economy.

The true core of Scottish exports was captured in the drafting of the Aliens Act of February 1705: Scotland’s Parliament, by Christmas of that year had to agree to the constitutional position insisted on by England, (i.e., when Queen Anne died the succession would go to Sophia, Electress of Hanover, or her heirs), otherwise linen, wool, coal, cattle and sheep would be banned. The evidence suggests that little else could compete on international markets. While in Glasgow, Aberdeen, Dundee and Edinburgh, and a range of smaller manufacturing burghs, there were numerous skilled artisans, they rarely made goods to foreign standards. The acerbic comments of those who had occasion to travel and live abroad, needs qualification, but was accurate for a wide range of everyday wood-based and iron goods, pottery wares, and coarse textiles. The Scots market accepted a poorer, shabbier, product than the English. The problem was multi-faceted, low incomes, a stagnant population and a restricted demand for luxury goods largely met by imports which Scots artisans could not match. There was little expectation of change: burgh guilds served to maintain the traditional incomes of members and tended to discourage incomers, innovation and competition.19 Many opposed ‘fancy’ work on religious and moral grounds. The gradual dissolution of guild control came relatively late; for Edinburgh tailors in the 1730s, for cabinet making and printing later still. So Scotland for several decades after the Union of Parliaments, produced cheap goods, but with little vent abroad, with artisan wages much below English levels. The failure to raise quality and wages, the partner of low consumer expectations, saw a continued skills drain from the country.

Although we have a country in 1707 with exceptional economic problems Scotland enjoyed several advantages which studies of modernisation now give more credit for than past generations did. The intellectual and literary culture was sophisticated, the re-invigorated religious ether was remarkably resilient and forward-looking, and the legal establishment effective in distancing itself from English control and mores. The military and political framework ensured that pro-government clans were slowly moving into the eighteenth century, leaving behind some, and then most, of their old-fashioned communal attitudes. The Campbells have been cited in this respect, and there were other clans on the Highland fringes moving in similar directions.20 Scots everyday culture reflected the hard living and climatic uncertainty; for the majority of the population in the lowlands, culture was broadly based, a fact indicated in both religious and enlightenment writings. Scotland was both matriarchal and patriarchal, in the Highlands as well as the Lowlands, and women enjoyed property rights typical of northern Europe, including the right to work, market goods and negotiate sales. There were numerous cases in the pre-1688 era, of families and estates held together by women, as their menfolk were executed or in exile, and this undoubtedly strengthened the position of women in Scots society. One does not have to look far in most archives to find women running estates and businesses.

The legal framework was essential in protecting Scottish producers after 1707. While Scots law could be tedious, and ill-conform to international merchant law, it was flexible enough to fit in with a poverty-stricken and heavily indebted country. The court of session and the legal profession, provided a sophisticated array of decisions and advice, which enabled this backward and impecunious country to take the best advantage of the post- 1707 constitutional framework. That is to say, the lawyers normally thought in terms of the existing common practices, only moving Scots law alongside England and France when Scotland could compete. This was especially important for the overriding basis of the cost of goods production, food prices, for which long-standing arrangements continued for the annual fiars’ prices. It was also relevant to wages for traditional goods, and for supporting Scots business endeavour where English legislation might have proved onerous. The Court of Session refused to give way over important principles; Scots law was upheld over the joint-stock company where English statute law restricting non-statute companies to six partners was seen as a restraint on trade, and in the case of Scottish banknotes, the Court always supported this credit as legal tender, against a variety of English threats.21

In the crucial area of enforcement of payments across national boundaries the international merchant law on foreign exchange transactions clashed with out-of-date, though legally viable, views on payment of debts in Scotland. Yet it was to be many years into the new century before the European law on exchange, codified by Louis XIV’s lawyers in an Edict de Commerce, 1673, was accepted in pleadings on exchange before the Court of Session. The Scots legal world kept to the unity of the common weal’, and judges favoured solutions which avoided bankruptcy and social dislocation. Moreover, there were a series of fascinating decisions by the Court of Session which drew a distinction between the traditional supervision of markets, food prices, and wages, all applicable to the necessities of life, where custom and regulation continued, and newer forms of economic activity, including the sale of luxury goods, which their Lordships felt could be left to market forces. Far from preserving ancient forms for their own sake, the retention of controls should be seen as positive because these allowed Scots consumers and artisans to operate with lower levels of monetary activity and longer credit compared with England.

Before 1707 money in Scotland differed in several ways from that in England, the main being that the intrinsic silver value of £12 Scots no longer equalled the intrinsic silver value of £1 sterling set down in 1604. Because of a pressing need for cash, the Scots government of James VI, and subsequent governments, devalued this Scots standard, i.e., £1 sterling now bought more than £12 Scots. Before 1707 there is a lively and interesting history of the movements of the exchange rates between the two countries, which gave a great deal of work to goldsmiths who regularly assayed the exact up-to-date ratio. Further, when payments were made in Edinburgh and London the final rate would involve a charge for interest, profit for the exchanger, and would reflect supply and demand; if, as was increasingly the case by 1700, more money was needed in London than in Edinburgh, the discount on London would grow. Yet most businessmen continued to account in the ratio 12:1, and conduct wage and price negotiations in Scotland in these values, just as they had done since 1604. They also used a range of non-British currencies, as these tended to have a more uniform precious metal content. In 1695 when Bank of Scotland was established, the proprietors were given the right to issue bank notes. These the bank issued, from 1696, in sterling denominations at 12:1. This meant, therefore, that Bank of Scotland ‘sterling’ stood at a discount to English sterling. This rate comprised whatever happened to be the current exchange, described as before, plus the discount to allow for the different intrinsic values. For example, when in late 1700 Bank of Scotland issued the first ever one pound sterling note, at the nominal 12:1, its true worth was only 13 2/45:1, i.e., it would buy a little above 18sh 6d of English sterling full-weight coin, less the additional exchange costs, which could push the market value to 14:1 and above.

This may be shown in another way. In 1704 the London banker, John Campbell, borrowed £600 in Bank of Scotland sterling at Edinburgh, repayable in six months with 4 per cent interest, but if this debt was to be repaid in London, his liability was £528 sterling which represented a discount of 12 per cent, or an equivalent with the Scots sterling of around 17sh 7d. There was also the four per cent interest to add on. Prior to the Union the Edinburgh-London exchange transactions suggest a fluctuating discount from the exact intrinsic par, c. 8.5 per cent, though for a few drovers’ bills only, up to 17.5 per cent. The trend was worse for the three years from end- 1704, compared with earlier in Anne’s reign. This undoubtedly contributed to the lowering of morale in Scotland, a result often observed with market-driven devaluations, while, of course, such a devaluation would be expected to benefit the producers of export goods.

The Union replaced the Scots currency with English sterling. Therefore, in theory, English buyers of Scottish goods would no longer benefit from the pre-1707 purchasing power, as they faced the revaluation of the Scots prices. This was made worse because England had opted, in 1696, for a gold standard which slightly undervalued silver, which was in greater use, and more precisely valued, in many export markets. The problem of revaluation, and of the gold standard, was understood (although more clearly in the former case). It meant that people with coin would benefit from the one for one translation at the recoinage of 1707, they would enjoy the extra value of 8.5 per cent rise in their asset values, but employers would suffer a potential disadvantage from wages and prices, where they would be selling to England. To cope with this businessmen had to depress wages, for example, by persuading their workforce to accept the intrinsic level of precious metals of their old wages; or by continuing to circulate the old Scots currency. This explains the continued use, after 1707, of this old currency, both as a unit of account, and in wage and price bargaining. This probably contributed to a higher level of employment after 1707 than would have occurred had the Scots wage rates been converted to English sterling equivalents. Furthermore, the evidence collected on wages suggests a continued ‘wage gap’ for similar work between the two countries, which lasted well into the eighteenth century.22 Whatever the additional reasons for this gap’, and cultural inertia and over-supply of labour, together with falling food prices before the 1740s, along with effective controls in the labour market, are the more likely, holding to the old currency for traditional payments should be seen as a strength.23 The advantages, to business, of a locally acceptable paper currency, undervalued against sterling, was one of the reasons for the success of the Glasgow banks from 1749, although this lasted only sixteen years, and in 1765 the British state was persuaded, in large part by arguments from the Edinburgh banks, to enact punitive sanctions against these undervalued ‘sterling’ equivalent notes.

The question of wage rates and employment can be taken further. Wages remained below English levels, and only approached these later in the century, in the newer industries of the industrial revolution. Holding wages down, both in urban areas, and in the rapidly expanding rural industries, kept prices lower than otherwise, and thus helped sales, and owners of capital could increase their share of income with product improvements.24 A variety of indications from several trades, including building, suggest rising incomes for capital by the mid-century. In an economy where labour was the chief input, and machinery and plant of lesser importance, controlling wages would help savings, and investment. It should be added that there is evidence of productivity growth in the first half of the eighteenth century. In the case of coal, which supplied the larger share of Scotland’s energy requirements, Duckham suggested a variety of ways in which total output, and total factor productivity, rose, along with the huge increase in overall investment.25 The cultivation of flax became more professional, in the context of the vast increase in acreage, with machines allowing an increase in productivity in processing and spinning of yarn.26 Not all industries could compete effectively, the woollen trades were badly affected in the aftermath of 1707 and Scots salt was unable by 1750 to compete with the English rock-salt industry.27 But the overall effect of wages and prices was to ensure that modernisation generated sufficient incomes for capital to maintain the process of industrialisation, and the marginalisation of uncompetitive and backward trades freed up labour and capital for more productive uses.

The incorporation of a poor and backward country into the dynamic trading empire of England, on equal terms for all citizens, has long been seen as an essential part of the explanation for the pace of growth in the Scottish economy; in particular, why Scotland was able to catch up during the eighteenth century, and why such a wide range of extra ‘new’ incomes for impecunious lairds, younger sons, merchants and lawyers were available, which had not been significant sources of family income, pre-1707.28 Scotland joined a system with consistent ends in view for economic expansion and employment of labour, in particular it encouraged exports and the restriction of imports. Within the British market, home-based production was substituted for foreign, wherever feasible. The sharp rise of the Glasgow tobacco trades, the widely based linen trades, and the growth of the general trade of ship-owning, would have been much more difficult had Scotland remained outside the navigation system.29 As entrepot, ship-owning, and employment opportunities were generated for British citizens, to the exclusion of foreigners, a huge range of ancillary services and financial incomes, not legislated for by Parliament, followed in the wake of the main thrust. The rate of growth of British exports to the colonies and Ireland, and later to India and China, outstripped that to Europe and Scandinavia, Scotland’s traditional pre-1707 export markets.30 The enforcement of this protectionist system was a major concern of the state service: piracy was virtually eliminated in the Caribbean by the late 1720s, and indigenous opposition to slavery in Jamaica defeated by 1736 and by 1760 the conquest of Quebec, and the expansion of power in India, saw new sources of incomes. Although the protectionist system has been criticised as inefficient, the consistency and transparency of the system, for well over a century, were of critical importance in helping Scots. Planning an investment in a plantation was much less risky than, for example, it would have been under free trade. The system delivered a gradual rise in Scots exports, and a wide range of historians, from the nineteenth century to today, have associated this with the timing of industrialisation, the growth of the middle classes, and the stimulation of a consumer society.

What happened within the agrarian sector in all countries undergoing modernisation was always going to be crucial in determining how much labour may be transferred, part or full-time, from food production, and moreover, how much food surplus could be generated for the market, and at what prices; and how the income surpluses of the property-owners were used and how swiftly they could be converted into credits available for rural industry, or the financial markets. Central to this process in Scotland was the high degree of concentration of land ownership. According to the exhaustive work of Loretta Timperley, land ownership in Scotland was compressed, by the onset of the industrial revolution, with only 2.5 per cent of the adult population owning land, some 7,838 in 1770.31 The rest of the agricultural population were tenants or workers. These tenants sometimes accumulated a degree of wealth, but they did not enjoy the rights of ownership. This had several results. Large surpluses in rents were available to a small number of landlords, and these were then passed on to the banking system for use elsewhere. The size of landholding enabled the Bank of Scotland to lend long-term, against land, as early as 1696, and many borrowed to reduce interest charges on debts, and to invest. This move by the bank ensured that the very high levels of real interest payments of the pre-1695 era, came down, making it easier to have interest rates close to those of England after 1707, and to join the new, legal, maximum of 5 per cent APR in 1714. As in England, where landowning was also restricted to the few, landowners were a significant force in investment in infrastructure; including roads, ports, canals, wharfs, river improvements and planned villages, and linked up with merchants for joint-stocks, or, as in the provincial banks, in financial schemes. It is with these activities that modernisation linked land, banking and the nuts-and-bolts of enterprise.

This process was never quite as smooth as it appears with hindsight; there were numerous cases of bad management and over-enthusiastic investment, but double-entry book-keeping systems allowed the manipulation of longterm debts, and tight financial controls.32 Thus in the central lowlands, with coal, iron, limestone, and high-quality stone on their lands, these landlords were able to realise extra profits from land ownership based on long-run investment and bank loans. Right across Scotland, by 1763, this improving movement eroded the traditional patterns of agricultural behaviour: prices were rising slowly, and the terms of trade were moving in favour of agriculture, a remarkable situation, in step with England, and important in so many ways to family fortunes and development.

By European standards the years before the industrial revolution saw an exceptional progress in industrial and commercial banking. There were, however, a series of severe disruptions, both from straightforward economic crises, and in several political upheavals, which included the above-mentioned crisis of 1704. The details of these assaults need not detain us, important illustrations though they are of the way Scotland’s establishment operated, except to say that in every case Bank of Scotland rallied considerable business and landed support. By 1740, Bank of Scotland, and the Royal Bank of Scotland, founded in 1727, co-operated through discussions, later known as the agreements and understandings. The response of the banks in every crisis from 1740 was to hold existing credits firm and expand where they thought parts of the economy needed help. The accounting systems within the banks allowed a long view to be taken of debts difficult to recall in crises, and supplemented the views taken by the Court of Session.33 At the risk of compressing a great deal of evidence in the pre-1763 era, and passing over the considerable inter-bank disputes, the fact remained that Scotland at the end of the Seven Years War possessed a memorable system of banking. At the pinnacle came Bank of Scotland, and the Royal Bank of Scotland, with a whole range of second-tier banks in the burghs, and private banks in Edinburgh. There was still a decade to go before the fully-fledged, hierarchical, regulated, and state-supported system of Scottish banking emerged after the collapse of Douglas, Heron & Co, (the Ayr Bank) in 1772, but the main elements, and the ideas and knowledge of what to do in time of crisis, existed earlier. The banking institutions in Scotland were augmented by the rapid expansion of the London-Scottish bill of exchange market, a small, though interesting, aspect of the eighteenth century bill on London phenomenon. The London market was a valuable partner, as so many new ideas, and employment opportunities for Scots, were generated in London.

This chapter has dwelt, disproportionately, upon the years 1688 to 1707. Preceded by a most difficult, intractable situation, the new, inclusive, political and legal formation proceeded to adopt sweeping changes in economic affairs, in administration and via legal reforms, which attempted to bring Scotland alongside, if not often equal to, contemporary European practices. The times also witnessed a new historical cognizance which enabled legislators to appreciate the scale of their task, in particular as to why economic improvement was so vital. In these few years there were some successes, in the case of Bank of Scotland for example, though rather too many failures.

All these changes were put through by an establishment which was sophisticated and probably more entrenched in 1707 than in the 1690s, and which negotiated a union which brought many of the economic and institutional benefits sought for in the earlier decade. The Scots aristocracy and lairds entered the new Britain in a strong political position, and eventually learnt how to exploit their Westminster connections. Factions were able to derive significant benefits for their members, families and clan connections, alongside the inevitable market-led changes which brought ever-increasing advantages to Scottish business life. In particular, joining the English state gave the modernisers a stronger hand to control backwardness, and to encourage economic growth and diversity. At the same time, business people continued to benefit from the Scottish legal framework and its wage and price advantages.

It may be invidious to suggest any causal ranking of the changes of the eighteenth century; new business techniques, the acquisitive role of landowners, the incorporation within the British colonial system, the operation of the new banking system, and the dynamic role of merchants in the larger burghs, and, of course, the dramatic changes in a whole range of ideas, and the overall discipline within the country. Historians will have their own preferences. The key point is that all these matters relate, in a variety of ways, to encouraging the productive over the unproductive, and making the former a sharper and continuous process. Yet, it does not quite follow that the industrial revolution was the obvious next step, although the establishment of modern plant, and a rapid expansion of coal mines, and a thorough search for textile machinery were inevitable parts of this change, together with a burgeoning interest in new processes and investment across the industrial spectrum. This modernisation of Scotland, most of which was generated by her own resources and skills, enabled the country to benefit from the connection with England and the empire, and, crucially, to continue to generate most of the needed capital from her own resources. Thus many of the entrepreneurs who moved north in the late eighteenth century were absorbed into Scottish business and financial life and there was, therefore, no question of a subordination to English business. In fact, by the later eighteenth century, the evidence shows a determined, forward-looking, Scottish business world, long able to move into English markets. For this success, the early phase of the industrial revolution, owed much to the vital, though compressed modernisation which occurred in earlier years, and the decisive political results which followed 1688.

REFERENCES

1. There is a huge literature on the industrial revolution R.A. Church & E.A. Wrigley (eds.), 11 vols. (Economic History Society, Oxford, 1994), which collects a range of articles in convenient form; H.J. Habbakkuk & M. Postan, The Cambridge Economic History of Europe vol. 6 ‘The Industrial Revolutions and After’ (Cambridge, 1965). For Scotland, R.H. Campbell, Scotland since 1707 (Oxford, 1965); H. Hamilton, An Economic History of Scotland in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1963); there is a bibliography in C. Whatley, The Industrial Revolution in Scotland (Cambridge, 1997).

2. W.R. Scott, The Constitution and Finance of English, Irish and Scottish Joint-stock companies to 1720 (Cambridge, 1917), 3 vols. A joint-stock in Scots law existed when the partners, who could be of any number, signed an agreement, endorsed by an Advocate. The usual practice was to lodge a summary of the agreement with the local burgh. Acts of Parliament could give powers not available to ordinary joint-stocks.

3. H. Hamilton, An Economic History of Scotland in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1963), ch.3.

4. The whig pamphlet, The reducing of Scotland by Arms and annexing it to England as a province considered