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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: IEEE Press Series on Power and Energy Systems
- Sprache: Englisch
Understand the fundamentals of electrical power systems with this accessible guide
Few subjects are more fundamental to modern life than electrical power. The systems that generate, transport, and distribute electricity are among the most essential contributors to modern industry, development, and everyday living. As energy demand grows and, with it, the electric power industry, more and more non-electrical professionals must make important policy and administrative decisions regarding the systems that power our world.
Electric Power System Basics for the Nonelectrical Professional provides an education on the basics of this subject, including the various types of energy sources, types of transmission and distribution lines, grid modernization, and much more. From residential to industrial energy, and from metering principles to energy conservation techniques, this book provides a one-stop reference on all relevant areas of knowledge. Now fully updated to reflect the latest advances and the current state of a growing industry, it is a must-own for anyone looking to bring foundational power systems knowledge to bear on policy or industrial issues.
Readers of the third edition will also find:
- Coverage of wildfire mitigation strategies to reduce safety risk
- Detailed discussion of regulatory changes and their effects on system operations
- Updated coverage of system reliability and smart technologies
- Updated discussion of the transitioning digital power grid
Electric Power System Basics for the Nonelectrical Professional is ideal for power industry executives and state regulators.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
About the Author
Preface
Chapter Summaries
Chapter 1: System Overview, Terminology, and Basic Concepts
Chapter 2: Generation
Chapter 3: Transmission Lines
Chapter 4: Substations
Chapter 5: Distribution
Chapter 6: Consumption
Chapter 7: System Protection
Chapter 8: Interconnected Power Systems
Chapter 9: System Control Centers and Telecommunications
Chapter 10: The Transitioning Digital Power Grid
Chapter 11: Personal Protection (Safety)
Acknowledgments
1 System Overview, Terminology, and Basic Concepts
History of Electric Power
System Overview
Terminology
AC Voltage Generation
AC Connections
Three Types of Electrical Load
2 Generation
Real‐Time Generation
Power Plants and Prime Movers
Inverter‐based Resources
Notes
3 Transmission Lines
Transmission Lines
Conductors
Transmission Line Design Parameters
Underground Transmission
DC Transmission Systems
4 Substations
Substation Equipment
Transformers
Regulators
Circuit Breakers
Reclosers
Disconnect Switches
Lightning Arresters
Electrical Bus
Capacitor Banks
Reactors
Static VAR Compensators
Control Building
Preventative Maintenance
5 Distribution
Distribution Systems
Transformer Connections
Fuses and Cut‐Outs
Riser or Dip Pole
Underground Service
Note
6 Consumption
Electrical Energy Consumption
Power System Efficiency
Power Factor
Supply and Demand in Real Time
Demand Side Management
Metering
Performance‐Based Rates
Service Entrance Equipment
7 System Protection
Two Types of Protection
System Protection Equipment and Concepts
Distribution Protection
Transmission Protection
Substation Protection
Generator Protection
Generator Synchronization
Overall Transmission Protection
Substation Automation
Wildfire Ignition Risk Reduction
Note
8 Interconnected Power Systems
Interconnected Power Systems
The North American Power Grids
Regulatory Environment
Interchange Scheduling
Interconnected System Operations
System Demand and Generator Loading
Reliable Grid Operations
Note
9 System Control Centers and Telecommunications
Electric System Control Centers
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
Energy Management Systems
Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)
Telecommunications
Utility Communications Systems
Note
10 The Transitioning Digital Power Grid
Grid Resiliency
The Intelligent Grid
Transitioning Grid Reliability
The Transitioning Distribution System
Building the Digital Grid of Tomorrow
Notes
11 Personal Protection (Safety)
Electrical Safety
Personal Protection
ARC Flash
Electrical Safety Around the Home
Notes
Appendix A: The Derivation of Root Mean Squared
Residential Voltage
Appendix B: Graphical Power Factor Analysis
Recommended Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3-1 Typical ACSR Conductor Sizes.
Table 3-2 Transmission Voltages.
Chapter 5
Table 5-1 Common Distribution Voltages.
Chapter 11
Table 11-1 Required Flame Retardant Clothing.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1-1 System overview.
Figure 1-2 Current flow.
Figure 1-3 Current and magnetic field.
Figure 1-4 Direct (i.e., dc voltage).
Figure 1-5 Alternating (i.e., ac voltage).
Figure 1-6 Phase angle between voltage and current.
Figure 1-7 Magnetic sine wave.
Figure 1-8 Three‐phase voltage production.
Figure 1-9 Three‐phase generator – stator.
Figure 1-10 Electromagnet and slip rings.
Figure 1-11 Rotor poles.
Figure 1-12 Three‐phase voltage generator components.
Figure 1-13 Delta and wye connections.
Figure 1-14 Wye‐connected generator.
Figure 1-15 Delta‐connected generator.
Figure 1-16 Resistive loads.
Figure 1-17 Inductive loads.
Figure 1-18 Capacitive loads.
Chapter 2
Figure 2-1 Steam power plant.
Figure 2-2 Coal power plant. Steve Heap/Shutterstock.
Figure 2-3 Nuclear power plant. Iofoto/Shutterstock.
Figure 2-4 Pressurized water reactor.
Figure 2-5 Boiling water reactor.
Figure 2-6 Hydroelectric power.
Figure 2-7 Hydropower plant.
Figure 2-8 Pump storage power plant.
Figure 2-9 Combustion turbine power plant.
Figure 2-10 Combined cycle power plant.
Figure 2-11 U.S. renewable energy growth.
Figure 2-12 U.S. energy related CO
2
emissions by sector.
Figure 2-13 Worldwide levelized cost of energy by technology.
Figure 2-14 Wind power.
Figure 2-15 Offshore wind turbines.
Figure 2-16 U.S. installed wind capacity and generation.
Figure 2-17 Reflective solar power plant. Fly_and_Dive/Shutterstock.
Figure 2-18 CSP installed capacity and generation.
Figure 2-19 Direct solar photovoltaic. Yoshi0511/Shutterstock.
Figure 2-20 Solar installation growth.
Figure 2-21 Solar growth by sector.
Figure 2-22 Geothermal power plants. Waterwind/Shutterstock.
Figure 2-23 U.S. geothermal installed capacity and generation.
Figure 2-24 Biopower growth in United States.
Figure 2-25 IBR block diagram.
Chapter 3
Figure 3-1 Transmission line.
Figure 3-2 Solid conductor.
Figure 3-3 Stranded conductor.
Figure 3-4 ACSR conductor.
Figure 3-5 ASCC conductor.
Figure 3-6 Circular mils.
Figure 3-7 Underground transmission.
Figure 3-8 Overhead transmission.
Chapter 4
Figure 4-1 Step‐down transformer.
Figure 4-2 Distribution power transformer.
Figure 4-3 Transformer bank.
Figure 4-4 Surface or padmount transformer.
Figure 4-5 Transformer windings.
Figure 4-6 Transformer turns ratio.
Figure 4-7 Transformer core and coils.
Figure 4-8 Bushing oil level gauge.
Figure 4-9 Transformer bushing.
Figure 4-10 CT connections.
Figure 4-11 Bushing CT.
Figure 4-12 Low‐voltage CT.
Figure 4-13 External HV CT.
Figure 4-14 PT connections.
Figure 4-15 Low‐voltage PT.
Figure 4-16 High‐voltage PT.
Figure 4-17 Auto transformer.
Figure 4-18 Three‐phase regulator.
Figure 4-19 Single‐phase regulator.
Figure 4-20 Regulator dial.
Figure 4-21 Load tap changer.
Figure 4-22 Tap changer.
Figure 4-23 Motorized switch contacts.
Figure 4-24 Load tap changing transformer.
Figure 4-25 Voltage regulator control.
Figure 4-26 Gas circuit breaker.
Figure 4-27 345‐kV gas breaker.
Figure 4-28 161‐kV gas breaker.
Figure 4-29 Oil circuit breaker.
Figure 4-30 Interrupter contacts.
Figure 4-31 Vacuum circuit breaker.
Figure 4-32 Air circuit breaker.
Figure 4-33 Modern recloser.
Figure 4-34 Older distribution line recloser.
Figure 4-35 Older substation recloser.
Figure 4-36 Vertical air disconnect switch.
Figure 4-37 Horizontal air switch.
Figure 4-38 Whips or arcing rods.
Figure 4-39 Line switch.
Figure 4-40 Station class arrester.
Figure 4-41 Distribution class arrester.
Figure 4-42 Example of typical electrical bus.
Figure 4-43 Station capacitor bank.
Figure 4-44 Distribution capacitor bank.
Figure 4-45 345‐kV reactor.
Figure 4-46 Series reactors.
Figure 4-47 Static VAR compensator.
Figure 4-48 Control building.
Chapter 5
Figure 5-1 Distribution substation. EyeMark/Adobe Stock Photos.
Figure 5-2 Distribution feeders.
Figure 5-3 Wye connection.
Figure 5-4 Delta connection.
Figure 5-5 Three‐phase, four‐wire voltages.
Figure 5-6 Wye distribution.
Figure 5-7 Wye three‐phase feeder.
Figure 5-8 Wye one‐phase lateral.
Figure 5-9 One‐phase lateral.
Figure 5-10 Delta distribution.
Figure 5-11 Delta three‐phase feeder.
Figure 5-12 Delta one‐phase lateral.
Figure 5-13 Delta one‐phase lateral.
Figure 5-14 Transformer connections.
Figure 5-15 Standard two‐bushing transformer.
Figure 5-16 Two‐bushing transformer connections.
Figure 5-17 Standard one‐bushing transformer.
Figure 5-18 One‐bushing transformer connections.
Figure 5-19 Three‐phase transformer bank.
Figure 5-20 Transformer bank connection #1.
Figure 5-21 Transformer bank connection #2.
Figure 5-22 208/120 Vac, three‐phase wye–wye connection diagram.
Figure 5-23 480/277 Vac, three‐phase connection diagram.
Figure 5-24 Dry‐pack transformer.
Figure 5-25 Wye–delta transformer bank.
Figure 5-26 Fuse cut‐out.
Figure 5-27 Fuse cut‐out.
Figure 5-28 Fuse door.
Figure 5-29 Fault tamer fuse and cut‐out.
Figure 5-30 Dip pole or riser pole.
Figure 5-31 Single‐conductor primary distribution cable.
Figure 5-32 Load break connections.
Figure 5-33 Load break elbow.
Figure 5-34 Load break elbow components.
Figure 5-35 Underground long compression splice with cover.
Figure 5-36 3M primary underground splice.
Figure 5-37 Loop transformer.
Figure 5-38 Underground wye–wye connection diagram.
Figure 5-39 Distribution primary loop.
Figure 5-40 Secondary cable.
Chapter 6
Figure 6-1 Types of circuits.
Figure 6-2 Voltage and current relationships.
Figure 6-3 Equivalent circuits.
Figure 6-4 Power factor.
Figure 6-5 Older electro‐mechanical kWh meter.
Figure 6-6 Electronic meter.
Figure 6-7 Demand needle and scale.
Figure 6-8 Demand meter.
Figure 6-9 Residential smart meter.
Figure 6-10 Home area network.
Figure 6-11 Underground primary metering.
Figure 6-12 Overhead primary metering.
Figure 6-13 Basic panel.
Figure 6-14 Meter cover removed.
Figure 6-15 Breaker cover removed.
Figure 6-16 Electrical panel – residential.
Figure 6-17 Light circuit.
Figure 6-18 Receptacle circuit.
Figure 6-19 GFCI circuit.
Figure 6-20 240‐ volt circuit.
Figure 6-21 Industrial panel.
Figure 6-22 Emergency generator.
Figure 6-23 UPS system.
Figure 6-24 Power quality waveforms.
Chapter 7
Figure 7-1 Solid‐state relays.
Figure 7-2 Electromechanical relays.
Figure 7-3 Time vs. current curve.
Figure 7-4 One‐line diagram.
Figure 7-5 Transmission fault.
Figure 7-6 Zone protection.
Figure 7-7 Generator synchronization.
Figure 7-8 Synchroscope.
Figure 7-9 Transmission protection.
Figure 7-10 Merging unit.
Figure 7-11 Digital substation.
Chapter 8
Figure 8-1 Power grid interconnections.
Figure 8-2 Regulatory divisions.
Figure 8-3 NERC regions and balancing authorities.
Figure 8-4 Interconnected systems.
Figure 8-5 Steady state.
Figure 8-6 Balanced generation.
Figure 8-7 Unbalanced generation.
Figure 8-8 System stable.
Figure 8-9 System instability.
Figure 8-10 Conditional stability.
Figure 8-11 Generator loading.
Figure 8-12 Generator dispatch factors.
Chapter 9
Figure 9-1 Electric system control center.
Figure 9-2 SCADA system.
Figure 9-3 Synchrophasors in WAMS.
Figure 9-4 Eastern grid power angles.
Figure 9-5 Communications equipment.
Figure 9-6 Substation optical fiber cables.
Figure 9-7 OPGW.
Figure 9-8 Optical fiber principles.
Figure 9-9 Optical fiber wrap.
Figure 9-10 Optical fiber termination.
Figure 9-11 MW communications.
Figure 9-12 Microwave systems.
Figure 9-13 Power line carrier.
Figure 9-14 PLC system.
Figure 9-15 Distribution management.
Chapter 10
Figure 10-1 Duck curve.
Figure 10-2 Moss landing battery.
Figure 10-3 IEEE voltage ride through.
Figure 10-4 NERC voltage ride through.
Figure 10-5 IEEE frequency ride through.
Figure 10-6 NERC frequency ride through.
Figure 10-7 Alcatraz Island.
Figure 10-8 Fast charging station.
Figure 10-9 Grid flexibility.
Chapter 11
Figure 11-1 Rubber gloves.
Figure 11-2 Insulated boots.
Figure 11-3 Rubber blankets and mats.
Figure 11-4 Substation ground grid.
Figure 11-5 Substation ground potential rise.
Figure 11-6 Touch and step around structures.
Figure 11-7 Insulated buckets.
Figure 11-8 Live maintenance transmission lines.
Figure 11-9 Bare hand live line maintenance.
Figure 11-10 Ground jumpers.
Figure 11-11 Live maintenance distribution
.
Figure 11-12 Live maintenance substations.
Figure 11-13 Arc flash. IEEE Std 1584‐2018/IEEE.
Figure 11-14 Arc‐flash clothing.
Figure 11-15 Arc‐flash boundaries.
Figure 11-16 Safety at home.
Figure 11-17 GFCI always be vigilant about electrical safety at home!
Appendix A
Figure A-1 Root mean squared.
Appendix B
Figure B-1 Electrical power relationships.
Figure B-2 Power triangle.
Figure B-3 Power VA.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
About the Author
Preface
Chapter Summaries
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
Appendix A: The Derivation of Root Mean Squared
Appendix B: Graphical Power Factor Analysis
Recommended Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Electric Power System Basics for the Nonelectrical Professional
Third Edition
Steven W. BlumeSan Marcos, CA
Copyright © 2025 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Applied for:
Hardback ISBN: 9781394281985
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © urbans/Shutterstock
About the Author
Steven W. Blume, is a registered professional engineer with a master's degree in electrical engineering and over 40 years of experience covering all aspects of this book. He has been teaching electric power system basics and advanced courses for over 30 years to those interested in gaining a fundamental understanding of electric power systems. His combined knowledge, experience, and ability to explain complex subjects in simple terms lend to the successful knowledge transfer of the concepts presented in this book. Additionally, instructor‐led courses (both online and in‐person), using this book as a reference, are available for your group. For more information, please visit www.blumeconsulting.com or contact Steve at [email protected].
Preface
This book is intended to give non‐electrical professionals a fundamental understanding of how large interconnected electrical power systems work, better known as the “Power Grid.” This book explains in simple terms complex electrical concepts, design considerations, construction practices, industry standards, control room operations, maintenance procedures, consumption characteristics, system protection technology, telecommunications, the digital transformation of the power grid, and electrical safety. Several practical examples, photographs, drawings, and illustrations are provided to help readers gain a fundamental understanding of electric power systems. The goal of this book is to have the non‐electrical professional obtain an in‐depth understanding of how modern electric power systems deliver electricity from generation sources through transport systems and on to various industrial, commercial, and residential consumers.
This book begins with terminology and basic electrical concepts used in the industry then progresses through generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption of electrical power. The reader is exposed to all essential aspects of a reliable and controllable interconnected power system. Other topics discussed include renewable energy resources, grid modernization, energy management, conservation, and the regulatory aspects to help readers communicate effectively with seasoned engineers, equipment manufacturers, field personnel, regulatory officials, lobbyists, politicians, lawyers, and others working in the electrical industry.
Please note that some sections within most chapters elaborate on certain concepts by providing added detail or background. These sections are marked “optional supplementary reading” and may be skipped without losing value to the intent of this book.
This Third Edition discusses significant updates and advancements in the evolving power grid; the key advancement areas discussed are as follows:
Distribution Automation and Renewables Integration
: A heightened focus is placed on the notable increase in photovoltaic (PV) panels and other distributed energy resources (DERs), modernized infrastructure design, and the evolving changes in operations. Some of the new concepts discussed include distribution automation, decentralized control, and bi‐directional power flow to name a few. The proliferation of microgrids and electric vehicles further shapes the landscape. The shift toward energy‐efficient technologies like LED lighting and the emergence of large data centers introduces new considerations for load management.
Cybersecurity Enhancements
: As digital infrastructure becomes more integrated, safeguarding against software and access hacking becomes paramount. Additionally, advancements in safeguarding against physical terrorist risk to ensure grid reliability and security, such as the concept of a “Digital Twin” are discussed.
Transitioning System Operations
: The evolving dynamics of system operations create a situation requiring a balance between reliability and risk management. The increasing adoption of inverter‐based renewable energy resources, such as solar and wind power, along with battery‐driven energy storage solutions, necessitates a flexible grid configuration to optimize their integration.
Additionally, this Third Edition publication includes insights into wildfire ignition mitigation strategies, updates on regulatory reliability issues faced by utilities, and addresses basic miscellaneous items, such as updated equipment photos.
This book serves as a valuable resource for stakeholders involved in planning, operation, and regulation of modern power grids, and those merely interested in the latest developments and strategies to help navigate the transitioning energy landscape.
11 August 2025
Steven W. BlumeSan Marcos, CA
Chapter Summaries
A brief overview of each chapter is presented below. Knowing how the information is organized in this book helps the reader comprehend the material. The language used in this book reflects actual industry terminology.
Chapter 1: System Overview, Terminology, and Basic Concepts
This book begins with a brief yet informative discussion of the history leading to the power systems we know today. A system overview diagram is presented with brief discussions of each major division within the power system. Basic definitions and common terminology are discussed such as voltage, current, power, and energy. To set the stage for more advanced learning, fundamental concepts such as direct and alternating current (i.e., dc and ac), frequency, single‐phase and three‐phase, types of loads, and power system efficiency are discussed.
This chapter introduces how electrical generators produce electricity. The physical laws and electrical and magnetic concepts presented in this chapter serve as the foundation for all electric power systems.
Basic electrical formulas are presented throughout this book to help explain terminology, relationships, and concepts associated with electric power systems. The reader should not be intimidated nor concerned about math; they are strictly used to illustrate, describe, and explain electrical relationships.
Chapter 2: Generation
This chapter presents basic concepts behind various traditional and non‐traditional electrical generation sources or power plants. These concepts include sub‐systems that differentiate plants, such as their natural resources, spin or non‐spinning rotors, operational characteristics, environmental effects, and overall efficiencies.
The reader becomes more knowledgeable about the various aspects of electrical generation, such as the different prime movers used to rotate generator shafts and the basic building blocks that make up the various power plants. The prime movers discussed include steam, hydro, and wind turbines.
This chapter discusses the major equipment components or sub‐systems associated with each power plant type, such as boilers, cooling towers, boiler feed pumps, and high‐ and low‐pressure systems. Also, the basic design concepts of how small and large solar and wind generators convert sustainable resources into useful electrical energy are discussed.
Finally, this chapter discusses the growing use of non‐rotating electric energy sources, primarily solar photovoltaic, wind, and battery storage. An explanation of Inverter Based Resources (IBRs) is also provided.
Chapter 3: Transmission Lines
This chapter explains the reasons for using very high‐voltage power lines compared to low‐voltage power lines and the fundamental components of transmission lines such as conductors, insulators, air gaps, and shielding. Further, this chapter compares direct current (dc) transmission to alternating current (ac) transmission lines, as well as underground transmission to overhead transmission. The reader will obtain a good understanding of transmission line design parameters and the benefits of using high‐voltage transmission for efficient transport of electrical power.
Chapter 4: Substations
This chapter covers equipment found in substations that transform very high‐voltage electrical energy transported from generation facilities into a more usable form of electrical energy for distribution and consumption. This chapter discusses the equipment itself (i.e., transformers, regulators, circuit breakers, and disconnect switches) and their relationship to system protection, maintenance operations, and system control. This chapter also includes discussions on control building equipment, static VAR compensators, preventative maintenance practices, and new digital substation equipment being used to help modernize operations and reliability.
Chapter 5: Distribution
This chapter describes how primary distribution systems, both overhead and underground, are designed, operated, and used to serve residential, commercial, and industrial consumers. The focus is on the distribution system between the substation and the consumer's demarcation point (i.e., service entrance equipment). This chapter covers overhead and underground line configurations, voltage classifications, and common equipment used in distribution systems. The reader will learn how distribution systems are designed and built to provide reliable electrical power to end users.
This chapter is based on traditional distribution systems, whereas modernization concepts, such as distribution automation, intelligent electronic devices, decentralized control, advanced distribution management systems (ADMS), distributed renewable energy resources (DERMS), distributed energy resources (DERs), and other modernizing developments are discussed in more detail in Chapter 10 (The Transitioning Digital Power Grid).
Chapter 6: Consumption
This chapter discusses equipment located between the customer service entrance demarcation point and the wiring to actual load devices. This chapter also explains the use of emergency generators and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems to enhance reliable electric service and power quality. This chapter also covers smart meters, service reliability indicators, common problems, and solutions associated with large power consumers, such as robust data centers.
Chapter 7: System Protection
This chapter is devoted to “system protection” and how electric power systems are protected against equipment failures, faults on power lines, lightning strikes, inadvertent operations, and other events that cause system disturbances. “Personal protection” (i.e., personal safety) is discussed later in Chapter 11.
Reliable service is dependent upon properly designed and periodically tested protective relay systems. These systems, and their associated protective relay types, are explained for transmission and distribution lines, substations, and generator units, including generator synchronization to the main power grid. The reader learns how the entire electric power protection system is designed, with overlap and backup schemes, to protect itself from unexpected faults, and to minimize the impact of major system disturbances.
This chapter discusses enhancements to protective relay systems that address wildfire ignition mitigation strategies. Enhanced protective relay schemes discussed in this chapter include accelerated fast tripping, highly sensitive fault detection, downed conductor detection, temporarily disabling automatic reclosing during fire seasons, and other protection equipment enhancements such as upgraded expulsion‐type fuses.
Chapter 8: Interconnected Power Systems
This chapter starts with a discussion of the four major power grids in North America and how these grids are territorially divided, operated, controlled, and regulated. This chapter emphasizes how individual power companies are interconnected to improve overall performance, reliability, stability, and security. Other topics discussed include generation‐load balance, resource planning, and operational limitations under normal and emergency conditions. This chapter discusses the concepts of rolling blackouts, brownouts, load shedding, and other service reliability issues and methods used to minimize outages.
Chapter 9: System Control Centers and Telecommunications
System control centers are extremely important in the day‐to‐day operation of electric power systems. This chapter explains how system control center operators remotely monitor and control equipment located in substations, on power lines, and at actual consumer locations. These tools enable transmission and generator operators to economically dispatch power, meet energy demand, control equipment during normal and emergency conditions, monitor system health, and interpret alarms from pending circumstances. This chapter includes the explanation and use of SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) and EMS (Energy Management Systems).
The functionality and benefits of the various types of communications systems used to connect system control centers with remote terminal units are discussed in this chapter. These telecommunications systems include optical fibers, microwave, power line carriers, radio, and copper wireline circuits. In a fundamental manner, this chapter discusses how these digital data/voice/video communications services are used in protective relaying, customer service call centers, and other critical corporate needs.
This chapter also discusses the modernization of system control center tools, such as synchrophasors and wide area monitoring systems to improve system visibility, security, and reliability.
Chapter 10: The Transitioning Digital Power Grid
This new chapter focuses on the significant changes occurring in the transitioning digital power grid system. The key areas include transmission reliability enhancements such as voltage and frequency ride through to help replace the declining spinning inertia, how the “Duck Curve” characterizes changes in load‐generation resource balance, and the growing use of large battery storage systems.
Significant changes in how the distribution system infrastructure and operations are adapting to modernizing trends are discussed, such as advanced distribution automation, integration of dispatchable distributed energy resources, bi‐directional power flow on distribution feeders, inverter‐based resources, changing load characteristics, the use of intelligent edge systems (i.e., microgrids), and electric vehicle charging systems. These distribution system enhancements affect regulatory oversight, open the door for increased private generator ownership, create new challenges for power‐load balance, and increase reliability vulnerability due to dependency on privately owned small‐ and large‐scale renewable energy resources.
The essence of Chapter 10 is to discuss these system modernization changes and how their combined impact affects the performance of the evolving digital power grid system.
Chapter 11: Personal Protection (Safety)
The book concludes with a chapter devoted to electrical safety, both personal protection and safe working practices around high‐voltage facilities and the home. Personal protective equipment such as rubber insulation products and grounding equipment necessary for effective de‐energized operations are described and discussed in this chapter. Common safety practices, procedures, and methods used by industry leaders are discussed, such as “equipotential grounding” to protect personnel from potentially hazardous effects of “Ground Potential Rise,” “Touch Potential,” and “Step Potential.”
This chapter includes a discussion on the very important issue of Arc‐Flash safety. Arc‐flash is the term used to describe when equipment unexpectedly explodes or creates arcs causing dangerous heat, flying molten metal, deafening sounds, and air pressure blasts to nearby personnel. The discussion includes governmental rules and regulations, proper safety procedures, responsibilities, and special clothing needed to protect oneself from the hazard of arc‐flash.
The last item discussed in this book is electrical safety around the home. Although high‐voltage is dangerous, normal residential voltage is lethal too, and safety around the home is another very important topic covered in this book.
In summary, the purpose of this book is to give readers a basic overview of how electric power systems work, enhanced with information on the transitioning infrastructure, and concluding with a chapter on electrical safety around high‐voltage equipment and the home.
Acknowledgments
I personally want to thank several people who contributed to the success of my career and the continued success of this book. To my wife Maureen who has been supporting me for well over 50 years: thank you for your love, guidance, understanding, encouragement, and so much more. Thank you, John McDonald; your encouragement, vision, and recognition are greatly appreciated. Thank you, Michele Wynne; your enthusiasm, organizational skills, and creative ideas are genuinely appreciated. Thank you, Bill Ackerman; you are a great go‐to person for technical answers and courseware development. I would also like to thank all of those who reviewed my final manuscript draft and provided professional suggestions to further enhance this book for the benefit of the readers.
Steven W. Blume
1System Overview, Terminology, and Basic Concepts
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, the reader will be able to:
Discuss the history of electricity
Describe key components in the system overview
Explain the differences between voltage, current, power, and energy
Describe how electricity is generated using nature's physical laws
Discuss the three main components of a generator
Explain the differences between delta and wye connection configurations
Describe the three types of load (electrical consumption) and their characteristics
History of Electric Power
Benjamin Franklin is known for his discovery of electricity. Born in 1706, he began studying electricity in the early 1750s. His observations, including his famous kite experiment, verified the nature of electricity. He knew that lightning is very powerful and dangerous. The 1752 kite experiment used a pointed metal object at the top end of hemp kite string and a metal key at the string's base end. (Hemp is a perennial American plant used in rope making by native Americans.) The string passed through the key and attached to a Leyden jar. (A Leyden jar consists of two metal conductors separated by an insulator.) He held the string with a short section of dry silk as insulation from lightning energy. He then flew the kite into a thunderstorm. He first noticed some loose strands of hemp string stood erect, avoiding one another. He touched the key with his knuckle and received a small electrical shock.
Later, many great discoveries in electricity and magnetism principles occurred by Volta, Coulomb, Gauss, Henry, Faraday, Tesla, and others between 1750 and 1850. It was found that electric current in a wire produces a magnetic field. And it was found that a moving magnetic field near a wire produces electricity. These discoveries led to many inventions such as the battery (1800), generator (1831), motor (1831), telegraph (1837), telephone (1876), and many other intriguing inventions.
In 1879, Thomas Edison invented a relatively efficient light bulb, like today's incandescent bulbs. In 1882, he placed into operation the historic Pearl Street steam‐electric power plant and first direct current (dc) distribution system in New York City, powering over 10,000 electric light bulbs. By the late 1880s, power for electric motors brought in 24‐hour service and dramatically raised electricity demand for transportation and other industry needs. By the end of the 1880s, small, centralized areas of electrical power distribution centers sprinkled U.S. cities. Each distribution center was limited to a few blocks because of transmission inefficiencies using dc. Voltage could not be increased or decreased using dc systems and the need to transport power longer distances was in order.
To solve the problem of transporting electrical power long distances, George Westinghouse developed a device called “transformer.” Transformers allow electrical energy to be transported long distances efficiently by raising voltage to reduce losses. This made it possible to supply electric power to homes and businesses located far from electric power generating plants. The application of transformers required electric power systems to be of the alternating current (ac) type opposed to dc type.
The development of Niagara Falls hydroelectric power plant in 1896 started the practice of placing electric power‐generating plants far from consumption areas. The Niagara plant produced electricity to Buffalo, NY, over 20 miles away. Westinghouse used technology developed by Nicolas Tesla, who convincingly proved the superiority of transporting electric power long distances using ac instead of dc. Niagara was the first large power system to supply multiple large consumers with only one power line across a long distance.
Since the early 1900s, ac power systems began appearing throughout the United States. These power systems became interconnected to form what we know today as four major power grids in the United States and Canada.
It is interesting to note how dc systems are coming back. For example, rooftop solar, dc transmission lines, offshore wind farms, and other dc generation and load facilities are growing at a significant rate. Furthermore, most electrical devices used as residential load operate on dc. Power converters, such as plug‐in ac/dc power supplies, are used to power computers, monitors, and Wi‐Fi electronic equipment. Internal ac/dc power converters are used in televisions, radios, home theater equipment, and other digitally based appliances and devices. More on this subject is provided later in this book, including the all‐dc electric home.
The remainder of this chapter discusses fundamental terms and concepts used in today's electric power systems based on this impressive history.
System Overview
Electric power systems are real‐time energy delivery systems. Real‐time, meaning power is generated, transported, and supplied the moment you turn on a light switch. Electric power systems are not storage systems like water and gas systems. Instead, generators produce energy as demand calls for it! Energy is transported almost at the speed of light.
Figure 1-1 shows the basic building blocks of an electric power system. Starting with generation, electrical energy is produced and then transformed into high‐voltage (HV) electrical energy, more suitable for long‐distance transportation, which occurs at power plants and their associated transmission substations. Power plants transform other sources of energy into producing electrical energy. For example, heat, wind, solar, mechanical, hydraulic, chemical, geothermal, nuclear, biofuel, and other energy sources are used to produce electrical energy. HV transmissionpower lines efficiently transport this electrical energy long distances to consumption locations. Remote distribution substations transform HV transmission electrical energy into more suitable lower HV power lines called “primary feeders” for delivery to consumers. The distribution part of the electric power system starts with the lower voltage side of substation transformers, and all distribution primary voltage feeders, and service runs to consumers. Services to consumers require electrical energy on the primary feeders to be transformed again into an even lower service voltage called secondary. Secondary voltage services are more suitable for connecting residential, commercial, and industrial equipment.
Figure 1-1 System overview.
A full‐scale actual interconnected electric power system, often referred to as “bulk electric power” system or “BES,” is much more complex than that shown; however, the basic principles, concepts, theories, and terminologies are all the same. We will start with the basics and add complexity as we progress through the material, eventually covering the design and operational nature of the entire BES.
Terminology
Let us start with building a strong understanding of basic terms and concepts most often used by industry professionals to describe and discuss electrical issues in small‐to‐large power systems. Please take the time necessary to grasp these basic terms and concepts. We will use them throughout this book to build a complete working knowledge of how electrical power systems work.
Voltage
The first term or concept to understand is voltage. Voltage is the potential energy source in an electrical circuit to make things happen. It is sometimes called electro‐motive force or EMF. The unit of voltage is the Volt. The Volt was named in honor of Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (1745–1827), the Italian physicist who also invented the battery. Electrical voltage is identified by the symbol “e” or “E” (some references use symbols “v” or “V”).
Voltage is the electric power system's potential energy source. In other words, voltage has the potential to do work but does nothing by itself. Voltage is a push or pull force. Voltage is what pushes and pulls electrons through wires. Voltage always appears between two points in an electrical circuit.
Normally, voltage is either constant (i.e., direct) or alternating (i.e., changing). Electric power systems are based on alternating voltage applications from low voltage 120 Volt residential systems to ultra‐HV 765,000 Volt transmission systems. There are lower and higher voltage applications involved in electric power systems; however, this voltage range is commonly used in the North American electric power systems.
In water systems, voltage corresponds to pressure pushing water through pipes. Like voltage, water pressure is present in pipes even though no water is flowing (i.e., valve shut), thus a potential energy source!
Current
Current is the flow of electrons in a conductor (wire). Electrons are pushed or pulled by voltage through an electrical circuit or closed‐loop path. The electrons flowing in a conductor always return to their voltage source (hence “closed‐loop path”). The unit of current is ampere (also called amps), named after Andre‐Marie Ampere, a French physicist. (One amp is equal to 628 × 1016 electrons flowing in the conductor per second.) The number of electrons never decreases in a closed‐loop path or circuit. The flow of electrons in a conductor produces heat from the conductor's resistance (i.e., electrical friction).
Voltage always tries to push or pull current. Therefore, voltage causes current to flow in a circuit or closed‐loop path. Circuit resistance reduces current flow and produces heat in the process. As electrons flow in a circuit, potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Finally, load converts the kinetic energy into useful work.
Current flow in a conductor is like ping‐pong balls lined up in a tube. Referring to Figure 1-2, a pressure on one end of the tube (e.g., voltage) pushes the balls through the tube. The pressure source (e.g., battery) collects the balls exiting the tube and re‐enters them into the tube in a circulating manner (hence, a closed‐loop path). The number of balls traveling through the tube per second is analogous to current. Current is the movement of electrons in a specified direction. Electrical current is identified by the symbol “i” or “I.” (The use of “I” for current originated from “intensity”).
Figure 1-2 Current flow.
Hole Flow vs. Electron Flow
Electron flow occurs when electrons leave the negative terminal of a voltage source, then travel from atom to atom toward the positive terminal of the voltage source. Holes or vacancies occur in atoms when electrons leave to enter adjacent atoms. Holes left behind constitute a current of vacancies moving in the opposite direction to electron flow or from the positive side of the voltage source toward the negative side of the voltage source. Therefore, as electrons flow in a circuit in one direction, holes in the same circuit flow in the opposite direction. Current flow is both electron flow or hole flow. The standard convention used in low‐voltage dc electric circuits is hole flow! (One reason for this standard convention is early experiments simply defined current flow as being from positive to negative; without really knowing what was moving!) Since current flows both directions in ac circuits, the notion of electron flow versus hole flow is minimized.
One especially important phenomenon about current flowing in a conductor is “current flowing in a conductor produces a magnetic field”! See Figure 1-3. This is a physical law, like gravity being a physical law. For now, just keep in mind that magnetic fields occur automatically around wires when voltage pushes or pulls electrons. Note: Figure 1-3 shows a diagram that corresponds to the direction of conventional or hole flow current according to the “right‐hand rule.”
Figure 1-3 Current and magnetic field.
Power
The unit of power is the Watt, named after James Watt (1736–1819), who is also the inventor of steam engines. Voltage by itself does not do real work, but serves only as a potential energy source. Current does not exist without voltage and therefore current by itself does not do real work. However, voltage and current together can produce real work. Thus, power, the combination of voltage and current, produces real work. Power is the mathematical product of voltage x (times) current.
Electrical power can create heat, spin motors, light lamps, etc. Power is part voltage and part current. Power equals zero if either voltage or current is zero. Voltage appears at a wall outlet in your home as a potential energy source. However, a toaster plugged into an outlet does not consume power until someone switches on the toaster. Switching on the toaster enables current to flow through high‐resistive wires, creating heat, thus allowing both voltage and current to be present.
Energy
Electrical energy is the mathematical product of electrical power and time. The amount of time a load is on (i.e., current flowing) times the amount of power used by the load (i.e., watts) is energy. The measurement for electrical energy is watt‐hours. The more common units of electrical energy for residential applications are kilo‐watt‐hours (kWh, meaning 1,000 watt‐hours) and for large industrial applications are mega‐watt‐hours (MWh, meaning 1,000,000 watt‐hours), and power companies might use giga‐watt‐hours (GWh, meaning 1,000,000,000 watt‐hours) as a measurement of substantial amounts of electrical energy produced or consumed.
DC Voltage and Current
Direct Current is the flow of electrons in a circuit and always in the same direction. dc (i.e., one direction current) occurs when voltage is constant, as shown in Figure 1-4. A battery, for example, produces dc current when connected to a circuit because the voltage source is constant. Electrons leaving the negative terminal of a battery move through the circuit toward the positive terminal of the battery. Holes, however, flow in the opposite direction.
Figure 1-4 Direct (i.e., dc voltage).
AC Voltage and Current
When the potential energy source terminals (i.e., voltage) alternate positive and negative, current flow in the electrical circuit likewise alternates (clockwise and counterclockwise). Thus, ac occurs when the voltage source terminals alternate.
Figure 1-5 shows the voltage increasing from zero to a positive peak value, then decreasing through zero to a negative peak value and back through zero again completing one cycle. In mathematical terms, this describes a sine wave. The sine wave can repeat many times in a second, minute, hour, or day. The cycle's period is the length of time it takes to complete one sine wave cycle. The number of cycles occurring in one second is called “frequency.”
Figure 1-5 Alternating (i.e., ac voltage).
Comparing AC and DC Voltage and Current
Electrical load
