Electronic Waste E-Book
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- Sprache: Englisch
Discover the latest technologies in the pursuit of zero-waste solutions in the electronics industry
In Electronic Waste: Recycling and Reprocessing for a Sustainable Future, a team of expert sustainability researchers delivers a collection of resources that thoroughly examine methods for extracting value from electronic waste while aiming for a zero-waste scenario in industrial production. The book discusses the manufacturing and use of materials in electronic devices while presenting an overview of separation methods for industrial materials.
Readers will also benefit from a global overview of various national and international regulations related to the topic of electronic and electrical waste.
A must-read resource for scientists and engineers working in the production and development of electronic devices, the authors provide comprehensive overviews of the benefits of achieving a zero-waste solution in electronic and electrical waste, as well as the risks posed by incorrectly disposed of electronic waste.
Readers will enjoy:
- An introduction to electronic waste, including the opportunities presented by zero-waste technologies and solutions
- Explorations of e-waste management and practices in developed and developing countries and e-waste transboundary movement regulations in a variety of jurisdictions
- Practical discussions of approaches for estimating e-waste generation and the materials used in electronic equipment and manufacturing perspectives
- In-depth treatments of various recycling technologies, including physical separation, pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and biohydrometallurgy
Perfect for materials scientists, electronic engineers, and metal processing professionals, Electronic Waste: Recycling and Reprocessing for a Sustainable Future will also earn a place in the libraries of industrial chemists and professionals working in organizations that use large amounts of chemicals or produce electronic waste.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
1 Introduction, Vision, and Opportunities
1.1 Background
1.2 E-Waste
1.3 Outline
References
2 e-Waste Management and Practices in Developed and Developing Countries*
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Overview on WEEE Management and Practices
2.3 International WEEE Management and Transboundary Movement
2.4 WEEE Management and Practices – Developed and Developing Countries
2.5 Developed Countries
2.6 Developing Countries
2.7 Conclusions
References
Note
3 e-Waste Transboundary Movement Regulations in Various Jurisdictions*
3.1 Background
3.2 International Legislation and Transboundary Movement
3.3 Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
3.4 Regulations in Various Jurisdictions
3.5 Conclusions
References
Note
4 Approach for Estimating e-Waste Generation
4.1 Background
4.2 Econometric Analysis
4.3 Consumption and Use/Leaching/Approximation 1 Method
4.4 The Sales/Approximation 2 Method
4.5 Market Supply Method
4.6 Time-Step Method
4.7 Summary of Estimation Methods
4.8 Lifespan of Electronic Products
4.9 Global e-Waste Estimation
References
5 Materials Used in Electronic Equipment and Manufacturing Perspectives*
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Large Household Appliances (LHA)
5.3 Small Household Appliance (SHA)
5.4 IT and Telecommunications Equipment
5.5 Photovoltaic (PV) Panels
5.6 Lighting Equipment
5.7 Toys, Leisure, and Sport
5.8 Future Trends in WEEE – Manufacturing, Design, and Demand
References
Note
6 Recycling Technologies – Physical Separation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Dismantling
6.3 Comminution/Size Reduction
6.4 Particle Size Analysis
6.5 Size Separation/Classification
6.6 Magnetic Separation
6.7 Electrical Separation
6.8 Gravity Separation
6.9 Froth Flotation
6.10 Sensor-Based Sorting
6.11 Example Flowsheets
References
7 Pyrometallurgical Processes for Recycling Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Printed Circuit Boards
7.3 Pyrometallurgical Processes
References
8 Recycling Technologies – Hydrometallurgy
8.1 Background
8.2 Waste Printed Circuit Boards (WPCBs)
8.3 Photovoltaic Modules (PV)
8.4 Batteries
8.5 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
8.6 Trends
References
9 Recycling Technologies – Biohydrometallurgy
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Bioleaching: Metal Winning with Microbes
9.3 Biosorption: Selective Metal Recovery from Waste Waters
9.4 Bioflotation: Separation of Particles with Biological Means
9.5 Bioreduction and Bioaccumulation: Nanomaterials from Waste
9.6 Conclusion
References
10 Processing of Nonmetal Fraction from Printed Circuit Boards and Reutilization
10.1 Background
10.2 Nonmetal Fraction Composition
10.3 Benefits of NMF Recycling
10.4 Recycling of NMF
10.5 Potential Usage
References
11 Life Cycle Assessment of e-Waste – Waste Cellphone Recycling
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Background
11.3 LCA Studies on WEEE
11.4 Case Study
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 Biodegradability and Compostability Aspects of Organic Electronic Materials and Devices
12.1 Introduction
12.2 State of the Art in Biodegradable Electronics
12.3 Organic Field-Effect Transistors (OFETs)
12.4 Electrochemical Energy Storage
12.5 Biodegradation in Natural and Industrial Ecosystems
12.6 Microbiome in Natural and Industrial Ecosystems
12.7 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives
Acknowledgment
References
13 Circular Economy in Electronics and the Future of e-Waste
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Digitalization and the Need for Electronic Devices
13.3 Recycling and Circular Economy
13.4 Challenges for e-Waste Recycling and Circular Economy
13.5 Drivers for Change – Circular Economy
13.6 Demand for Recyclable Products
13.7 Summary
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Average metal content in various waste EEE and typical ore.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Nonexhaustive list of legislations and regulations implemented to ...
Table 3.2 Nonexhaustive list of legislations and regulations implemented to ...
Table 3.3 Extended producer responsibility (EPR) in different countries.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Methods to estimate e-waste generation.
Table 4.2 Estimated lifespan of EEE.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 WEEE categories according to the European Parliament.
Table 5.2 WEEE generic material composition (%).
Table 5.3 Small household appliances generic material composition in %.
Table 5.4 Notebook and desktop computer material content (%).
Table 5.5 Average material parts (in wt%) of mobile phones.
Table 5.6 PCB typical average content (%).
Table 5.7 PV panel content in g/unit.
Table 5.8 Components of lighting equipment (wt%).
Table 5.9 Toys content in weight %.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Research in the field of flotation separation of various plastics ...
Table 6.2 Sensor technologies.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Mass percentage of main metals in different WPCBs.
Table 8.2 Results compilation for extraction and recovery from WPCBs by leac...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Description of the most common types of PCB.
Table 10.2 Amount of fiberglass locked in e-waste.
Table 10.3 Density of various components of the nonmetal fraction.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 The average composition of feature phones and smartphones in Chin...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 State of the art of high-performance quinone-based OFETs.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Simplified flow of EEE products.
Figure 1.2 Estimated value of materials present in e-waste.
Figure 1.3 Average percent weight of some common metals found in PCB, photov...
Figure 1.4 (a) Composition of photovoltaic modules illustrated as kilograms ...
Figure 1.5 Multidisciplinary aspects of e-waste recycling.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 WEEE management flowchart.
Figure 2.2 Distinct WEEE take-back systems in Europe.
Figure 2.3 Known sources, destinations, and suspected destinations of WEEE t...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Known routes and permissions/bans for the WEEE imports/exports in...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 E-waste generated per capita with respect to the PPP and populati...
Figure 4.2 (a) Discard probability. (b) Cumulative discard probability of va...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 WEEE content in percentage. LHA, Large household appliances; SHA,...
Figure 5.2 Most common large household appliances composition (%).
ATE
,
air
...
Figure 5.3 Small household appliances examples composition (%). PCB, printed...
Figure 5.4 Precious and base computer parts metal content (g/kg).
Figure 5.5 Content of most common materials/metals in screens technology and...
Figure 5.6 CRT monitor oxide content (%).
Figure 5.7 Mobile phones content (g/kg).
Figure 5.8 Mobile phone content (g/unit).
Figure 5.9 PCB content in g/ton of different appliances.
Figure 5.10 Parts of a desktop computer PCB content in g/kg.
Figure 5.11 Photovoltaic panels composition, in mg/kg. (Choi and Fthenakis 2...
Figure 5.12 Rare-earth content in phosphorous powder of fluorescent lamps (i...
Figure 5.13 Rare-earth oxides content (in g/unit) according to lighting type...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Cross-section of a typical hammer mill.
Figure 6.2 SELFRAG lab.
Figure 6.3 (a) GRINDOMIX GM 300 knife mill (b) CryoMill.
Figure 6.4 Particle size distribution plot.
Figure 6.5 An example of a closed-circuit comminution circuit.
Figure 6.6 Schematic of a hydrocyclone.
Figure 6.7 Mechanical size classification equipment: (a) spiral; and (b) rak...
Figure 6.8 Rare-earth roll dry low-intensity magnetic separator.
Figure 6.9 Induced roll magnetic separator.
Figure 6.10 Design of a triboelectric separation system.
Figure 6.11 Schematic of eddy current separator.
Figure 6.12 Schematic of a wet shaking table.
Figure 6.13 Schematic of a Knelson centrifugal concentrator.
Figure 6.14 End view of the drum separator.
Figure 6.15 The process of froth flotation.
Figure 6.16 Recycling process and recovered materials from various e-waste u...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Map identifying the rare and precious metals distribution in a PC...
Figure 7.2 CuFeS
2
-SiO
2
-O
2
predominance diagram (using a 2 : 1 CuFeS
2
:SiO
2
mo...
Figure 7.3 Umicore’s IsaSmelt furnace.
Figure 7.4 Partitioning of WPCBs during the Cu-smelting operations.
Figure 7.5 Flowsheet of Hoboken integrated smelter and refinery plant of Umi...
Figure 7.6 (a) longitudinal section of the solidified sample: crucible is at...
Figure 7.7 PbS-O
2
-S
2
-(SiO
2
)
0.4
(FeO)
0.3
(CaO)
0.1
predominance diagram generate...
Figure 7.8 An overview of select electrochemical approaches for waste recycl...
Figure 7.9 Flowsheet of the RE recovery from NdFeB scrap using molten chlori...
Figure 7.10 Block diagram of the copper recovery process from WPCBs by media...
Figure 7.11 Proposed flow sheet for a mobile electronic recycling by Lister ...
Figure 7.12 Flowsheet of the recycling process of pyrolyzed printed circuit ...
Figure 7.13 Flowsheet of a molten NaOH-KOH eutectic salt oxidation process (...
Figure 7.14 Evolution of the vapor pressure of different metallic elements a...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 General flowchart illustrating the whole recycling value chain of...
Figure 8.2 The proposed route for extraction of Cu, Ag, Au, and Pd from WPCB...
Figure 8.3 Recycling process of c-Si modules proposed by the FRELP method of...
Figure 8.4 Recycling flowchart of REE recovery from LED waste.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Use of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) producing bacteri...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Stages of an LCA.
Figure 11.2 Life cycle environmental impacts of feature phones (formal scena...
Figure 11.3 Cumulative probability of the total GHG emissions in the feature...
Figure 11.4 Life cycle environmental impacts of feature phones (informal sce...
Figure 11.5 Cumulative probability of the total GHG emissions in the feature...
Figure 11.6 Life cycle environmental impacts of smartphones (formal scenario...
Figure 11.7 Cumulative probability of the total GHG emissions on smartphones...
Figure 11.8 Life cycle environmental impacts of smartphones (informal scenar...
Figure 11.9 Cumulative probability of the total GHG emissions in smartphones...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Illustration of currently adopted municipal recycling strategy a...
Figure 12.2 Structures of small molecules of interest in organic electronics...
Figure 12.3 Comparison between
organic electrode material
s (
OEM
s) and inorga...
Figure 12.4 Chemical structures of dopamine, building blocks of eumelanin wh...
Figure 12.5 Hydroquinone (H2Q),
semiquinone
(
SQ
), and quinone (Q) redox form...
Figure 12.6 Illustration of the end of life of hypothetical biodegradable el...
Figure 12.7 Process kinetics overview. (a) process design, (b) interconnecte...
Figure 12.8 Organic waste treatment facilities can be considered as ecosyste...
Figure 12.9 Microbiology techniques used in the study of microbiomes. (a) Cl...
Figure 12.10 Schematic representation of (a) two natural ecosystems, i.e. co...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Recycling of materials – past and future.
Figure 13.2 Learning during the life cycle.
Figure 13.3 The circular-economy model.
Figure 13.4 Transition toward circular economy step by step.
Figure 13.5 The balance between the use of natural resources and the planet’...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Electronic Waste
Recycling and Reprocessing for a Sustainable Future
Edited byMaria E. HoluszkoAmit KumarDenise C. R. Espinosa
Editor
Dr. Maria E. Holuszko
The University of British Columbia
NBK Institue of Mining Engineering
517-6350 Stores Road
V6T 1Z4 Vancouver, BC
Canada
Dr. Amit Kumar
The University of British Columbia
NBK Institue of Mining Engineering
517-6350 Stores Road
V6T 1Z4 Vancouver, BC
Canada
Dr. Denise C. R. Espinosa
University of Sao Paulo
Polytechnic School, Department of Chemical Engineering
Av. Prof. Luciano Gualberto
380 – Butantã, São Paulo, SP 05508-010
Brazil
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © Andrei Kuzmik/Shutterstock, Recyling symbol – public domain
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Preface
Digitalization has played an essential role in social and technological development globally, while electronic and electrical equipment has become integral to our everyday lives. Digital devices provide broad access to education, instant information, continuous entertainment and contribute to mass communication, thus improving the overall quality of our lives. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the internet allowed us to function and remain a productive society worldwide.
Meanwhile, the life expectancy of most electronic devices, specifically small devices such as cellphones, tablets, and laptops, is getting shorter and shorter, resulting in alarming amounts of e-waste generation. Many discarded electronics are being improperly disposed of, hence posing a significant risk to the environment and human health. With an estimated annual growth of 3–4%, electronic waste is the fastest growing waste stream worldwide, exceeding 50 Mt annually in 2019, while only 20% of the e-waste is collected and recycled globally. The electronic devices have been reported to contain gold and copper grades, significantly exceeding the grades of many operating mines. The existence of precious metals in e-waste provides an economic incentive for recycling. On the other hand, the presence of hazardous substances in e-waste calls for complex reprocessing to decontaminate before its final disposal.
The development of efficient e-waste recycling methods and the recovery of precious metals and critical materials from e-waste are interesting and technically challenging. Furthermore, the informal urban mining of e-waste creates significant social and public health issues. Therefore, there was a need for a comprehensive overview of the current situation with e-waste generation, disposal, regulations, recycling technologies while providing a global perspective.
This book aims to overview the current global situation regarding e-waste, including technological issues with e-waste recycling and recovery of value from e-waste streams. The chapters in this book outline the definition of electronic waste, explore methods for e-waste estimation, identify challenges related to the timely information on e-waste collection and management, and elaborate on the practices in developed and developing countries. The book delivers information on currently used recycling technologies, including physical separation technologies, pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and biohydrometallurgy, and reviews materials used in the manufacturing of electronics as well as the development of new materials for green-ecological and biodegradable electronics. Additionally, methods and ideas for new practices to facilitate sustainability in the electronics industry are proposed to “close the loop” in industrial production to minimize waste generation and possibly to promote a zero-waste scenario. The book concludes with a chapter on the circular economy in electronics and provides some perspective on the future of electronic waste.
This book was made possible through collaboration between international experts in the field of e-waste recycling. It collates academic and industrial expertise to provide a comprehensive overview of the scope of the problem with electronics worldwide, specifically on their fate as e-waste and the recycling efforts to shed light on the current e-waste paradigm.
1Introduction, Vision, and Opportunities
Maria E. Holuszko1, Denise C. R. Espinosa2, Tatiana Scarazzato3, and Amit Kumar1
1NBK Institute of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6350, Stores Road, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
2University of São Paulo, Polytechnic School, Department of Chemical Engineering, Av. Prof. Luciano Gualberto, 380 – Butantã, São Paulo – SP 05508-010, Brazil
3Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Department of Materials, 9500, Av. Bento Gonçalves, Porto Alegre – RS, 91509-900, Brazil
1.1 Background
The concept of sustainability defined by The United Nations Organization in 1987, which is valid even today, is based on the idea of “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Nations 2019). Such a concept was complemented in The Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development in which the three pillars of sustainability were defined: economic, environmental, and social development (Comission 2002).
Notwithstanding, the world currently faces a transition between the third and the fourth industrial revolutions, which began about five decades ago and has transformed our way of living. Also known as the Information Revolution, this period has been marked by swift advances in computer technologies, massive popularization of high-technology devices, and the growth of artificial intelligence (Carvalho et al. 2018; Rai and Lal 2000). The technological revolution brought up the creation of lithium-ion batteries, touchscreen devices, supercomputers, photovoltaic panels, and nanocomposites, and practically revolutionized the way the society interacts, the way energy is stored, and the advanced materials field for all industrial sectors.
Electrical and electronic equipment is one of the major consumers of metals such as copper, gold, silver, and iron. Namias (2013) suggested that electronic devices can contain up to 60 different elements that could be valuable or hazardous. Natural Resources Canada (2019) showed that globally 18% of aluminum, 31% of copper, 9.5% of gold, 9% of platinum group metals, and 24% of rare-earth elements were used in electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing in 2017. In the United States of America, 9% of total aluminum, 21% of beryllium, 19% of copper, 40% of gold, and 26% of silver were used in the electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing industry in 2019 (U.S. Geological Survey 2019). BullionStreet (2012) showed that approximately 290 tonnes of gold and 6800 tonnes of silver are consumed by the electronic industry every year. In the current scenario, the new manufacturing industry became dependent on less-known raw materials and increased the extraction of common metals from ores simultaneously. Indium, for example, despite being discovered in 1863, was found to be industrially applicable only in 1934. The use of indium in thin-film coatings, mainly as indium-tin-oxide compound (ITO) in liquid crystal display screens, increased its world consumption over 1000% since 1993 (Alfantazi and Moskalyk 2003).
Rare-earth elements (REEs) are also widely used in digital technologies such as disc drivers and communication systems but also in batteries and fuel cells for hydrogen storage, catalysts, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and fluorescent lighting. Back in 1950, the applications of REE in magnets of electric and electronic equipment were already known. Nevertheless, until 2010 their recycling rate was lower than 1% due to their relatively low prices (Gunn 2013). Between 2010 and 2015, the demand for REE surpassed its supply and continuously increased. As the production is almost totally held by few countries, the recycling of REE has become a paramount concern (Edahbi et al. 2019).
1.2 E-Waste
With the development of new technologies, especially in laptops, cellphones, and tablets, older technologies are getting obsolete, reducing the lifespan of electrical and electronics products and thus contributing to a higher rate of waste generation. As a result, close to 1 billion devices will be discarded within 4–5 years. The discarded electric and electronic equipment or their parts are considered e-waste. The European Commission Directive 2008/98/EC (2008) and the European Union Directive 2012/19/EU (2012) described e-waste as:
any electrical or electronic equipment which is waste (substance or object which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard), including all components, sub-assemblies, and consumables which are part of the product at the time of discarding.
Based on the definition of e-waste, the electrical or electronic equipment (EEE) itself was divided into six (6) classes in the Directive 2012/19/EU (The European Union 2012). These categories with the items (not limited to) in the categories are listed as,
Temperature-exchange equipment: refrigerators, freezers, air conditioning equipment and, heat pumps
Screens, monitors, and equipment containing screens (surface > 100 cm
2
): screens, televisions, LCD photo frames, monitors, laptops, and notebooks
Lamps: fluorescent lamps, high-intensity discharge lamps, including high-pressure sodium lamps and metal halide lamps, low-pressure sodium lamps and LED lamps
Large equipment (external dimensions > 50 cm): washing machines, dryers, dishwashers, electric stoves, musical equipment, large computer mainframes, large printing machines, copying equipment, large coin-slot machines, large medical devices, large automatic dispensers, and photovoltaic panels
Small equipment (external dimensions < 50 cm): vacuum cleaners, appliances for sewing, luminaires, microwaves, irons, toasters, electric kettles, clocks and watches, electric shavers, scales, radio, video cameras, electrical and electronic toys, sports equipment, smoke detectors, heating regulators, thermostats, small electrical and electronic tools, small medical devices, and small automatic dispensers
Small IT and telecommunication equipment (external dimension < 50 cm): mobile phones, GPS, pocket calculators, routers, personal computers, printers, and telephones
This electronic waste (discarded electronics) has been a growing concern around the world. The total e-waste generated around the globe in 2019 was 53.6 million tonnes and is expected to reach 74 million tonnes in 2030. The waste generated per capita increased from 6.1 kg per inhabitant in 2016 to 7.3 kg per inhabitant in 2019 (Forti et al. 2020). Wahlen (2019) reported that under the business-as-usual case, the total e-waste generation would increase to 120 million tonnes by 2050. The growth rate of e-waste generation has been reported to be 3–5% by Cucchiella et al. (2015), 3–4% by Baldé et al. (2017) and Aaron (2019), and as high as 8% by LeBlanc (2018). According to Transparency Market Research report (2017), the global e-waste market is anticipated to increase at a compound annual growth rate of 5.6% by volume from 2016 to 2026.
The fate of the e-waste can be described by the simplified diagram shown in Figure 1.1. The primary focus of any country or organization should be the collection and recycling of e-waste. However, not all the e-waste is collected, and a portion of the e-waste stream is disposed of in landfills. The collected materials are sent for recycling, and the high-value components such as metals and high-value plastics are fed back to the manufacturing stream, whereas low-value materials are disposed of in landfills.
The primary focus of any country or organization should be the collection and recycling of e-waste. However, not all the e-waste is collected, and a portion of the e-waste stream is disposed of in landfills. The collected materials are sent for recycling, and the high-value components such as metals and high-value plastics are fed back to the manufacturing stream, whereas low-value materials are disposed of in landfills. The e-waste collection volume must be increased to boost the circular economy in any part of the world, and the waste stream after the recycling process has to be studied simultaneously for its potential recovery and usage so that the fractions to be disposed of are minimized.
E-waste recycling decreases the amount of extracted raw materials from ores and solid waste inadequate disposal. The recycling routes must also be technically and economically feasible. Given the added value of precious metals and critical metals found in the majority of e-waste, such requirements are not difficult to be fulfilled. Baldé et al. (2017) estimated the amount of various elements and materials present in e-waste. It showed that the total contained/potential value of selected metal and materials present in e-waste was US$ 57 billion in 2019 (Forti et al. 2020). Figure 1.2 shows a breakdown of the various metals and materials present in e-waste with their total amount and estimated values. It should be noted that the estimated value depicted in Figure 1.2 represents an ideal-case scenario of 100% collection and metal recovery and without accounting for costs associated with collection and recycling. It indicates the economic opportunity for e-waste recycling.
Figure 1.1 Simplified flow of EEE products.
Figure 1.2 Estimated value of materials present in e-waste.
It should also be taken into consideration that the concentration of metals in the e-waste is significantly higher than that of a conventional mining operation. The global ore grade has been decreasing, and the increased global metal demand has forced mining operations to increase the plant throughput and excavate more complex and fine-grained ore deposits (Lèbre and Corder 2015).
Table 1.1 shows the concentration of various metals in different types of e-waste and an average ore body. Calvo et al. (2016) summarized that the global average copper grade for run-of-mine ore is ∼0.62% and will decline in the coming years due to the exhaustion of high-grade mines. AME Research (2018) showed that the average copper grade has decreased from 0.74% in 2005 to 0.59% in 2017, with a compound annual decline rate of 1.8%. The global average gold grade of all the deposits was 1.01 g/t in 2013 (Desjardins 2014). The highest gold grade for the underground operation was 21.5 ppm in Fosterville, Australia, whereas for open pit was 7.60 ppm in Way Linggo, Indonesia (Basov 2018). The average output of top-six silver mines was 7.6 oz (215 g) per tonne in 2012 and has dropped to 4–5 oz per ton in 2017 (McLeod 2014; Money Metals Exchange 2018). The palladium grade reported in Table 1.1 is based on the average palladium grade of the Lac des Iles Mine Property in Northern Ontario. It indicates that the average metal grade present in e-waste is significantly higher than conventional mines and thus provides the opportunity for the extraction/urban mining.
Table 1.1 Average metal content in various waste EEE and typical ore.
Copper
Aluminum
Iron
Gold
Silver
Palladium
%
%
%
ppm
ppm
ppm
Air conditioner
6–19
7–9
46
15
58
–
Desktop
7–20
2–4
18–47
46–240
207–570
18–25
Laptop
1–19
1–2
20
32–630
190–1100
19
Mobile phone
10–33
3
5
30–1500
2000–3800
300–1700
Printed circuit board
12–19
2–8
0–11
29–1120
100–5200
33–220
Refrigerator
3–17
1–2
48–50
44
42
–
Television
1–21
1–15
13–43
5–300
120–600
0–20
Washing machine
3–7
0–3
52–53
17
51
–
e-Waste (average)
12–35
1.5–5
5–11
30–350
80–1000
30–200
Typical ore
0.5–3
20–24
30–60
0.5–10
5–10
1–10
Sources: Based on Bizzo et al. (2014), Calvo et al. (2016), Desjardins (2014), Işıldar (2016), Bizzo et al. (2014), Calvo et al. (2016), Desjardins (2014), Fornalczyk et al. (2013), Işıldar (2016), Khaliq et al. (2014), Liu (2014), McLeod (2014), Namias (2013), North American Palladium Ltd. (2018), Shah et al. (2014), Tickner et al. (2016), Zeng et al. (2016).
Figure 1.3 Average percent weight of some common metals found in PCB, photovoltaic modules, and HD magnets (Caldas et al. 2015; Dias et al. 2016, 2018; Kasper et al. 2011; München et al. 2018; München and Veit 2017; Petter et al. 2014; Rozas et al. 2017; Sant’ana et al. 2013; Silvas et al. 2015; Stuhlpfarrer et al. 2015; Yamane et al. 2011).
Sources: Based on Caldas et al. (2015), Dias et al. (2016), and Kasper et al. (2011).
As depicted in Figure 1.3, photovoltaic modules present a high percent weight of a single element (aluminum), while printed circuit boards are composed of a mixture of different metals, mainly copper, iron, aluminum, tin, zinc, and nickel. It is estimated that printed circuit boards (PCBs) may contain an average of 18 elements from the periodic table (Caldas et al. 2015; Kasper et al. 2011; Petter et al. 2014; Rozas et al. 2017; Sant’ana et al. 2013; Silvas et al. 2015; Yamane et al. 2011). Remarkably, hard disk magnets, although they may contain high amounts of iron, also present exciting amounts of rare-earth elements, mainly neodymium, praseodymium, and dysprosium (München and Veit 2017).
Metals that are present in smaller amounts may also be economically advantageous to be recovered. Gold and silver in cell phones, for example, represent about 0.06% and 0.045% in weight, respectively (Caldas et al. 2015; Sant’ana et al. 2013). Considering the number of cell phones worldwide (Kreyenhagen 2018), it can be estimated that almost 300-ton gold is present only in cellphone devices.
The added value of such metals supports their recycling even if they are present in low percent weight. Photovoltaic modules, for example, although present less than 1% of silver in their composition (Figure 1.3), may be economically feasible to be recycled, as shown in Figure 1.4.
From Figure 1.4, it becomes evident that the establishment of feasible recycling routes may be advantageous for reclaiming metals in either high or low amounts. This is undoubtedly challenging, as e-waste from distinct origins would present different compositions and structures. In a microscopic vision, metals and other elements may be bonded with each other in many possibilities, which may require different techniques to achieve their extraction and recovery. Thus, recycling routes must be versatile. Electric and electronic equipment are constantly being improved, and their chemical composition may change both the required process and the obtained materials. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are a good example of continuous improvement. Cathodes from LIBs are typically composed of lithium, cobalt, manganese, and nickel oxides (Blomgren 2017; Zhao et al. 2019). Because cobalt is considered a critical metal, novel cathode materials are being developed, such as sulfur-based cathodes, which eliminate the need for cobalt (Li et al. 2018). High-efficiency anodes are also being developed to increase the performance of LIBs, such as titanium-niobium based anodes for automotive applications (Takami et al. 2018). Considering the speed of technological evolution, in a few decades from now, the composition of obsolete lithium-ion batteries may present a substantial change.
Figure 1.4 (a) Composition of photovoltaic modules illustrated as kilograms of each metal per kilogram of photovoltaic module. (b) Value of each metal per kilogram of photovoltaic modules.
Recycling processing routes are typically hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical, or hydro-pyrometallurgical. Each of them presents both advantages and disadvantages, and all of them may produce toxic tailings, which must be considered. The pyrometallurgical recycling routes consist of several processes that, among others, include smelting, combustion, pyrolysis, molten salt processing, and pyro-chemical techniques. As for drawbacks to the pyrolysis process, there is usually the release of toxic gases and halogen formation arising from fire retardants and plastic mixtures that compose the waste electrical or electronic equipment (WEEE) scrap. For the efficient recovery of metals, some modern methods, such as vacuum pyrolysis, the molten salt process, and pyro-chemistry, appear to be promising candidates because of their innovative solutions for environmental issues and recovery efficiency. Nevertheless, they still need more scientific and technical contributions coupled with industrial validation (Zhang et al. 2015).
Hydrometallurgical processing involves a sequence of methods for producing metals and metal compounds from aqueous media. In general, the process is composed of leaching techniques, followed by purification and recovery of metals, resulting in the desired product. Such a product may be either metals or alloys and compounds containing the metals of interest, such as oxides (Gupta 2003). Precipitation, hydrolysis, electrochemistry, conversion, complexation, solvation, and ionic dissociation are often used in different processing steps. However, such routes often require the use of aggressive and concentrated reactants for leaching steps. The treatment of the generated waste belongs to the development of a hydrometallurgical route. In addition, some processes still present low efficiency. To solve such issues, the scientific community is currently focusing on the development of less-toxic processing routes, using, for example, ionic liquids, supercritical fluids, and organic acids, aiming at achieving optimum extraction rate using greener chemicals.
Nevertheless, another important matter is the efficient collection of the disposed of WEEE to get to recycling industries. The incitement of reversal logistics and circular economy concepts must be improved and optimized to achieve satisfactory rates of recycled WEEE. In this sense, the establishment of strict legislation and efficient management are as well important. In developing countries, for example, WEEE recycling is still incipient, there is little legislation, and incentives are low. Even in developed countries, there is still much to be improved.
These legislations and programs are essential to increase awareness and boost the collection rate. The e-waste management programs also provide collection targets, summarize, and report the collection volumes, which helps to understand the performance and provide better planning tools for the future. An efficient e-waste management program could increase the collection rates, provide a better estimation of e-waste collection, and would also provide a better understanding of the steps required to improve e-waste collection and recycling and thus promote circular economy. At the same time, a higher collection rate in tandem with an efficient recycling system that not only recovers metals but also provides a solution for the nonmetals would be necessary to increase the e-waste circularity.
Therefore, it becomes evident that e-waste recycling is an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary theme, as depicted in Figure 1.5. Technical, economic, legislative, social, and environmental aspects are involved throughout the life cycle of all-electric and electronic equipment, including recycling after their disposal. This book seeks to provide an overview of all aspects of a sustainable future.
1.3 Outline
To fully understand the e-waste, this book presents various sections to describe different aspects of e-waste, e-waste management systems and involved technologies, and other related disciplines.
Chapter 2 presents an overview of e-waste management practices adopted in developed and developing countries. The differences in the availability of regulations in a country directly impact the fate of e-waste in that country.
In Chapter 3, the regulations related to the transboundary movement of e-waste around the world are discussed. The import and export of e-waste is another major challenge in the e-waste management system.
Figure 1.5 Multidisciplinary aspects of e-waste recycling.
Various models and methods used for the quantification of total e-waste globally are presented in Chapter 4. The success of an e-waste recycling or disposal facility depends on the annual throughput to plant.
Chapter 5 emphasizes the materials used in the manufacturing of electronic devices. The determination of type and quantity of the materials used in the manufacturing process define the technologies adapted for recycling.
A detailed view of recycling technologies used in e-waste processing is presented in Chapters 6–10.
Chapter 11 presents insights into the life cycle analysis of obsolete electric and electronic equipment. The life cycle analysis is an essential tool for quantifying the environmental impact of e-waste.
Finally, the future of electronic devices and e-waste is discussed in Chapters 12 and 13, focusing on innovative aspects of manufacturing electronic devices, green chemistry, and circular economy.
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2e-Waste Management and Practices in Developed and Developing Countries*
Pablo Dias1,2, Andréa M. Bernardes2, and Nazmul Huda3
1University of New South Wales, School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, 229 Anzac Parade, Kensington, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
2Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Engineering School, Department of Materials, Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre – RS 91509-900, Brazil
3Macquarie University, School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Balaclava Rd, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
2.1 Introduction
Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE or e-waste) is classified as a solid waste within the hazardous waste category (Goel 2017). E-waste consists in end-of-life electronic and electrical equipment, it comprehends – but is not limited to – obsolete, broken, or used computers, televisions, stereos, photocopiers, printers, faxes, monitors, and mobile phones (Westcott 2012). It also comprehends the less notable equipment such as radios, washing machines, microwave ovens, hair dryers, and photovoltaic panels (EU Directive 2012; Robinson 2009). Moreover, the WEEE definition also includes the components, subset of parts, peripheral accessories and materials used in the manufacturing of these equipment (EU Directive 2012).
The generation of e-waste appears to be higher in developed countries than that in developing economies (Goel 2017), but the WEEE generation has been increasing in both realities (Schluep et al. 2009). Furthermore, a positive correlation between gross domestic product (GDP) and e-waste generated in a given country was confirmed in a recent research. Interestingly, no correlation was found between e-waste generation and population (Kumar et al. 2017).
The current e-waste generation pattern poses one of the world’s greatest pollution problems. On top of the growing generation pattern, e-waste is a particularly important waste stream because of its potential to be pollutants that pose a risk to the environment and to sustainable economic growth; and the potential to be resources, given the significant concentration of precious metals and high-demand materials it contains (Babu et al. 2007; Goosey 2012; Sugimura and Murakami 2016).
2.2 Overview on WEEE Management and Practices
WEEE management is a global challenge especially given many countries have no structured system of reverse logistics, and most WEEE is still disposed of in landfills or open places exposed to the inclement weather (Veit and Bernardes 2015). Tools such as the life cycle analysis (LCA), material flow analysis (MFA), and tailored policies such as extended producer responsibility (EPR) created to assist in waste management are also being applied to the WEEE challenge. These, however, are generally seen in operation only in developed countries (Kiddee et al. 2013). Developed countries tend to have laws and regulation to process WEEE safely. The compliance with these regulations is difficult to assure, given sound processing frequently runs against economic interests (Sthiannopkao and Wong 2013). These take-back systems and end-of-life processing legislation for the electronics industry were originally proposed because of environmental motives (Stevels 2007). A schematic of the management of e-waste from consumption to disposal is illustrated in Figure 2.1.
A different management approach for the global WEEE challenge was proposed recently and named best-of-two-worlds philosophy (Bo2W). It seeks to achieve the most sustainable solution for developing countries under the current international panorama. In summary, the philosophy claims developing countries should take advantage of the low labor cost to employ manual dismantling to liberate e-waste components. These separated and sorted components would then be exported (sold) to developed economies, where technology and infra-structure are available for sound downstream processing. This theoretically ensures labor and revenue for developing nations while ensuring state-of-the-art and environmentally safe end-processing (Goel 2017; Wang et al. 2012).
Figure 2.1 WEEE management flowchart.
Source: Caiado et al. (2017).
Published research also describes measures to achieve better waste management practices. An important component identified is community awareness. Public awareness, outreach campaigns, and educational measures that show the negative impacts of incorrect e-waste disposal and their effective disposal value are particularly important. These campaigns should inform the roles and responsibilities of the agents involved in the e-waste management, including their rights as citizens to access waste management services (Rao et al. 2017; Schumacher and Agbemabiese 2019). To discourage the international e-waste transfer and enhance proper device collection, country studies on the size and destination of the complementary streams should be performed and used to create specific collection targets per WEEE category to specific countries (Huisman 2012).
The world is still searching for an ideal WEEE management model, even if that model is only fitted for a specific country or region. Currently, different country/states have different kinds of regulations and take-back systems. Europe is perhaps the best example to illustrate this great variety, as Great Britain alone holds 44 distinct take-back systems (Figure 2.2).
Regulations can allow or prohibit take-back systems to coexist and/or to compete. In some countries, the collection and recycling operational costs are distributed to the take-back systems according to the producers they represent. The verdict of whether a system run by a monopoly or a system run by companies in competition is more effective, however, is unclear at present. Moreover, the competent authorities hold the essential role of regulating the WEEE management systems to allow them to compete in a fair manner (Toffolet 2016).
Figure 2.2 Distinct WEEE take-back systems in Europe.
Source: Toffolet (2016).
2.3 International WEEE Management and Transboundary Movement
The WEEE rising waste volumes and peculiar characteristics aforementioned created a global export trend, where developed nations sent unwanted WEEE to developing nations. This has been reported in scientific papers to have started from the beginning of the twenty-first century due to large volumes of obsolete electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) in developed countries, and justified as an attempt to bridge the “digital divide” between developed and developing economies (Nnorom and Osibanjo 2008; Yang 2019). Herat and Agamuthu (2012) cited that large volumes were being sent to developing countries for reuse, refurbishment, recycling, and recovery of precious metals, and that some of the main countries receiving e-waste are India, China, Philippines, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Vietnam, and Nigeria. In Nigeria, for instance, it was found that in the period between 2000 and 2010, the majority of its EEE/WEEE was coming from the USA, the UK, Germany, and China (for TVs, cathode ray tubes [CRTs], and personal computers [PCs]), and the imports have increased considerably from 2003 (Babayemi et al. 2015). The total transboundary shipment of hazardous wastes has increased since 2000 for most Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) members and two-thirds of the EU countries, regardless of their trading positions (Yang 2019).
Most developing countries do not have a program for the storage, separation, collection, transport, or disposal of waste, nor adequate legislation and/or monitoring over the waste treatment procedures and the risks associated with incorrect disposal/treatment; this is especially true for e-waste (Nnorom and Osibanjo 2008; Sindiku et al. 2015). Several studies address the consequences of poor end-of-life treatment that happens in developing countries, the main ones involve severe environmental damage and negative impacts on human health (Egeonu and Herat 2016; Li et al. 2019; Schluep 2014; Zhang et al. 2018). These issues should be tackled by increasing the responsibility of the manufacturers (the EPR) and through the technology exchange between countries that export and import e-waste (Li et al. 2013). Nevertheless, the current global panorama remains the same as in previous decades, with large WEEE volumes being transported (legally or illegally) to developing economies (Figure 2.3) (Awasthi and Li 2017).
An important paradigm shift, however, was observed in Brazil, Mexico, South Africa, Nigeria, Indonesia, and Australia: the export of high-end components to countries with established downstream recycling industry. This involves a domestic industry setup capable of executing first stage recycling (i.e. separation of components) and organizing the logistics associated with collection and international shipping, which is achieved either by local companies that work as “material concentrators” and then sell these high-value components abroad or by large foreign downstream recycling enterprises that install sister companies abroad to act as collector, concentrator, and exporter of high-value components. In developing countries, the establishment of this industry is natural because of the relative low cost of labor, whereas in Australia it occurs due to the regulations in place. This shift creates a controversial situation in which destination countries (such as Brazil, Nigeria, and Mexico) receive unwanted e-waste components with little value while exporting the e-waste components with high value (printed circuit boards (PCBs), hard drives, processors) (Dias et al. 2019; Dias et al. 2018b; Dias et al. 2018c; Iwenwanne 2019; Lydall et al. 2017; Snyman et al. 2017). Moreover, this export pattern contributes to maintain the downstream recycling industry of these destination countries stagnant (Dias et al. 2018a). Recent research even suggests the growing re-export of e-waste from the developing world back to advanced countries creates an offset by which countries importing high-quality used electronics send back an equal volume of e-waste. The (documented) transactions tend to occur between trade partners where the importer has a lower GDP per capita than the exporter. The same authors claim that while there is a movement of e-waste from developed to developing countries, there is also a substantial e-waste trade between developing countries. (Larmer 2018; Lepawsky 2015; Lepawsky and Mcnabb 2010).
Figure 2.3 Known sources, destinations, and suspected destinations of WEEE transboundary movement worldwide.
Source: Kumar et al. (2017).
2.4 WEEE Management and Practices – Developed and Developing Countries
Solid waste management generally involves (i) identifying and categorizing the source and nature of waste, (ii) separation, storage, and collection, (iii) waste transport, (iv) processing, and (v) ultimate waste disposal. This linear economy approach has been widely applied and is still a management model in many countries (Rao et al. 2017). Furthermore, solid waste management aims to minimize waste, maximize recycling and reuse, and ensure safe and environmentally sound disposal of waste. These objectives should be achieved in a sustainable manner employing and developing the capacity of the community, private enterprises, workers, and government (Rao et al. 2017). The ultimate goal of any waste management system is to increase the resource efficiency and reach the circular economy target (Nowakowski and Mrówczyńska 2018). Currently, this can be achieved by using resources more efficiently in the provision of an activity or product, using less resource-related services, reusing product and services, recycling the resources and materials in products (Worrell and Reuter 2014). The material recovery present in WEEE may be achieved by reusing its components, by recycling of the whole equipment (or a fraction of it), or by transforming waste into energy (energy recovery) (Nnorom and Osibanjo 2008). A sustainable management of WEEE has a significant role on the circular economy approach (D’Adamo et al. 2019; Nowakowski and Mrówczyńska 2018).
The cost of waste management activities is mainly associated with the cost of transport, facilities, operation (energy/fuel and labor), and real estate (Rao et al. 2017). For e-waste, specific factors have been claimed to influence the economic feasibility and environmental consequences of e-waste recycling (Hula et al. 2003; Nnorom and Osibanjo 2008): Product structure, materials, location of recycling facilities, applicable regulations, geography, and cultural context. All these factors combined will determine the feasibility of recycling certain products or goods. Another study uses four key aspects to evaluate the recycling potential and determine which element should be prioritized in the recycling of WEEE: the quantity of material in specific waste (e.g. gold in PCs), the toxicity of the given material, its market value and technology developed for recycling (Zeng et al. 2017). Thus, there is no single solution when deciding if and how to recycle WEEE because all these factors will vary on a case-to-case basis (Sinha-Khetriwal et al. 2005). While the waste management tends to be country-specific, there are general trends that outline developed countries to the detriment of developing countries.
As opposed to developing nations, developed nations usually have centralized waste treatment systems, which result in significant differences in relation to the former. The segregation of waste, for instance, is a voluntary exercise in most developed countries, but represents a source of income in developing nations, and allows the formation of a large informal network of people dedicated to waste collection (door-to-door) and meticulous waste segregation (Goel 2017; Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata 2012
