Elements of Modern X-ray Physics E-Book

Jens Als-Nielsen

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Seitenzahl: 688

Beschreibung

Eagerly awaited, this second edition of a best-selling text comprehensively describes from a modern perspective the basics of x-ray physics as well as the completely new opportunities offered by synchrotron radiation. Written by internationally acclaimed authors, the style of the book is to develop the basic physical principles without obscuring them with excessive mathematics. The second edition differs substantially from the first edition, with over 30% new material, including: * A new chapter on non-crystalline diffraction - designed to appeal to the large community who study the structure of liquids, glasses, and most importantly polymers and bio-molecules * A new chapter on x-ray imaging - developed in close cooperation with many of the leading experts in the field * Two new chapters covering non-crystalline diffraction and imaging * Many important changes to various sections in the book have been made with a view to improving the exposition * Four-colour representation throughout the text to clarify key concepts * Extensive problems after each chapter There is also supplementary book material for this title available online (http://booksupport.wiley.com). Praise for the previous edition: "The publication of Jens Als-Nielsen and Des McMorrow's Elements of Modern X-ray Physics is a defining moment in the field of synchrotron radiation... a welcome addition to the bookshelves of synchrotron-radiation professionals and students alike.... The text is now my personal choice for teaching x-ray physics...." --Physics Today, 2002

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Preface to the first edition

Acknowledgements from the first edition

Notes on the use of this book

Chapter 1: X-rays and their interaction with matter

1.1 X-rays: waves and photons

1.2 Scattering

1.3 Absorption

1.4 Refraction and reflection

1.5 Coherence

1.6 Magnetic interactions

1.7 Further reading

Chapter 2: Sources

2.1 Early history and the X-ray tube

2.2 Introduction to synchrotron radiation

2.3 Synchrotron radiation from a circular arc

2.4 Undulator radiation

2.5 Wiggler radiation

2.6 Free-electron lasers

2.7 Compact light sources

2.8 Coherence volume and photon degeneracy

2.9 Further reading

2.10 Exercises

Chapter 3: Refraction and reflection from interfaces

3.1 Refraction and phase shift in scattering

3.2 Refractive index and scattering length density

3.3 Refractive index including absorption

3.4 Snell’s law and the Fresnel equations in the X-ray region

3.5 Reflection from a homogeneous slab

3.6 Specular reflection from multilayers

3.7 Reflectivity from a graded interface

3.8 Rough interfaces and surfaces

3.9 Examples of reflectivity studies

3.10 X-ray optics

3.11 Further reading

3.12 Exercises

Chapter 4: Kinematical scattering I: non-crystalline materials

4.1 Two electrons

4.2 Scattering from an atom

4.3 Scattering from a molecule

4.4 Scattering from liquids and glasses

4.5 Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS)

4.6 Further reading

4.7 Exercises

Chapter 5: Kinematical scattering II: crystalline order

5.1 Scattering from a crystal

5.2 Quasiperiodic structures

5.3 Crystal truncation rods

5.4 Lattice vibrations, the Debye-Waller factor and TDS

5.5 The measured intensity from a crystallite

5.6 Applications of kinematical diffraction

5.7 Further reading

5.8 Exercises

Chapter 6: Diffraction by perfect crystals

6.1 One atomic layer: reflection and transmission

6.2 Kinematical reflection from a few layers

6.3 Darwin theory and dynamical diffraction

6.4 The Darwin reflectivity curve

6.5 DuMond diagrams

6.6 Further reading

6.7 Exercises

Chapter 7: Photoelectric absorption

7.1 X-ray absorption by an isolated atom

7.2 EXAFS and near-edge structure

7.3 X-ray dichroism

7.4 ARPES

7.5 Further reading

7.6 Exercises

Chapter 8: Resonant scattering

8.1 The forced charged oscillator model

8.2 The atom as an assembly of oscillators

8.3 The Kramers-Kronig relations

8.4 Numerical estimate of f′

8.5 Breakdown of Friedel’s law and Bijvoet pairs

8.6 The phase problem in crystallography

8.7 Quantum mechanical description

8.8 Further reading

8.9 Exercises

Chapter 9: Imaging

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Absorption contrast imaging

9.3 Phase contrast imaging

9.4 Coherent diffraction imaging

9.5 Holography

9.6 Further reading

9.7 Exercises

A: Scattering and absorption cross-sections

B: Classical electric dipole radiation

C: Quantization of the electromagnetic field

D: Gaussian statistics

E: Fourier transforms

F: Comparison of X-rays with neutrons

G: MATLAB® computer programs

H: Answers to exercises and hints

Bibliography

Index

List of symbols

Elements of Modern X-ray Physics

This edition first published 2011

©2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Registered office

John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com.

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of fitness for a particular purpose. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom.

MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Als-Nielsen, Jens

Elements of modern X-ray physics / Jens Als-Nielsen, Des McMorrow – 2nd ed.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-470-97395-0 (hardback) – ISBN 978-0-470-97394-3 (paper)1. X-rays. I. Als-Nielsen, J. (Jens), 1937- II. Title.QC481.A47 2011539.7′222–dc222010051101

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Print ISBN cloth: 978-0-470-97395-0

Print ISBN paper: 978-0-470-97394-3

ePDF ISBN: 978-1-119-99731-3

oBook ISBN: 978-1-119-99836-5

ePub ISBN: 978-1-119-97015-6

eMobi ISBN: 978-1-119-97016-3

Cover image by Michael Wulff.

Preface

In the decade or so since Elements of Modern X-ray Physics first appeared there has continued to be astonishing progress in the development of X-ray sources and the understanding of how to exploit them. This fact, taken together with the kind and generous comments we received in response to the first edition, has encouraged us to produce a second edition.

The second edition differs from the first in several key regards:

An entirely new chapter on X-ray imaging has been included.The chapter dealing with kinematical diffraction has been divided into two separate chapters, which deal with non-crystalline and crystalline materials, respectively. This change has allowed us to include new material on the use of X-rays in the determination of the structure of liquids, glasses, and most importantly polymers and biomoleculesWe have made many adjustments to various sections in the book with a view to improving the overall exposition.Small typographical errors have been corrected.Exercises have been included at the ends of all chapters except the first.

In preparing the second edition we have enjoyed the support and encouragement of many of our colleagues and friends without which our task would have been impossible. We would like to extend our deep gratitude to everyone who has contributed, most especially David Attwood, Martin Bech, Christian David, Martin Dierolf, Paul Emma, Kenneth Evans-Lutterodt, Per Hedegård, Mikael Häggström, John Hill, Moritz Hoesch, Torben Jensen, James Keeler, Ken Kelton, Carolyn Larabell, Bruno Lengeler, Anders Madsen, David Moncton, Theyencheri Narayan, Franz Pfeiffer, Harald Reichert, Ian Robinson, Jan Rogers, Joachim Stöhr, Joan Vila-Comamala, Simon Ward, and Tim Weitkamp.

Work on the second edition was initiated in Provence, France, during the summer of 2008 thanks to the generous support of the Ib Henriksen Foundation.

The front cover was designed by Marusa Design from an image kindly provided by Michael Wulff.

This book is dedicated to our respective families.

Jens Als-Nielsen and Des McMorrow

London, November 2010

Preface to the first edition

The construction of the first dedicated X-ray beamlines at synchrotron sources in the late 1970s heralded the start of a new era in X-ray science. In the intervening years tremendous progress has been made, both with respect to improvements to the sources, and with our knowledge of how to exploit them. Today’s third-generation sources deliver extremely bright beams of radiation over the entire X-ray band (c. 1–500 keV), and with properties such as polarization, energy resolution, etc., that can be tailored to meet almost any requirement. These improvements have driven a surge of activity in X-ray science, and phenomena over a diverse range of disciplines can now be studied with X-rays that were undreamt of before the advent of synchrotron sources.

In light of these developments we believed that it was timely to produce a textbook at an introductory level. Our intention is to offer a coherent overview, which covers the basic physical principles underlying the production of X-rays, their interaction with matter, and also to explain how these properties are used in a range of applications. The main target audience for this book are final year undergraduates, and first year research students. Although the book has been written from the perspective of two physicists, we hope that it will be useful to the wider community of biologists, chemists, material scientists, etc., who work at synchrotron radiation facilities around the world. The main challenge in writing for a wider audience has been to convey the physical concepts without obscuring them in too much mathematical rigour. Therefore, many of the more difficult mathematical manipulations and theorems are explained in shaded boxes that may be studied separately. In addition appendices covering some of the required introductory physics have been included.

It is also our hope that this book will have appeal to more experienced research workers. Synchrotron radiation facilities are large laboratories where many different groups work on disparate areas of science. Cross fertilization of ideas is often the driving force of scientific progress. In order that these different groups, often working on neighbouring beamlines, can communicate their ideas a common background is required. It is our intention that this book should provide at least some of this background knowledge. In addition, many X-ray techniques are becoming viewed as standard analytical tools, and it is no longer necessary to understand every aspect of the design of an instrument in order to be able to perform experiments. While this is undoubtedly a positive development, it can also be argued that a greater knowledge of the underlying principles not only adds to the overall feeling of satisfaction, but also allows better experiments to be designed.

This book has emerged from a lecture course that has been running for several years at the University of Copenhagen. The material covered in this book is taught in one semester, and is augmented by practical lessons both in an X-ray laboratory at the university, and also during a week long trip to the HASYLAB synchrotron facility. The list of subjects covered in this book inevitably reflects to some degree our own areas of specialization. There is, for example, very little on the vast and important subject of imaging. It was also decided at an early stage not to focus on subjects, such as classical crystallography, that we felt were well described in other texts. In spite of these shortcomings we hope that the reader, whatever his or her background, will learn something by studying this book, and be inspired to think of new ways to exploit the great opportunities that the development of synchrotron radiation offers.

Jens Als-Nielsen and Des McMorrow

Copenhagen, September 2000

Acknowledgements from the first edition

This book has grown out of our experiences of performing experiments at various synchrotron sources around the world. Our main thanks goes to our colleagues from these laboratories and elsewhere. In particular we would like to express our thanks to Henrik Bruus, Roger Cowley, Robert Feidenhans’l, Joseph Feldthaus, Francois Grey, Peter Gürtler, Wayne Hendrickson, Per Hedegaard, John Hill, Mogens Lehmann, Les Leiserowitz, Gerd Materlik, David Moncton, Ian Robinson, Jochen Schneider, Horst Schulte-Schrepping, Sunil Sinha, and Larc Tröger for their detailed comments on different parts of the book. We are also indebted to the students at the Niels Bohr Institute who have attended the course on Experimental X-ray Physics. They have not only spotted untold numbers of typographical errors in early drafts, but also helped refine the material, and through their enthusiasm have ensured that teaching the course has been a rewarding, and even at times entertaining, experience. Birgitte Jacobsen deserves a special mention for her careful reading of the manuscript. Finally, we would like to thank Felix Beckmann, C.T. Chen, T.-C. Chiang, Trevor Forsyth, Watson Fuller, Malcolm McMahon, Benjamin Perman, and Michael Wulff for providing examples of their work, and Keld Theodor for help in preparing some of the figures.

This book has been typeset using LATEX, and we would like to express our thanks to everyone who has helped develop this system over the years, and in particular to Henrik Rnnow for helping with some of the trickier typesetting issues.

The image on the front cover was provided courtesy of Michael Wulff, ESRF, Grenoble, France.

Notes on the use of this book

The material in this book follows a more or less linear development. The scene is set in the first chapter, where the predominantmechanisms for the interaction of X-rays and matter are described. Many of the important concepts and results are introduced in this chapter, and forward references are made to the remaining chapters where these concepts are discussed more fully and the results derived. An attempt has been made to reduce to a minimum the level of mathematical skill required to follow the arguments. This has been done by placing most of the more taxing manipulations and theorems in shaded boxes, or in one of the appendices.

Computers are of course now an indispensable tool for helping to visualize mathematical and physical concepts. For this reason we have chosen to include a listing in the last appendix of some of the computer programmes that were used to generate the figures in this book. The hope is that this will ease the process of turning mathematical formulae into computer algorithms, and also aid the design of more complex programmes required for the analysis of data, etc. The programmes have been written using the MATLAB® programming environment, although the way that they are derived from the mathematics is transparent enough that they can easily be converted to other languages. Figures for which programme listings are given are indicated by a star, *.