Energy Efficient Buildings with Solar and Geothermal Resources E-Book

Ursula Eicker

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 802

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

A modern and unique perspective on solar and geothermal technologies for heating and cooling buildings This book will have a broad appeal reaching practising engineers in the industry as well as students. With introductory sections for each technology described, material includes chapters on: geothermal energy use for the heating and cooling of buildings; a chapter on electrically driven heat pumps/chillers; material on night radiative cooling, photovoltaic thermal collectors, temperature modelling and thin film photovoltaic modelling. * Includes general introductory sections for each technology with market potential and applications * Covers an increasingly important component of energy courses * Considers a broad range of alternative renewable energy supplies relevant to the building sector, such as geothermal energy with heat pump * With a special focus on solar cooling, provides detailed physical models of all technologies and example calculations * Unique in covering the fundamentals of meteorological modelling

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Chapter 1: Energy Consumption of Buildings

1.1 Residential Buildings

1.2 Office and Administrative Buildings

1.3 Air Conditioning

1.4 Lighting Electricity Consumption

1.5 Influence of the Urban form on Energy Consumption of Buildings

1.6 Office Buildings in an Urban Context

1.7 Residential Buildings in an Urban Context

1.8 Site Density Effect

1.9 Climate Effect

1.10 Albedo Effects

1.11 Thermal Properties of the Building Envelope

1.12 Solar Gains and Glazing

1.13 Building Typology and Urban Form

1.14 Conclusions

References

Chapter 2

Part A: Passive Solar

2.1 Passive Solar use by Glazing

2.2 Transparent Thermal Insulation (TTI)

2.3 Heat Storage by Interior Building Elements

Part B: Natural Ventilation

2.4 Analytical Methods for Volume-Flow Calculations

2.5 Air Flow Network Simulations

2.6 Ventilation Potentials

2.7 Thermal Comfort and Energy Savings in Office Rooms with Controlled Natural Ventilation

2.8 Weekly Simulations with Dynamic Boundary Conditions

2.9 Natural Single-Sided Ventilation with Sliding Windows

2.10 Annual Simulations

Part C: Daylighting of Buildings

2.11 Luminance and Illuminance

2.12 Visual Performance and Quality of Lighting

2.13 Light Measurements

2.14 Sky Luminous Intensity Models

2.15 Daylight Distribution in Interior Spaces

2.16 Calculation of Daylight Availability in Buildings

2.17 Standardization and Calculation Methods

2.18 Determination of Needed Artificial Light Sources

References

Chapter 3: Solar and Geothermal Resource

3.1 Extra-Terrestrial Solar Irradiance

3.2 Sun-Earth Geometry

3.3 Equator Coordinates

3.4 Horizon Coordinates

3.5 Atmospheric Transmission and Spectral Irradiance

3.6 Statistical Production of Hourly Irradiance data Records

3.7 Global Irradiance and Irradiance on Inclined Surfaces

3.8 Shading

3.9 Temperature Time Series Modelling

3.10 Geothermal Resource

References

Chapter 4: Solar Thermal Heating

4.1 Market and Economics

4.2 System Overview

4.3 System Engineering

4.4 Large Solar Plants for Heating Drinking-Water with Short-Term Stores

4.5 Solar District Heating

4.6 Modelling of Thermal Collectors

4.7 Storage Modelling

4.8 Solar air Collectors

4.9 Calculation of the Available Thermal Power of Solar air Collectors

4.10 Design of the air Circuit

4.11

References

Chapter 5: Solar Cooling

5.1 Introduction to the Technologies

5.2 Technology Trends

5.3 the Absorption Cooling Process and its Components

5.4 Components of Absorption Chillers

5.5 Physical Principles of the Absorption Process

5.6 Energy Balances and Performance Figures of an Absorption Chiller

5.7 Static Absorption Cooling Model

5.8 Parameter Identification for the Static Absorption Cooling Machine Model

5.9 Open Cycle Desiccant Cooling

5.10 Physical and Technological Bases of Sorption-Supported Air-Conditioning

5.11 The Technology of Heat Recovery

5.12 Technology Humidifier

5.13 Design Limits and Climatic Boundary Conditions

5.14 Energy Balance of Sorption-Supported Air-Conditioning

5.15 Closed Cycle Adsorption Cooling

5.16 Heat Rejection and Auxiliary Electricity Consumption

References

Chapter 6: Geothermal Heating and Cooling

6.1 Direct Geothermal Energy use for Cooling and Pre-Heating of Buildings

6.2 Indirect Geothermal Energy use

6.3 Geothermal Heat Exchangers for Chiller Heat Rejection

6.4 Modeling of Geothermal Heat Exchangers

6.5 Economics of Geothermal Heat Exchangers

6.6 Performance Summary on Geothermal Heat Exchangers

References

Chapter 7: Photovoltaics

7.1 Structure of Grid-Connected Systems

7.2 Solar Cell Technologies

7.3 Module Technology

7.4 Building Integration and Costs

7.5 Energy Production and the Performance Ratio of PV Systems

7.6 Physical Fundamentals of Solar Electricity Production

7.7 Current-Voltage Characteristics

7.8 PV Performance with Shading

7.9 Simple Temperature Model for PV Modules

7.10 System Engineering

References

Chapter 8: Compression Chillers and Heat Pumps

8.1 Overview of heat pump and Chiller Technologies

8.2 Energy Efficiency of Heat pumps and Chillers

8.3 Heat pump and Compression Chiller Modelling

8.4 Case Studies for Photovoltaic Compression Versus Thermal Cooling

8.5 Conclusions on case Studies for Photovoltaic and Thermal Cooling

References

Chapter 9: Thermal Analysis of Building-Integrated Solar Components

9.1 Empirical Thermal Model of Building-Integrated Photovoltaic

9.2 Energy Balance and Stationary Thermal Model of Ventilated Double Facades

9.3 Heat Transfer Coefficients for the Interior and Facade Air Gap

9.4 Building-Integrated Solar Components (U and G Values)

9.5 Warm-Air Generation by Photovoltaic Facades

9.6 Photovoltaic Thermal Collectors for Heating and Cooling Generation

References

Index

Energy Efficient Buildings with Solar and Geothermal Resources

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for

ISBN 9781118352243

Set in 8 on 12 pt Roboto Slab by Silvio Barta

1 2014

Preface

One of the world’s major challenges is the transformation of its energy system, which for a short period in human history has been based on fossil fuels. These resources are approaching their end and create serious environmental damages by emissions and long-term waste issues.

Renewable energy sources have always been available on Earth and can easily cover the planet’s energy demand. New technologies in solar cell and wind turbine manufacturing, innovative materials and efficiency strategies support the transition to environmentally friendly energy systems.

Especially in urban areas, buildings are major energy consumers. All together they account for about 40% of final energy consumption worldwide and are responsible for about one third of overall CO2 emissions. In urban structures, building energy consumption is typically twice as high as the need for transport energy, and the energy-saving potential is large. Up to 20% can be saved in the short term and within the next decades buildings should become climate neutral. In urban areas, solar technologies are the most suitable energy sources, as solar modules and collectors can be easily integrated into buildings. In denser urban structures, often the individual roof and facade surface areas are not sufficient to make each building zero energy. Here new concepts are required for the design of local supply systems in city quarters with adequate distribution networks and storage capacities.

Planners, engineers and researchers need fundamental knowledge to deal with fluctuating renewable energy sources, to design adequate storage systems and to integrate the energy systems in highly efficient buildings. To achieve efficiency goals, buildings need to use passive and low-energy resources such as solar gains, daylight, natural ventilation or geothermal heat exchange as intelligently as possible.

This new textbook on energy efficient buildings with solar and geothermal resources provides detailed insight into the design and physics of energy efficient buildings. It discusses the theoretical background of solar thermal cooling and heating, of photovoltaics and geothermal energy, and provides information on applications and costs. Many examples help to apply the theory to real praxis applications.

The reader as an engineer, physicist, energy planner, researcher, student or informed layman will profit from the textbook by acquiring in-depth knowledge of today’s new energy systems and building concepts.

This book is based on the knowledge developed within 20 years of research at the Stuttgart University of Applied Sciences on buildings and renewable energy systems. The research centre Sustainable Energy Technologies has been successfully involved in many national and European research and demonstration projects on solar cooling and heating, geothermal energy use, simulation and energy management, zero energy buildings, photovoltaic system technology and many other topics.

Without the support of this research group with about 30 scientists, the broad subject range of the book would not have been possible. I would like to especially thank PhD students and now doctors of philosophy Dilay Kesten and Aysegül Tereci, who produced many results of the first two chapters of building energy efficiency in the urban context; PhD student Tobias Schulze who worked on natural ventilation, and Antoine Dalibard and Felix Thumm who developed the compression chiller and photovoltaic thermal collector models; Dr. Dirk Pietruschka, who did many simulations on solar cooling systems; Ruben Pesch for his contribution to geothermal energy analysis and Mariela Cotrado for her comparison of thermal and electric cooling; Eric Duminil for his very nice irradiance maps; and all the other members of our research team, who discussed the physics and applications of solar and geothermal energy use in buildings.

The layout and design of this book has been completely done by Silvio Barta, an excellent graphic designer, who is even interested in energy technologies and has provided many helpful comments not just on design, but on the contents of the book. Many thanks to his continuous and often tedious work on many details and design issues that are usually lost when concentrating on the contents.

Most heartful thanks are due to Juergen Schumacher, who continuously supports me in my work and life. It is with his simulation environment INSEL that most of the simulation results were obtained.

Ursula Eicker Stuttgart, August 2013

Chapter 1

Energy consumption of buildings

Figure 1.1 Low energy residential urban development in Scharnhauser Park, near Stuttgart, Germany

(Photo: Ursula Pietzsch)

Figure 1.2 The ebök passive standard office building in Tübingen, Germany after (top), before (bottom left) and during (bottom right) renovation work

(Photo: eboek GmbH, Tuebingen).

Buildings account today for about 40% of final energy consumption worldwide, and they are responsible for about one third of overall CO2 emissions (36% in Europe, 39% in the USA, about 20% in China (IEA Study, 2008). Especially in urban structures, the building energy consumption is typically twice as high as transport, e.g. approximately by a factor 2.2 in London. The energy saving potential is large: in the short term (up to 2020), savings of 20% are expected within the European Union, and in the long term (up to 2050) buildings are supposed to be climate neutral. The improvement of building energy efficiency can be economically worthwhile today, as shown by a study of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Between 12 and 25% CO2 emissions caused by heating and cooling and between 13% and 52% CO2 emissions caused by electric lighting and equipment can be reduced economically until 2020.

The European Directive for the Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD) adopted in 2002 is an attempt to unify the diverse national regulations, to define minimum common standards on building’s energy performance and to provide certification and inspection rules for heating, cooling and ventilation plants. National energy efficiency action plans are required since 2006 and European Member States must show how they intend to reach the 9% indicative energy savings target by 2016.

Figure 1.3 Distribution of end energy consumption within the European Union with a total value of 1.3 × 1013 kWh per year (European Environment Agency, 2009).

Average heat transfer coefficients for new buildings are today about 0.3 and 0.4 W m−2 K−1. In 2009 the European Union tightened the EPDB directive and demands now nearly zero energy standards for new buildings until 2020. Here the building energy demand is balanced with the local renewable energy production resulting in a net zero energy demand. For public existing buildings, the zero energy standard will come into effect 2018.

In moderate European climatic zones like Germany, 80% of residential building energy is consumed by heating, 12% for water heating and the remainder for other electricity consumption, communication and electric lighting. The high percentage of heat-consumption is caused by low thermal insulation standards in existing buildings, in which today 90% and even in 2050 60% of residential space will be located. Today, about 1.4% of buildings in Europe are renovated each year energetically. With this rate, there will be a saving of about 40% until 2050 compared to 2005. If the renovation rate were raised to 2% per annum, the energy saving would go up to 74% until 2050.

With high heat insulation standards and the heat recovery ventilation concept of passive houses, a low limit of heat consumption has meanwhile been achieved, which is around 20 times lower than today’s values. A crucial factor for low consumption of passive buildings was the development of new glazing and window technologies, which enable the window to be a passive solar element and at the same time cause only low transmission heat losses. In new buildings with low heating requirements other energy consumption in the form of electricity for lighting, power and air conditioning, as well as warm water in residential buildings, is becoming more and more dominant. Electricity consumption within the European Union is estimated to rise by 50% by 2020. In this area renewable sources of energy can make an important contribution to the supply of electricity and heat.

The majority of the world’s new buildings are constructed in Asia. The Asian building sector accounts today for about 25% of the final energy consumption and is expected to rise to 32% in 2030 (World Energy Outlook, 2006). A World Bank study showed that China and India could cut their current energy consumption by 25% with cost-effective retrofitting of lighting, air conditioning, boilers and heat recovery. The Chinese Ministry of Construction states that 95% of all buildings are highly energy consuming and that energy consumption is currently two to three times that of developed countries in achieving the same comfort level (Building Energy Efficiency, an Asia Business Council Book, 2007).

1.1 Residential buildings

To limit transmission heat losses, the average heat loss coefficients of the building envelope are regulated in most countries. In China with severely cold regions (between 5500 and 8000 heating degree days), exterior walls for three-storey buildings are supposed to have U values below 0.33 W m−2 K−1, high rise buildings below 0.48 W m−2 K−1, whereas in temperate regions 0.5 W m−2 K−1 are sufficient. In Japan, today´s wall U values are between 0.39 and 1.76 W m−2 K−1 depending on climatic condition, in Korea between 0.47 and 0.76 W m−2 K−1.

In Europe with its wide geographical extent of nearly 35° geographical latitude difference (36° in Greece, 70° in northern Scandinavia), a wide range of climatic boundary conditions are covered. In Helsinki (60.3° northern latitude), average exterior air temperatures reach −6°C in January, when southern cities such as Athens at 40° latitude still have averages of +10°C. Consequently the building standards vary widely: whereas average heat transfer coefficients (U values) for detached houses are 1 W m−2 K−1 in Italy, they are only 0.4 W m−2 K−1 in Finland. The heating energy demand determined is comparable in both cases at about 50 kWh m−2 a−1. The necessary U value to achieve the passive house standard with less than 15 kWh m−2 a−1 heating energy demand for several climate zones are shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1U values required to reach passive standard for different European climates.

In Germany, the heat requirement of residential buildings is between 10 and 250 kWh m−2 a−1 depending on the insulation standards. Existing buildings with an average consumption of about 220 kWh m−2 a−1 have the highest energy saving potentials by reduction of the transmission heat loss of the building envelope.

With an extremely good insulation of all outer surfaces, avoidance of thermal bridges on critical details like basement walls, attic etc. as well as an air proof constructed building shell and a controlled ventilation with heat recovery, the heating energy demand can reduced to 10 – 15 kWh m a.