Energy Efficient Manufacturing E-Book
190,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Over the last several years, manufacturers have expressed increasing interest in reducing their energy consumption and have begun to search for opportunities to reduce their energy usage. In this book, the authors explore a variety of opportunities to reduce the energy footprint of manufacturing. These opportunities cover the entire spatial scale of the manufacturing enterprise: from unit process-oriented approaches to enterprise-level strategies. Each chapter examines some aspect of this spatial scale, and discusses and describes the opportunities that exist at that level. Case studies demonstrate how the opportunity may be acted on with practical guidance on how to respond to these opportunities.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 672
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018
Ähnliche
Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright page
Dedication
Chapter 1: Introduction to Energy Efficient Manufacturing
1.1 Energy Use Implications
1.2 Drivers and Solutions for Energy Efficiency
References
Chapter 2: Operation Planning & Monitoring
2.1 Unit Manufacturing Processes
2.2 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of Unit Manufacturing Process
2.3 Energy Consumption in Unit Manufacturing Process
2.4 Operation Plan Relevance to Energy Consumption
2.5 Energy Accounting in Unit Manufacturing Processes
2.6 Processing Energy in Unit Manufacturing Process
2.7 Energy Reduction Opportunities
References
Chapter 3: Materials Processing
3.1 Steel
3.2 Aluminum
3.3 Titanium
3.4 Polymers
References
Chapter 4: Energy Reduction in Manufacturing via Incremental Forming and Surface Microtexturing
4.1 Incremental Forming
4.2 Surface Microtexturing
4.3 Summary
4.4 Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 5: An Analysis of Energy Consumption and Energy Efficiency in Material Removal Processes
5.1 Overview
5.2 Plant and Workstation Levels
5.3 Operation Level
5.4 Process Optimization for Energy Consumption
5.5 Conclusions
Reference
Chapter 6: Nontraditional Removal Processes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Energy Efficiency
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 7: Surface Treatment and Tribological Considerations
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Surface Treatment Techniques
7.3 Coating Operations
7.4 Tribology
7.5 Evolving Technologies
7.6 Micro Manufacturing
7.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Joining Processes
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sustainability in Joining
8.3 Taxonomy
8.4 Data Sources
8.5 Efficiency of Joining Equipment
8.6 Efficiency of Joining Processes
8.7 Process Selection
8.8 Efficiency of Joining Facilities
8.9 Case Studies
Reference
Chapter 9: Manufacturing Equipment
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Power Measurement
9.3 Characterizing the Power Demand
9.4 Energy Model
9.5 Life Cycle Energy Analysis of Production Equipment
9.6 Energy Reduction Strategies
9.7 Additional Life Cycle Impacts of Energy Reduction Strategies
9.8 Summary
References
Chapter 10: Energy Considerations in Assembly Operations
10.1 Introduction to Assembly Systems & Operations
10.2 Fundamentals of Assembly Operations
10.3 Characterizing Assembly System Energy Consumption
10.4 Direct Energy Considerations of Assembly Joining Processes
10.5 Assembly System Energy Metrics
10.6 Case Study: Heavy Duty Truck Assembly
10.7 Future of Energy Efficient Assembly Operations
References
Appendix 10.A
Chapter 11: Manufacturing Facility Energy Improvement
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Auxiliary Industrial Energy Consumptions
11.3 Industrial Practices on Energy Assessment and Energy Efficiency Improvement
11.4 Energy Management and Its Enhancement Approaches
11.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 12: Energy Efficient Manufacturing Process Planning
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Basics of Process Planning
12.3 Energy Efficient Process Planning
12.4 Case Study
12.5 Conclusions
Reference
Chapter 13: Scheduling for Energy Efficient Manufacturing
13.1 Introduction
13.2 A Brief Introduction to Scheduling
13.3 Objective Functions for Energy Efficiency
13.4 An Integer Linear Program for Scheduling an Energy-Efficient Flow Shop
13.5 Conclusion and Additional Reading
References
Chapter 14: Energy Efficiency in the Supply Chain
14.1 Supply Chain Management
14.2 Supply Chain Structure
14.3 Supply Chain Processes
14.4 Supply Chain Management Components
14.5 Conclusion
References
Endnotes
Chapter 15: Business Models and Organizational Strategies
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Reference Framework for Selection of Energy Efficiency Projects
15.3 Common Energy Efficiency Opportunities
15.4 Stakeholders
15.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Energy Efficient or Energy Effective Manufacturing?
16.1 Energy Efficiency: A Macro Perspective
16.2 The Basics of Energy Efficiency
16.3 Limitations of Energy Efficiency
16.4 Energy Effectiveness
16.5 Summary
16.6 Acknowledgments
References
Index
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Copyright
Contents
Begin Reading
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1a Operation conditions of machining relevant to energy consumption.
Table 2.1b Operation conditions of energy-beam based processes relevant to energy consumption.
Table 2.1c Operation conditions of forming processes relevant to energy consumption.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Emerging titanium processing technologies (Kraft 2004).
Table 3.2 Comparison of ceramic net-shaping processes.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Energy analysis of four milling machines [8].
Table 5.2 Machining parameters used in the experiments [28].
Table 5.3 Coolant application parameters used in the experiments [28].
Table 5.4 Optimal process parameters selected for all three coolant applications.
Table 5.5 Energy consumption and tool life from different cooling strategies [34].
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Specific energy comparison.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Summary of heat treating processes involving chemical diffusion into surfaces.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Selected sustainability indicators for joining processes.
Table 8.2 Reference values for thermal efficiencies of joining processes [11].
Table 8.3 Devices for measuring the energy consumption of welding.
Table 8.4 Specific melting energy for some commonly welded metals [23].
Table 8.5 Filler metals and brazing temperatures for brazing various metals and alloys.
Table 8.6 Comparison of commonly used joining methods [24].
Table 8.7 Minimum fillet leg distance based on the larger workpiece thickness being joined [24, 40].
Table 8.8 Density of electrode metals used in submerged arc welding.
Table 8.9 Specific Weld Energy based on
TWA
[45].
Table 8.10 Friction stir welding parameters and tool dimensions.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Curing process advantages and disadvantages [20 – Copyright © 2012 (2008, 2004, 1997) John Wiley & Sons Inc.].
Table 10.2 Energy influencing advantages and disadvantages of primary joining methods.
Table 10.3 Case study energy sources with associated energy data.
Table 10.4 Case study assembly process categorization.
Table 10.5 Processing equipment of the assembly station.
Table 10.6 Annual energy consumption - Battery.
Table 10.7 Annual energy consumption - Pneumatic.
Table 10.8 Direct and indirect process equipment annual energy consumption.
Table 10.9 Energy intensity by source.
Appendix 10.A
Table 10.A.1 Extended Process Categorization
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Technological characteristics of industrial lighting technologies.
Table 11.2 Summary of various heat loads in a manufacturing plant.
Table 11.3 Leakage rates (cfm) for different supply pressures and approximately equivalent orifice sizes [8].
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Process steps of manufacturing a shaft.
Table 12.2 The main characteristics of different production types.
Table 12.3 Reference numbers for the classification of production type.
Table 12.4 Routing sheet.
Table 12.5 Operations list.
Table 12.6 Operations precedence code.
Table 12.7 Operations precedence code.
Table 12.8 The energy consumption and carbon emissions of the final process plan.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Processing times and release dates for Example 2.1.
Table 13.2 Processing times for Example 2.2.
Table 13.3 Processing times and due dates for Example 2.3.
Table 13.4 Processing times and power demand for Example 3.1.
Table 13.5 Processing times, power demand, and release dates for Example 4.2.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Supply chain processes.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Industrial End-Use Energy Efficiency Barriers (adapted from [7]).
Table 16.2 The Importance of Sustainability to My Organization’s Success Over the Next Few Years (adapted from [8]).
Table 16.3 Energy consuming elements of a machine tool (adapted from [9]).
Table 16.4 CTG Energy and Emissions for Automobile and Cell Phone [18].
Pages
i
ii
iii
iv
v
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Energy Efficient Manufacturing
Theory and Applications
Edited by
John W. Sutherland
David A. Dornfeld
Barbara S. Linke
This edition first published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2018 Scrivener Publishing LLC
For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Wiley Global Headquarters111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Sutherland, John W. (John William), 1958- editor. | Dornfeld, D. A., editor. | Linke, Barbara S., editor.Title: Energy efficient manufacturing : theory and applications / edited by John W. Sutherland, David A. Dornfeld and Barbara S. Linke.Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons; Beverly, MA : Scrivener Publishing, 2018. | Includes index. |Identifiers: LCCN 2018010577 (print) | LCCN 2018015275 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119519812 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119521372 (epub) | ISBN 9781118423844 (cloth)Subjects: LCSH: Manufacturing processes–Energy conservation. | Process control.Classification: LCC TS183 (ebook) | LCC TS183 .E48 2018 (print) | DDC 658.2/6–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018010577
Dedication
In March 2016, our good friend and mentor Professor David A. Dornfeld passed away. Dave was a constant source of inspiration and was always ready with a kind word and helpful suggestions. He was a passionate teacher and innovative researcher who made pioneering contributions to the fields of precision and sustainable manufacturing. Dave’s good natured personality, irrepressible humor, and intelligence elevated every meeting and conference he attended. He was active in many societies and received numerous honors. Dave was very inclusive and promoted talent where he saw it. His legacy is the many students, post-docs, and colleagues who benefitted from his excellent support, guidance, and advice.
We will miss you Dave!
John W. SutherlandWest Lafayette, IN
Barbara S. LinkeDavis, CA
June 2018
Chapter 1Introduction to Energy Efficient Manufacturing
Barbara S. Linke1* and John W. Sutherland2*
1Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering University of California, Davis, USA
2Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
*Corresponding authors: [email protected]; [email protected]
Abstract
Over the last decade, manufacturers around the world have expressed increasing interest in reducing their energy consumption. It appears that there are at least two principal motivations for this interest: i) the emergence of policies and legislation related to carbon emissions due to energy generation, and ii) the rising cost of energy relative to other production costs. Thus, manufacturers have begun to search for opportunities to reduce their energy usage.
A recent study by Johnson Controls shows that the demand for facility projects that promote and introduce renewable energy have dramatically increased over the last ten years [1]. Cost reduction remains the primary driver, but energy security, customer and employee attraction, greenhouse gas reduction, enhanced reputation, government policy, and investor expectations are increasingly important for investment in renewable energy [1].
In this book, the authors explore a variety of opportunities to reduce the energy footprint of manufacturing; these opportunities cover the entire spatial scale of the manufacturing enterprise: from unit process-oriented approaches to enterprise-level strategies. Each chapter examines some aspect of this spatial scale, and discusses and describes the opportunities that exist at each point on the scale. Each chapter uses one or more case studies to demonstrate how the opportunity may be acted on. Our goal is to inform students, practicing engineers, and business leaders of energy reduction approaches that exist across the manufacturing enterprise and provide some guidance on how to respond to these opportunities.
Keywords: Introduction, energy consumption, energy efficiency, overview
1.1 Energy Use Implications
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. It can be neither created nor destroyed but can be changed from one form to another (First Law of Thermodynamics). The different forms of energy include kinetic, potential, heat, electric, light, chemical and nuclear. The different forms have different relevance in our daily life. The different forms of energy are such so that some conversions from one form to another are easier than others (e.g., chemical energy in oil is readily converted into heat and light through combustion, but it is difficult to convert electricity into nuclear energy, for example with particle accelerators) [2].
Worldwide we use about 500 EJ of energy per year [3]. Although energy cannot be destroyed, the useful energy decreases in most systems. In addition, theory-based energy requirements often significantly underestimate actual energy requirements. For example, reduction of iron oxide to iron theoretically requires 7.35 MJ/kg of energy, but generally consumes 20 MJ/kg in industrial practice [2]. Theoretical energy and the actual energy consumed by industry differ because of energy losses at various steps in every process. A recent DOE bandwidth study estimated the potential energy savings opportunities for the U.S. Iron and Steel Manufacturing Sector as 240 TBtu (or 256 PJ) [4]. These savings could occur if the best technologies and practices available today were used to upgrade production. The savings would be 39% of the thermodynamic minimum or the minimum amount of energy theoretically required for these processes assuming ideal conditions.
Energy use may be attributed to four principal end-uses: transportation, residential, commercial, and industrial consumption, with each end-use roughly representing one-quarter of the total U.S. consumption (please refer to Figure 1.1). Manufacturing accounts for about 90% of industrial energy consumption and 84% of energy-related CO2 emissions (construction, mining, and agricultural activities account for the remaining industry sector contributions).
Figure 1.1 Energy consumption in the USA by sector [5].
Manufacturing sector activities generate carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions directly through onsite energy consumption (onsite generation and process energy), as well as indirectly through energy consumption to support non-process operations (e.g., facility HVAC – Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning, lighting, and onsite transportation). On a global scale, industry accounts for 21% of the total emissions generated [6]. Climate scientists report that these emissions upset the natural carbon balance of earth’s systems [7]. As actions are demanded to reduce GHG, it should be noted that such emissions are largely proportional to energy consumption. Further, environmental impacts from electricity generation and transmission include the physical footprint of the power plant, carbon dioxide and monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, heavy metals, and liquid and solid wastes.
1.2 Drivers and Solutions for Energy Efficiency
Around the globe industry is facing pressure from governments in the form of regulations, penalties, or tax benefits to reduce GHG emissions. For example, the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 (AB32) is a California State Law to reduce GHG emissions throughout California by 2020 [8]. It applies to 6 GHG contributors: CO2, CH4, NOx, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and SF6. The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) has set a cap on GHG emissions and allows trading of ‘allowances’ [9].
Energy prices are increasing (Figure 1.2) and using energy more efficiently is therefore in the best interest of companies and part of their continuous improvement efforts. Furthermore, depending upon an acquired resource always involves a financial risk. This includes electricity, gasoline, and natural gas. Electricity at peak hours of demand costs more than at off-peak times. In addition, companies pay a cost penalty for low power factors. The power factor describes the ratio between real power (“consumed” power that does useful work) and apparent power (includes added load from capacitors or inductors) in an AC electrical circuit. Since power plants have to generate enough electricity to satisfy the apparent power, industrial consumers must pay additional costs for low power factors.
Figure 1.2 Average retail prices of electricity [5].
In addition to pressure from governmental regulations and energy prices, companies are always striving to increase their competitiveness and enhance their market share. Growing pressure from society, consumers, and customers to become greener and more environmentally-friendly also drives manufacturers to reduce energy usage.
The U.S. Department of Energy has initiated many initiatives to help American companies become leaders in the use and production of clean energy technologies like electric vehicles, LED bulbs, and solar panels and to increase their energy productivity (output per unit of energy input) by implementing energy efficiency measures. Manufacturing data is key to achieving higher energy efficiency. For example, smart manufacturing, which is receiving increasing attention, seeks to use data from ubiquitous sensors across the manufacturing enterprise to increase throughput, improve quality, and reduce environmental impacts.
Dornfeld and Wright suggested that rather than implementing one solution, that “technology wedges” should be adopted to offer a better framework for addressing the manufacturing energy challenge [10]. “Technology wedges” are the manufacturing equivalent of the “stabilization wedges” concept introduced by Pacala and Socolow [11]. Stabilization wedges can reduce GHG through efficient cars, efficient buildings, wind power instead of coal power, reinventing land use rather than deforesting, etc. – in short, employing alternative technologies to reduce fossil fuel consumption through demand-side (consumptive) technology and supply-side (generative) technology changes. Both concepts highlight the gap between the current trends in consumption rate with respect to fossil fuel consumption/emission and movement towards a sustainable rate with respect to the atmosphere’s capability to accommodate emissions [10]. Instead of seeking a single solution to fill this gap, smaller wedges, such as simpler, single technologies should be introduced to reduce consumption rates. Manufacturing engineers have the power to embed technology wedges in their processes, manufacturing equipment, factories, business operations, and supply chains. This book explores some technology wedges for energy reduction.
Overview of the Book Contents
This book presents a variety of opportunities to reduce the energy footprint of manufacturing, mainly for discrete product manufacturing. These opportunities cover the entire spatial scale of the manufacturing enterprise: from unit process-oriented approaches to enterprise-level strategies. Each chapter examines some aspect of this spatial scale, and discusses and describes the opportunities that exist at that level (Figure 1.3). The book is therefore divided into three sections:
Figure 1.3 Structure of the book.
Section I. Manufacturing Processes
In order to identify, analyze, and improve energy efficiencies, an enterprise must have a clear understanding of the performance of its manufacturing processes and the effect of process parameters on the energy consumption of unit processes. The primary focus of this section is therefore on the energy consumed by unit processes, explained by the physical principles associated with each process. Each chapter in this section will describe the physics of the manufacturing process and how energy is utilized, discuss energy reduction opportunities, and present a case study.
Chapter 2 lays the ground work for explaining the terminology for this book, in particular power, energy, and work. The energy for a unit manufacturing process is classified into four parts: processing, machine tool, process peripherals, and background. Processing energy can be modeled using a first principles approach, which will be demonstrated with examples from forging, orthogonal cutting, and grinding.
Chapter 3 focuses on raw material processing, which remains one of the most energy intensive phases in the product life cycle. This chapter provides an overview of the steel, aluminum, titanium, and polymer industries and describes the related materials processing technologies.
Chapter 4 discusses deformation processes, in particular the general concept, geometric accuracy, surface finish, formability prediction, and energy consumption of incremental forming in comparison with conventional forming. Surface texturing is introduced as a strategy to save energy by reducing friction at moving interfaces.
Chapter 5 reviews machining processes and the energy for machine tools and machining lines, discusses how energy depends on the material removal rate, and gives strategies for process optimization with regard to energy consumption. A detailed case study illustrates the optimization for minimal energy consumption in a turning process. Further studies address power consumption in turning, milling, drilling and grinding processes.
Chapter 6 concentrates on nontraditional machining processes, in particular electro-discharge machining (EDM), electrochemical machining (ECM), electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM), and electrochemical grinding (ECG). The electrical energy requirements herein are of significant importance as electrical energy is controlling the material removal in these processes.
Chapter 7 describes the principles and energy requirements for many of the most important surface treatment and coating processes. The surface treatment processes include hardening and heat treatment with furnaces, as well as laser and electron beam operations. Coating principles are discussed for thermal spraying, hard facing, physical and chemical vapor deposition, as well as certain electroplating operations. In addition, texturing with energy beams and through surface replication and machining are introduced, as are the stress-inducing operations of peening, burnishing, and explosive hardening.
Chapter 8 focuses on joining processes, which play a prominent role in manufacturing since almost all products are fabricated from multiple parts. Fusion welding processes, solid state welding, chemical joining, and mechanical joining methods are discussed. For the equipment and processes, models for energy efficiency and example data are given. Furthermore, the efficiency of joining facilities such as welding shops is analyzed and applied to case studies.
Section II. Manufacturing Systems and Enterprises
Careful consideration must be given not only to the energy consumed by manufacturing operations but also to the energy consumed by the auxiliary equipment of a manufacturing system as well as the other system elements that may influence the technical and economic performance of the system. The focus of this section is on reducing energy consumption at the facilities level, and improving the collective energy efficiency of the equipment in a facility.
Chapter 9 characterizes the energy consumption of production equipment. For this, power measurement is described, followed by the power breakdown of common manufacturing equipment. A life cycle energy analysis of equipment with the example of two milling machines is presented. Multiple energy reduction strategies and their additional life cycle impacts are discussed.
Chapter 10 introduces assembly processes and methods and their energy consumption. Energy consumption analyses have the potential to influence assembly workstation design, material handling, and part location, as well as upstream fastener design or selection decisions.
Chapter 11 investigates supporting facilities such as lighting, HVAC, compressed air, pumps, process heating, cooling, and cleaning with regard to their electricity use and energy efficiency. Several strategies for industrial lighting are presented including more efficient lamp technologies, occupancy sensors, and reduced lighting levels. Furthermore, strategies for higher efficiency HVAC and air compressors are introduced, followed by energy management benefits and approaches.
Chapter 12 focuses on process planning, which determines the specific and sequence of manufacturing operations needed to produce a given part with the design specifications. The basic concepts and procedures of process planning and an energy efficient approach are introduced that is based on energy and carbon footprint models, feature-based technology, and genetic algorithms. For a case study, the energy efficient process plan is compared with a cost-driven process plan.
Chapter 13 explores scheduling, the act of allocating limited resources to tasks over time. Traditionally, scheduling is addressed with time-based objectives, such as minimizing the total waiting time. This chapter presents an approach that also addresses energy. The mathematics are explained and optimization models demonstrated.
Section III. Beyond the Factory
Manufacturing is often considered to consist of the processes and systems used to produce products. Other business organizational elements can, however, either impede or promote efforts directed at reducing the energy consumption of manufacturing, and more generally, the energy consumed by the enterprise and society. With this in mind, this section examines a variety of system-oriented opportunities for reducing energy consumption.
In Chapter 14, supply chain management is used to explore energy consumption along the supply chain. The supply chain can be described as the network of companies working together to provide goods or services to an end-use customer. The supply chain structure in horizontal and vertical dimensions, business relationships, and main activities (customer and supplier relationship management, customer service management, order fulfillment, etc.) are explored with regard to energy use.
Drivers and barriers for companies for implementing energy efficient projects are tackled in Chapter 15. They provide the reference for a proposed framework for project selection. Different efficiency opportunities ranging from lighting, efficient HVAC systems, improved motor systems, and building envelope projects are presented.
Chapter 16 explores the imperatives of efficiency (doing things right) and effectiveness (doing the right thing) with regard to energy. The strategies for higher energy efficiency explained in this book often have well delineated objectives. Energy effectiveness, however, depends highly on the decision-maker’s viewpoint. One strategy for considering both imperatives is to constantly pursue energy efficiency improvements, and to periodically adopt a course correction with energy effectiveness in mind.
References
1. 2016 Johnson Controls Energy Efficiency Indicator (EEI) survey, Milwaukee, WI, June 23, 2016, http://www.johnsoncontrols.com/media-center/news/press-releases/2016/06/23/~/media/b8b0f06132bf41509f22d79db53dfdbb.ashx.
2. Boustead, I., and Hancock, G.F., Handbook of Industrial Energy Analysis, Ellis Horwood.
3. Allwood, J., Cullen, J., Sustainable Materials: with both eyes open, UIT Cambridge Ltd., 2012.
4. Jamison, K., Kramer, C., Brueske, S., Fisher, A., Bandwidth Study on Energy Use and Potential Energy Saving Opportunities in U.S. Iron and Steel Manufacturing, DOE / EERE’s Advanced Manufacturing Office, June, 2015, https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/08/f26/iron_and_steel_bandwidth_report_0.pdf.
5. U.S. Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.gov/totalenergy, accessed Nov., 2016.
6. U.S. EPA, Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data, https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data, accessed April, 2017.
7. Earth Observatory at NASA, URL: https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/CarbonCycle/, accessed Oct., 2017.
8. California Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/ab32/ab32.htm, accessed Nov., 2016.
9. European Commission, https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ets/index_en.htm, accessed Nov., 2016.
10. Dornfeld, D., and Wright, P., Technology wedges for implementing green manufacturing. Transactions of NAMRI/SME 2007; 35: 193–200, 2007.
11. Pacala, S. and Socolow, R., Stabilization wedges: Solving the climate problem for the next 50 years with current technologies, Science, 305: p. 968–972, 2004.
Chapter 2Operation Planning & Monitoring
Y.B. Guo
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Manufacturing industry is energy intensive. Due to the increasing energy cost and upcoming energy and environmental regulations, manufacturing faces the challenge of improving energy efficiency. This chapter gives an overall review of energy consumption in various manufacturing processes. The basic concepts of power, energy, and work are introduced. The scope and boundary of energy accounting are also discussed. The energy for a unit manufacturing process is classified into four parts: processing energy, machine tool energy, process periphery energy, and background energy. Case studies on processing energy modeling in forging, orthogonal cutting, grinding has been provided. The relationship between specific energy and material removal rate has been investigated. In addition, the measurement of power and energy consumption in manufacturing is discussed. Furthermore, possible energy reduction strategies are discussed.
Keywords: Manufacturing, energy consumption, energy efficiency, sustainability
2.1 Unit Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing involves the controlled application of energy to convert raw materials into finished products with defined shape, structure, and properties that satisfy given functions. The energy applied during processing may be mechanical, thermal, electrical, or chemical in nature. Usually manufacturing entails a process chain through the sequencing of different processes. The terminology “process” is equivalent to “operation.” They are the individual steps required to produce finished goods by transforming raw material and adding value to the workpiece as it becomes a finished product. Each individual process is known as a “unit operation/process.” These unit processes can be considered as the fundamental building blocks of a nation’s manufacturing capability. For example, a modern process chain to manufacture bearings is shown in Figure 2.1. The individual process such as forming, hardening, hard turning, and polishing is referred as unit process [1].
Figure 2.1 Process chain of unit processes to manufacture bearing race.
From the viewpoint of input and output, a unit process may be defined as an area of the process or a piece of equipment where materials are input, a function occurs and materials are output, possibly in a different form, state or composition [2–4]. All manufacturing processes take material inputs, including working materials and auxiliary materials, and transform them into products and wastes. Similarly, the energy inputs into these processes (primarily from electricity) are transformed into useful work, some of which is embodied into the form and composition of the products and wastes, and waste heat. In addition, the energy inputs usually require fuels and produce emissions. For electrical energy inputs, this occurs at the power station. A manufacturing process, along with material and energy flows to and from the process, is diagrammed in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Energy and material inputs and outputs for unit manufacturing process.
An extensive and continuously expanding variety of manufacturing processes are used to produce parts and there is usually more than one method of manufacturing a part from a given material. The taxonomy of manufacturing processes is illustrated by several versions [2, 5–7], Figure 2.3. These taxonomies have a first level classification of 5 to 6 groups and then these groups are populated by the actual different 120 unit processes.
Figure 2.3 Taxonomy of manufacturing processes.
Even though these unit manufacturing processes are very diverse, they all possess four key operation elements: the work material, the applied energy (mechanical, thermal, or chemical), a localized interaction zone between applied energy/work material, and the process equipment that provides the controlled application of energy. Advances in unit processes can be targeted at any one, or all, of these elements, although usually all four are affected to some extent by a change in any one of the elements. Furthermore, the emerging hybrid manufacturing processes may combine different unit processes working simultaneously on the same work zone within the material to improve manufacturing flexibility and efficiency. Thus, a systems approach is required for improving existing unit processes for developing new ones.
2.2 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of Unit Manufacturing Process
Based on a systematic taxonomy of manufacturing unit processes, a worldwide data collection effort is proposed within the CO2PE! UPLCI-initiative. The CO2PE!-Initiative [8] has as an objective to coordinate international efforts aiming to document and analyze the environmental impacts of a wide range of current and emerging manufacturing processes, and to provide guidelines to reduce these impacts. Figure 2.4 gives an overview of the CO2PE UPLCI—framework to collect, document and provide LCI data for a wide range of discrete manufacturing unit processes as well as to identify the potential for environmental improvements of the involved machine tools.
Figure 2.4 Overview of the CO2PE! UPLCI—framework [9].
As shown in Figure 2.4, this data collection can be performed in two different ways and includes an energy, resource and process emission study. The screening approach relies on representative, publicly available data and engineering calculations for energy use, material loss, and identification of variables for improvement, while the in-depth approach is subdivided into four modules, including a time study, a power consumption study, a consumables study and an emissions study, in which all relevant process inputs and outputs are measured and analyzed in detail. The screening approach provides the first insight in the unit process and results in a set of approximate LCI data, which also serve to guide the more detailed and complete in-depth approach leading to more accurate LCI data as well as the identification of potential for energy and resource efficiency improvements of the manufacturing unit process.
In the screening approach (UPLCI, www.wichita.edu/sustainability), data are gathered following the generic methodology for each manufacturing unit process that has been developed by Overcash et al. [10] utilizing the earlier work of Murphy et al. [11], Gutowski et al. [12], EBM [13], and Overcash [13]. The inventory phase is mainly divided in two parts, namely the energy and mass loss calculations [15]. The total energy is determined based on a functional unit output and typically consists of two parts, the direct, incremental energy to accomplish the unit process task (e.g., metal removal in machining) and the fixed energy from auxiliary systems active during idling (partial full mode and standby). Mass losses can be basic materials (such as metal loss from the drilled hole); auxiliary chemicals (such as cutting fluid); off-specification product rejection, etc.
The in-depth approach (http://www.mech.kuleuven.be/co2pe!/taxonomy), whether or not based on the screening approach, may identify focus points for machine tool improvement based on the results that it generates. It includes a time, power, consumables and emission study and leads to more accurate and complete LCI data, and supports the identification of potentials for environmental and economic improvements of the studied manufacturing equipment. Figure 2.5 shows an overview of the process inventory phase for the in-depth approach.
Figure 2.5 Overview of the process inventory phase for the in-depth approach [9].
