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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: IEEE Press Series on Power Engineering
- Sprache: Englisch
The first book in the field to incorporate fundamentals of energy systems and their applications to smart grid, along with advanced topics in modeling and control
This book provides an overview of how multiple sources and loads are connected via power electronic devices. Issues of storage technologies are discussed, and a comparison summary is given to facilitate the design and selection of storage types. The need for real-time measurement and controls are pertinent in future grid, and this book dedicates several chapters to real-time measurements such as PMU, smart meters, communication scheme, and protocol and standards for processing and controls of energy options.
Organized into nine sections, Energy Processing for the Smart Grid gives an introduction to the energy processing concepts/topics needed by students in electrical engineering or non-electrical engineering who need to work in areas of future grid development. It covers such modern topics as renewable energy, storage technologies, inverter and converter, power electronics, and metering and control for microgrid systems. In addition, this text:
- Provides the interface between the classical machines courses with current trends in energy processing and smart grid
- Details an understanding of three-phase networks, which is needed to determine voltages, currents, and power from source to sink under different load models and network configurations
- Introduces different energy sources including renewable and non-renewable energy resources with appropriate modeling characteristics and performance measures
- Covers the conversion and processing of these resources to meet different DC and AC load requirements
- Provides an overview and a case study of how multiple sources and loads are connected via power electronic devices
- Benefits most policy makers, students and manufacturing and practicing engineers, given the new trends in energy revolution and the desire to reduce carbon output
Energy Processing for the Smart Grid is a helpful text for undergraduates and first year graduate students in a typical engineering program who have already taken network analysis and electromagnetic courses.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018
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Ahmet Murat Tekalp
ENERGY PROCESSINGAND SMART GRID
JAMES A. MOMOH
Copyright © 2018 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available.
ISBN: 978-1-119-37614-9
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Images: (Top image) © Sam Robinson/ Gerryimages; (Center image) © Chombosan/iStockphoto
CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgments
Foreword
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Bibliography
Chapter 2 Electric Network Analysis in Energy Processing and Smart Grid
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Complex Power Concepts
2.3 Review of AC-Circuit Analysis Using Phasor Diagrams
2.4 Polyphase Systems
2.5 Three-Phase Impedence Loads
2.6 Transformation of Y to Delta and Delta to Y Networks
2.7 Summary of Phase and Line Voltages/Currents for Balanced Three-Phase Systems
2.8 Per-Unit Systems
2.9 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 3 Magnetic Systems for Energy Processing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Magnetic Fields
3.3 Equivalent Magnetic and Electric Circuits
3.4 Overview of Magnetic Materials
3.5 Hysteresis Loops and Hysteresis Losses in Ferromagnetic Materials
3.6 Definitions
3.7 Magnetic Circuit Losses
3.8 Producing Magnetic Flux in Air Gap
3.9 Rectangular-Shaped Magnetic Circuits
3.10 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 4 Transformers
4.1 Introduction
4.2 First Two Maxwell's Laws
4.3 Transformers
4.4 Ideal Single-Phase Transformer Models
4.5 Modeling a Transformer into Equivalent Circuits
4.6 Transformer Testing
4.7 Transformer Specifications
4.8 Three-Phase Power Transformers
4.9 New Advances in Transformer Technology: Solid-State Transformers — an Introduction
4.10 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 5 Induction Machines
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Construction and Types of Induction Motors
5.3 Operating Principle
5.4 Basic Induction-Motor Concepts
5.5 Induction-Motor Slip
5.6 Rotor Current and Leakage Reactance
5.7 Rotor Copper Loss
5.8 Developing the Equivalent Circuit of Polyphase, Wound-Rotor Induction Motors
5.9 Computing Corresponding Torque of Induction Motors
5.10 Approximation Model for Induction Machines
5.11 Speed Control of Induction Motors
5.12 Application of Induction Motors
5.13 Induction-Generator Principles
5.14 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 6 Synchronous Machines
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Synchronous-Generator Construction
6.3 Exciters
6.4 Governors
6.5 Synchronous Generator Operating Principle
6.6 Equivalent Circuit of Synchronous Machines
6.7 Synchronous Generator Equivalent Circuits
6.8 Over Excitation and Under Excitation
6.9 Open-Circuit and Short-Circuit Characteristics
6.10 Performance Characteristics of Synchronous Machines
6.11 Generator Compounding Curve
6.12 Synchronous Generator Operating Alone: Concept of Infinite Bus
6.13 Initial Elementary Facts about Synchronous Machines
6.14 Cylindrical-Rotor Machines for Turbo Generators
6.15 Synchronous Machines with Effects of Saliency: Two-Reactance Theory
6.16 the Salient-Pole Machine
6.17 Synchronous Motors
6.18 Synchronous Machines and System Stability
6.19 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 7 Dc Machines
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Conductor Moving in A Uniform Magnetic Field
7.3 Current-Carrying Conductor in A Uniform Magnetic Field
7.4 Dc-Machine Construction and Nameplate Parameters
7.5 Dc Machine Pertinent Nameplate Parameters
7.6 Development and Configuration of Equivalent Circuits of Dc Machines
7.7 Classification of Dc Machines
7.8 Voltage Regulation
7.9 Power Computation for Dc Machines
7.10 Power Flow and Efficiency
7.11 Dc Motors
7.12 Computation of Speed of Dc Motors
7.13 Dc-Machine Speed-Control Methods
7.14 Ward Leonard System
7.15 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 8 Permanent-Magnet Motors
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Permanent-Magnet DC Motors
8.3 Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors
8.4 Variants of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors
8.5 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 9 Renewable Energy Resources
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Distributed Generation Concepts
9.3 DG Benefits
9.4 Working Definitions and Classifications of Renewable Energy
9.5 Renewable-Energy Penetration
9.6 Maximum Penetration Limits of Renewable-Energy Resources
9.7 Constraints to Implementation of Renewable Energy
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 10 Storage Systems in the Smart Grid
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Forms of Energy
10.3 Energy Storage Systems
10.4 Cost Benefits of Storage
10.5 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 11 Power Electronics
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Power Systems With Power Electronics Architecture
11.3 Elements of Power Electronics
11.4 Power Semiconductor Devices
11.5 Applications of Power Electronics Devices to Machine Control
11.6 Applications of Power Electronics Devices to Power System Devices
11.7 Applications of Power Electronics to Utility, Aerospace, and Shipping
11.8 Facts
11.9 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 12 Converters and Inverters
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Definitions
12.3 DC–DC Converters
12.4 Inverters
12.5 Rectifiers
12.6 Applications
12.7 Chapter Summary
Exercises
Bibliography
Chapter 13 Microgrid Application Design and Technology
13.1 Introduction to Microgrids
13.2 Types of Microgrids
13.3 Microgrid Architecture
13.4 Modeling of a Microgrid
13.5 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 14 Microgrid Operational Management
14.1 Perfomance Tools of a Microgrid
14.2 Microgrid Functions
14.3 IEEE Standards for Microgrids
14.4 Microgrid Benefits
14.5 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 15 the Smart Grid: an Introduction
15.1 Evolution, Drivers, and the Need for Smart Grid
15.2 Comparison of Smart Grid with the Current Grid System
15.3 Architecture of a Smart Grid
15.4 Design for Smart-Grid Function for Bulk Power Systems
15.5 Smart-Grid Challenges
15.6 Design Structure and Procedure for Smart-Grid Best Practices
15.7 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 16 Smart-Grid Layers and Control
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Controls for the Smart Grid
16.3 Layers of Smart Grid Within the Grid
16.4 Command, Control, and Communication Applications in Real Time
16.5 Hardware-in-the-Loop for Energy Processing and the Smart Grid
16.6 Cyber-Physical Systems for Smart Grids
16.7 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 17 Energy Processing and Smart-Grid Test Beds
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Study of Available Test Beds for the Smart Grid
17.3 Smart Microgrid Test-Bed Design
17.4 Smart-Grid Test Beds
17.5 Smart-Grid Case Studies
17.6 Simulation Tools, Hardware, and Embedded Systems
17.7 Limitations of Existing Smart-Grid Test Beds
17.8 Chapter Summary
Bibliography
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1
Chapter 4
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table Q3
Table Q11
Table Q15
Chapter 8
Table 8.1
Table 8.2
Table 8.3
Chapter 9
Table 9.1
Table 9.2
Chapter 10
Table 10.1
Table 10.2
Table 10.3
Chapter 11
Table 11.1
Table 11.2
Chapter 12
Table 12.1
Chapter 14
Table Q2
Chapter 15
Table 15.1
Table 15.2
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
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PREFACE
THE TRADITIONAL electrical engineering curriculum requires a basic course in electrical machinery, which includes three-phase networks, electromagnetics, transformers, synchronous generators, induction-machine and DC-machine modeling, construction, and performances analysis.
The knowledge of these concepts does not fully prepare students to understand, analyze, and participate in the design, development, and deployment of future grids with features of micro-smart-grid functions. The skills needed include knowledge of classical machine control, real-time measurements, renewable energy resources, storage technology, inverters and converters, and power electronics for processing different energy sources to serve different load models. This book introduces energy-processing concepts and topics needed by students in electrical engineering—and those outside of electrical engineering who will work in future grid development.
The intended audience includes undergraduates and first-year graduate students in a typical engineering program. It is assumed that these students have taken network analysis and electromagnetics courses and hence these topics are only summarized. Full treatment can be found in textbooks on standard machines and electromagnetics.
The idea of this book stems from a research grant from the Department of Energy/National Science Foundation future-grid initiative to the Power System Engineering Research Center/Industry University Collaboration Research Center Research and Workforce Award. As part of this grant, the Howard University team designed research and workforce education materials to contribute to the development of a new curriculum for teaching future energy conversion that will prepare students for handling research and education modules involving future-grid development.
The workforce-education module discussed in this text is a timely assignment since the electrical engineering program at Howard University—like at other universities—is reviewing its curriculum to accommodate new topics in future grid, since there appears to be no single book to present the balance of classical-machine and new trends in energy conversion and processing. This book serves as a reference for students as well as consultants who wish to have a quick overview of machines and energy processing and their relevance to microgrid with smart-grid functions.
Basic materials have been explained with illustrative examples and pictures. In the last few years, the materials in this book have been used to teach required undergraduate courses at Howard University, and some materials were used for teaching first-year graduate students who have a minimum background in energy processing for smart grid. We recommend that any materials too basic for the reader be skipped.
Throughout the book, we tried to minimize details on classical-machine concepts to allow for understanding and working knowledge of processing energy sources in the microgrid/smart-grid environment. We urge the reader to consult advanced books for further reading on these topics.
As noted, we have added some modern topics such as renewable energy, storage technologies, inverters and converters, power electronics, metering, and control for microgrid systems. From our experience thus far, this book will help kindle students’ interest in old-machine analysis and also their pursuit of new topics in design and development of smart-grid and microgrid systems.
The book is organized into nine major sections:
Basic concepts of network analysis applied to power and electromagnetic concepts as relevant to design and understanding of electromechanical systems, which form the backbone of energy processing
Fundamentals of machinery functions, construction, modeling, and performance for transformers, synchronous machines, induction machines, and DC machines
Renewable-energy and storage-technology options for sustainability of energy needs in future grids
Design of inverter and converter and power electronics for energy processing from different sources to serve different loads
Microgrid applications design, technology, and operational management
Review and evaluation of metering communication and control for enabling different functions for operating and managing smart-grid and microgrid systems
Smart-grid design, architecture, security protocols, and real-time measurements
Different test beds and their features with useful energy-processing technology
Exercises for design, testing, and evaluation of energy processing as experimental case studies; this involves a ‘power game’ within an energy-processing platform with OPAL RT in the loop
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I WOULD LIKE to acknowledge the vision of the Power System Engineering Research Center (PSERC)/Industry University Collaboration Research Center (IUCRC), and Department of Energy (DOE) to encourage deployment of workforce-training materials along with research in support of design, development, and deployment of advanced tools needed for the future grid. The future grid—and its sustainability, security, efficiency, and affordability—is fundamental, and thus requires energy processing. Furthermore, electromagnetic machines, power electronics, storage, inverters/converters, tools for the design of the microgrid and smart grid are essential. Knowledge of communications, controls, and standards is essential for building the structure of the future grid. Therefore, my hope is that this book will contribute to research materials that prepare undergraduate and graduate students to prepare for research and careers in the evolving power grid and smart grid industries.
The new course in energy processing and smart grid at Howard University helped meet the challenge of electrical engineering curriculum revision at the undergraduate level to reduce credit hours for graduation from 130 to 120 as in other engineering schools. It has been taught as an undergraduate junior-level course and as a first-year graduate special topic course.
Special thanks are due to several students who helped in the preparation, problem-solving, and exercises in the book. We also acknowledge the pioneering work in energy processing, machines, and smart grid and microgrid by several authors.
FOREWORD
INCREASINGLY, ELECTRICITY is being produced from renewable resources—primarily solar and wind—in an effort to mitigate the consequences of global warming resulting from high concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by burning fossil fuels. This new direction in energy production and environmental protection requires an extensive re-engineering of the existing electric grid into a computerized future grid—or a smart grid—that accommodates the special characteristics of renewable power-generating technologies. To advance grid modernization, the Power Systems Engineering Research Center (PSERC) has been conducting research with its industry partners on the technical challenges facing the electric power industry.
Keeping up with the education side of its mission, PSERC's faculty has developed software tools, courses, a virtual library, and training materials to ensure the basis of a workforce well versed in implementing the future grid. This book, Energy Processing and Smart Grid, developed as a part of this mission, is divided into three broad sections: energy conversion including renewables, power electronics interfaces, measurements, and controls of the microgrid and smart grid, and test beds for the smart grid.
The author, James A. Momoh, has extensive experience in power system modeling, control, planning, and operations which make him qualified to write a book addressing these topics. This book is a valuable addition to IEEE John Wiley & Sons series which addresses the development of educational tools to meet the needs of the current and future engineers that will be managing these complex cyber-physical systems as well as innovators who will bring future transformations.
The book provides a fundamental understanding of energy processing and technologies needed for building the smart grid. It covers major topics on the fundamentals of smart grid, energy conversion and power electronics, cyber security, real-time measurement, and state estimation techniques. The book is easy to use because it speaks a language that is understandable to both novices and experts. It will serve as a good reference as well as self-study guide for graduate students, research teams, and system operators.
Vijay Vittal
Ira A. Fulton Chair Professor
Director PSERC
School of Electrical, Computer and Energy Engineering
Arizona State University
CHAPTER1INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of electric energy generation, transmission, and distribution is conducted via a large-scale central generation (CG) to meet increasing demand at industrial, commercial, and residential loads. The generation of power through central generation is done via coal-fired, fossil-fuel, hydro, and steam turbines. These resources are converted to electrical energy then processed through different technologies to meet growing load demands. Similarly, the transmission of power from generating units requires high investment, including numerous energy-processing technologies to transfer power to load centers. This is done via transformers and solid-state switching devices at very high voltages. Distribution-system networks are also significant for dispatching power at low voltage via step-down transformers to domestic consumers. Given the different direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) load models and categories, energy-processing devices such as converters and inverters are needed especially when issues of safety, quality of power, security, and processing are important to meet different loads from various sources.
In recent years, many new distributed generation (DG) sources have been introduced with the aim of reducing losses and increasing reliability, regardless of economy of scale of CG, which can be huge when accounting for cost of transmission and reliability during failure.
DG created from solar, mini-hydro, wind, stirling engines, and fuel cells is of common interest. The debate on how to determine to what extent one should drive CG or DG is a research topic under the future grid initiative. In this paper [1], we were able to show three criteria for selecting which energy sources and processing options should be selected. The criteria included economy of scale, resilience, sustainability, and reliability. Regardless of the choice, appropriate energy processing tools and concepts are a dominant concern moving forward. It is therefore important for a book to be dedicated to addressing appropriate fundamental concepts and technologies for designing, building, and validating the performance of the future grid. That is the goal of this book.
In this book, we propose to provide an integrated foundational knowledge that harnesses the role of energy conversion machines and devices with some new topics for energy generation, transmission, distribution, delivery, and consumption. First, it is relevant to provide the working definition of microgrid.
The microgrid involves a stand-alone or grid-connected system to:
match generation with load
serve as a reserve margin
help stabilize the power system
increase reliability and affordability
reduce the impact of threats on the bulk power system
In contrast, the smart grid is a two-way digital system with active participation of customers within the grid that includes renewable energy resources (RER) with the aim of sustainability and allows reasonable penetration levels and interoperability [2]. It possesses self-healing capabilities; cyber security; and real-time, design-based functions such as reconfiguration, demand-side management (DSM), demand response, and power quality.
We present eight points in this book to support control communications and energy processing for the smart grid. They are the basis of the seventeen chapters, categorized as follows:
A basic review of network (circuit) analysis and electromagnetics is provided. This includes discussion on the fundamental concepts of three-phase analysis of AC sources to different load configurations. The text assumes the sources are AC that can be converted to DC or AC/DC or DC/AC using inverters and converters, as discussed in Chapter 12. A set of hand-calculation exercises is presented although software tools such as NEPLAN [3], Electrical Transient and Analysis Program (ETAP) [4], and Personal Computer Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis (PSPICE) [5] can also be used. Balanced or unbalanced conditions can also be analyzed using symmetrical components.
Electromagnetic concepts are introduced by providing the unified theory of Maxwell's equations and their applications for understanding machinery concepts, including transformers, synchronous and induction machines, and DC machines. The unified theories of Faraday, Lenz, and Ampère are given to illustrate the concept of electromagnetic computation. Equivalent analogous forms of magnetic circuits in electric circuits are given for magnetic circuits with rectangular and toroidal shapes with and without air gaps for different ferromagnetic materials.
Fundamental understanding of machines is discussed. This includes the conversion process and the role of Maxwell's equations. The construction and model of the machines using electrical network equivalents are given using short-circuit and open-circuit analyses for determining the equivalent parameters [6]. The power flow in each machine—accounting for conversion, electrical, mechanical, and stray losses—is given. Following this, the text provides a guide for computing efficiency of the power input relative to the output power received. In addition, voltage regulation and control strategies to achieve optimum energy processing are discussed.
Fundamental knowledge of storage and renewable resources is important for development of future grids where sustainability and mobile power are needed. Storage is safe, inexpensive, and the reason for interest in the design of future environmentally friendly grids. The text provides a working model, description, size, and metrics of different resources and storage technologies. Software packages are recommended for studying the impact of RER for reliability and cost–benefit analysis for stand-alone distribution system topologies for the future grid.
Efficient technology to handle processing energy from one state or form to another includes inverters and converters, which provide AC/DC, DC/DC, or DC/AC conversion from a given resource to given loads. To minimize poor power quality, different electronic devices and filters are used. The text provides a fundamental knowledge of power electronics to allow the reader appropriate choices of electronic devices for energy processing.
In designing the operation and management of the smart grid and microgrids, real-time processing of energy and information is essential. We present an overview of real-time data such as voltage, current, power, and frequency, which measure the status of the grid via smart meters and phasor measurement units (PMUs). The formulations and specifications of the devices and their use in communication and control schemes are given. Work in areas of real-time voltage-stability management, power quality, frequency control, voltage/volt-ampere reactive (var), reconfiguration, and several other grid functions are included in the proposed exercises.
We provide a description for understanding the smart grid and microgrid, including functionality, architecture, and the test bed. The chapters integrating the concept of microgrids in this text are an evolving process. Research work and laboratory exercises are important activities for general electrical installations.
Finally, the design of microgrid systems with smart grid functions is described.
Our research involving the design and construction of a microgrid test bed consisting of solar power, super capacitors, batteries, metering devices, converters and inverters, and a real-time simulator is ongoing at Howard University. The introduction of the OPAL-RT real-time digital simulator (RTDS) to the array of research and educational equipment at the Center for Energy Systems and Control (CESaC) at Howard University is allowing us to develop functions such as power quality, voltage stability, voltage/var, DSM, and restoration.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. A. Momoh, S. Meliopoulos, and R. Saint,
Centralized and Distributed Generated Power System -- A Comparative Approach
, PSERC publication, June 2012.
J. Momoh,
Smart Grid -- Fundamentals of Design and Analysis
, Wiley-IEEE Press, 2012.
https://www.neplan.ch
https://etap.com
www.pspice.com
Mohamed E. El-Hawary,
Electrical Power Systems -- Design and Analysis
, IEEE Press, 1983.
