Engineering Physics of High-Temperature Materials E-Book

Nirmal K. Sinha

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1434

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Beschreibung

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE MATERIALS

Discover a comprehensive exploration of high temperature materials written by leading materials scientists

In Engineering Physics of High-Temperature Materials: Metals, Ice, Rocks, and Ceramics distinguished researchers and authors Nirmal K. Sinha and Shoma Sinha deliver a rigorous and wide-ranging discussion of the behavior of different materials at high temperatures. The book discusses a variety of physical phenomena, from plate tectonics and polar sea ice to ice-age and intraglacial depression and the postglacial rebound of Earth’s crust, stress relaxation at high temperatures, and microstructure and crack-enhanced Elasto Delayed Elastic Viscous (EDEV) models. At a very high level, Engineering Physics of High-Temperature Materials (EPHTM) takes a multidisciplinary view of the behavior of materials at temperatures close to their melting point. The volume particularly focuses on a powerful model called the Elasto-Delayed-Elastic-Viscous (EDEV) model that can be used to study a variety of inorganic materials ranging from snow and ice, metals, including complex gas-turbine engine materials, as well as natural rocks and earth formations (tectonic processes). It demonstrates how knowledge gained in one field of study can have a strong impact on other fields.

Engineering Physics of High-Temperature Materials will be of interest to a broad range of specialists, including earth scientists, volcanologists, cryospheric and interdisciplinary climate scientists, and solid-earth geophysicists. The book demonstrates that apparently dissimilar polycrystalline materials, including metals, alloys, ice, rocks, ceramics, and glassy materials, all behave in a surprisingly similar way at high temperatures. This similarity makes the information contained in the book valuable to all manner of physical scientists.

Readers will also benefit from the inclusion of:

• A thorough introduction to the importance of a unified model of high temperature material behavior, including high temperature deformation and the strength of materials
• An exploration of the nature of crystalline substances for engineering applications, including basic materials classification, solid state materials, and general physical principles
• Discussions of forensic physical materialogy and test techniques and test systems
• Examinations of creep fundamentals, including rheology and rheological terminology, and phenomenological creep failure models

Perfect for materials scientists, metallurgists, and glaciologists, Engineering Physics of High-Temperature Materials: Metals, Ice, Rocks, and Ceramics will also earn a place in the libraries of specialists in the nuclear, chemical, and aerospace industries with an interest in the physics and engineering of high-temperature materials.

Leseprobe

Engineering Physics of High‐Temperature Materials

Metals, Ice, Rocks, and Ceramics

Nirmal K. Sinha

Retired, Institute for Aerospace Research, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

and

Shoma Sinha

Queen's Partnerships and Innovation, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada

This edition first published 2022© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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The rights of Nirmal K. Sinha and Shoma Sinha to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted in accordance with law.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Sinha, Nirmal K. (Engineer), author. | Sinha, Shoma, author.Title: Engineering physics of high-temperature materials : metals, ice, rocks, and ceramics / Nirmal K. Sinha and Shoma Sinha.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2021027147 (print) | LCCN 2021027148 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119420484 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119420453 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119420460 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Materials at high temperatures. | Deformations (Mechanics)Classification: LCC TA418.24 .S56 2021 (print) | LCC TA418.24 (ebook) | DDC 620.1/1217–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021027147LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021027148

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Nirmal K. Sinha

The authors would like to dedicate this book to their loving grandson and nephew, Indro Neel Sinha. The proposal of this book was accepted by Wiley on the day he was born in December 2016.

Acknowledgments

Both authors would like to acknowledge the patience and support of their entire family – particularly Supti Sinha, Priya Sinha, and Roona Sinha. Without them, this work would not have been possible.

Nirmal Sinha: I am indebted to Dr. Arthur Carty, the then President of National Research Council (NRC) of Canada, for providing the opportunity and necessary funds in 1998 to build the required facilities within the Institute for Aerospace Research (IAR) of NRC for carrying out ice‐based mechanical tests on various gas‐turbine engine materials, relevant to this book and without which this book would not have been written. For about three decades prior to this, I had been encouraging materials scientists around the world to extend glass‐ and ice‐based constitutive equations to high‐temperature metallic alloys, but progress was limited until this opportunity.

This book presents progressive development that started from working on glass technology. The late Dr. Sydney Bateson (Director) and J.W. Hunt (Manager) of Glass and Ceramics Laboratory, Duplate Canada Ltd. (Oshawa, Canada), mentored, inspired and provided me with the freedom during 1964–1971 to conduct studies related to thermal tempering and strength improvement of window glasses. Duplate (acquired by Pittsburg Plate Glass), sole supplier to all the automobiles manufacturers in Canada (General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler), also allowed me to fulfil the requirements for my doctoral studies during 1967–1970 at the University of Waterloo. D. Tansley assisted me in designing and fabricating tempering and creep equipment in the laboratory at Duplate. A large number of persons, including C. McKnight in the manufacturing plant at Duplate, exposed me to the production problems and real‐life issues in making automotive and structural safety glasses. Dr. K.M Baird of the Physics Division of NRC allowed me to borrow the first Canadian He–Ne gas LASER, which he had fabricated, for my rheo‐optical studies on the tempering of glass, especially for the development of the scattered light technique for determining stresses in thermally toughened glass sheets. Dr. J.C. Thompson of the University of Waterloo helped me immensely in the preparation of my PhD thesis.

I am also indebted to the late Dr. Lorne Gold at the Division of Building Research (DBR) of NRC for the endless discussions, critical comments, and supply of his original experimental data on microcracking in pure ice, which enhanced the EDEV model for broad applications. The technical help of D. Wright, R. Jerome, and J. Neal for the years at the ice mechanics laboratory of DBR (NRC) is much appreciated. For the studies on superalloys at IAR (NRC), I am indebted to T. Terada, R.C. McKellar, and R. Kearsey for their excellent technical assistance, and to Dr. W. Wallace for the metallurgical discussions.

Prof. Brian Wilshire inspired me, in a very positive manner, to challenge many ideas popular in the high‐temperature mechanics of metals and alloys that are also followed, often without question, in other materials science areas. It became an obsession to apply ice‐based mechanics to metallic and other materials. This book may therefore be considered as complimentary to Creep of Metals and Alloys (Institute of Metals, 1985) by R.W. Evans and B. Wilshire.

For two decades of field observations at the world’s largest skating rink (Rideau Canal Skateway, Ottawa, 7.8 km), and the experiments on the loading of floating ice described in Chapter 10, relevant to postglacial or global isostatic uplifting, I would like to acknowledge the technical help provided by D. Martin and his survey team, Design Division, Maintenance Division – Operations Group, and the Winterlude staff of the National Capital Commission (NCC) at Ottawa, including A.J. Capling, A.S. Fraser, M. Gauthier, and K. Tam.

Last, but most important, I am indebted to the Inuit communities of Pond Inlet (Baffin Island) for sharing their knowledge on sea ice as a material, and to various agencies of the Federal Government of Canada, namely Canadian Coast Guard (CCG), Atmospheric Environment Services (AES), Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), and the Canadian Armed Forces, for the logistical support in the High Arctic over a period of 30 years.

Shoma Sinha: Throughout my career, I have had the privilege to be supported and guided by many. Jeff Fraser from the NRC (Institute of Microstructural Sciences) not only kindled my interest in the fascinating world of materials and microscopy but his encouragement also gave me the confidence to pursue my interests. My doctoral research supervisor, Dr. Robert Wolkow, taught me to explore nature with a multi‐disciplinary mindset. Dr. Gino DiLabio has helped guide me in critical thinking and planning – in both my research and overall career. I am also indebted to other members of my doctoral research team, including but not limited to, Dr. Stanislav Dogel, Dr. Jason Pitters, and Mark Salomans. The teams at Quantiam Technologies Inc., the Government of Alberta – Emerging Technology Industries and Queen's Partnerships and Innovation have further enabled me to explore and contribute to the multidisciplinary world of science and innovation.

My career would not be where it is today without the many amazing individuals who I know I can always rely on to be there with advice, mentorship, and friendship. The brilliant “brunch‐ladies” and my co‐founders of the WISER (Women in Science, Engineering and Research) Network – Gail Powley, Dr. Sharon Barker, and Dr. Heather Kaminsky – have created an amazing circle of support. I would also particularly like to acknowledge Heidi Au, Katherine Comber, Annette Dethlefsen, Mary‐Ann LaFrance, Saurabh Ratti, Samia Sarkar, Emina Veletanlic, and Dr. David Waldbillig for always being there for me.

Engineering Physics of High‐Temperature Materials

Preface

The development of knowledge in all branches of science and engineering has been so varied and rapid during the last century that it has become extremely difficult, if not impossible, for investigators to pay attention to different fields outside of their own expertise. As time progresses, each and every branch of scientific endeavor is getting subdivided and micro‐ divided, with specific jargon developing even within micro units, making it even more difficult to communicate with each other across specialties. The physics and engineering of high‐temperature materials is one such special area, and yet it touches many fields in many ways.

There is an ever‐growing number of human‐made materials like ceramics, metallic alloys, and superalloys used specifically in high‐temperature applications in areas such as the nuclear, chemical and aerospace industries. This may also include materials developed by design on the basis of nanotechnology and grain‐boundary engineering for very specific uses. Then, there are rocks of geophysical interest (such as with respect to tectonics and post‐glacial uplifting) existing at high temperatures within the depths of Earth and floating on magma, and ice (freshwater and saline sea ice) floating in its molten state in lakes and oceans. It would be impossible to cover all the complicated phenomena of different materials in a single book. However, the principal strengths of a book like the present one is the manner in which it covers many different materials all together. This could also be a weakness if descriptions are not clear enough to facilitate an understanding of the complicated physics and mechanics in widely differing materials. Some difficulties can be overcome by restricting topics relevant only to inorganic crystalline materials that would include the most abundant materials on Earth – ice and rocks, in addition to manu‐made (gender‐neutral term derived from Manushya in Sanskrit) and manufactured metallic‐based engineering materials used in various industries such as aerospace, power generation, and nuclear technology. Further obstacles can be removed by concentrating on materials at or used at high homologous temperatures greater than about one‐third of the melting point, Tm in Kelvin. In this manner, it is indeed possible to draw attention to a common string that unites most, if not all, apparently different polycrystalline materials and topics. Many time‐honored, empirically derived relations will be explained on the basis of a simple, microstructure‐sensitive, Elasto – Delayed‐Elastic – Viscous (EDEV) model.

High‐temperature materials science and engineering sounds like a specialized branch of applied science, but it can actually be considered as one of the most general areas of modern science and technology. This book is prepared with the intention of making it known that apparently dissimilar polycrystalline materials, such as metals, alloys, ice, rocks, and ceramics – and even glassy materials – behave in a very similar manner at high temperatures. This book, therefore, is aimed at a variety of experts, such as metallurgists to metal physicists, glaciologists to ice engineers, solid‐earth geophysics, earth scientists to volcanologists, and cryospheric and interdisciplinary climate scientists. The critical question addressed is, what is really meant by “high temperature,” and why? What is the microstructural‐based rationale for defining high temperatures?

Materials scientists (materialogists) universally agree that temperatures, T, above about one‐third of the melting point, Tm in degrees Kelvin, are high. For metals and alloys, it is unanimously recognized that T > 0.4Tm is unquestionably categorized as high‐temperature because intergranular cracks (called wedge or w‐type) along the grain‐boundaries (comparable to the size of grain facets) are predominantly observed at such temperatures, particularly in polycrystals. Grain‐boundary spherical or elliptical voids (called cavitation or r‐type) are also commonly noticed features in deformed or fractured materials. To this list of readily observable microstructural features, we consider a very special aspect of high‐temperature deformation and failure processes – that, to‐date, has not derived much attention from materialogists in general. It is the recoverable delayed elastic strain (des) in addition to elastic and viscous (matrix dislocation creep) deformation. For example, complex aerospace alloys exhibit a significant amount of delayed elastic effect not only during the primary or transient stages, but also during the tertiary creep regime. Progress made in ice mechanics, experimental as well as theoretical, have proved to be a fertile ground for explorations toward understanding the onset of interfacial failure processes in polycrystalline materials during the primary creep and eventual failures at high temperatures. The modern knowledge summarized in this book demonstrates that delayed elastic strain can be measured precisely at any stage of high‐temperature deformation through the careful design of experimental techniques (e.g., Chapter 4). This is illustrated in Figure P.1.

As mentioned earlier, a constitutive model, named as the Elasto – Delayed‐Elastic – Viscous (EDEV) model, was developed that recognizes delayed elasticity (that can be measured experimentally for quantitative verifications) as one of the most important aspects of high‐temperature engineering materialogy. As this text will show, it has been demonstrated that delayed elastic strain plays crucial roles in governing every aspect of primary (often called transient) creep curves and engineering stress‐strain diagrams and strain‐rate‐dependent strength (such as 0.2% offset yield and ultimate strength) properties. Finally, and very importantly, grain‐facet size cracks are initiated during primary creep, when des reaches a critical stage (Chapters 5, 6). The kinetics of microcracking and crack‐enhanced viscous (or dislocation) creep, essence of the EDEV model, leads to tertiary or accelerating stages in constant‐stress creep or constant strain‐rate deformation (Chapters 7, 8). The processes of grain‐boundary shearing (often referred to as sliding in the literature) induce recoverable delayed elastic strains. The grain‐boundary shearing mechanisms also govern the initial-strain (or initial-constrain) sensitivity of stress‐relaxation (SR) at high homologous temperatures, as presented in Chapter 9. The crack‐enhanced EDEV model, therefore, provides a physics‐based elucidation for the phenomenological observations on a huge number of engineering materials. And the methodology is very simple. Material characteristics for creep, and the kinetics of grain‐facet size cracking during creep, like those provided in Table 7.1 for ice, can be obtained for other materials by performing the appropriate strain relaxation and recovery test (SRRT) (Chapter 4), including the use of acoustic emission (AE) technology, and emphasizing, of course, evaluation of recoverable delayed elastic response.

Engineering design is most often based on “effective” elastic response, yield strength such as 0.1 or 0.2% offset yield stress, and/or design curves summarizing stress‐time‐temperature dependence of some specified strain. All these characteristics are strain‐rate sensitive and have been shown to be governed by primary or transient creep at high temperatures. It is shown in this book that primary creep is linked strongly to observable and precisely quantifiable delayed elastic phenomena, and that it is of utmost importance not only for characterizing the propagation of seismic waves in rocks (well recognized by geophysicists and volcanologists), but also for the prediction of strain‐rate‐sensitive 0.2% offset yield strengths, extremely important for design engineers. This book fills this gap in materials science in a significant manner.

Figure P.1 Delayed elastic strain (des) recovery. (a) constant‐stress creep of nickel‐base Waspaloy forgings at 1005K and 724 MPa; (b) constant strain‐rate strength test of directionally solidified (DS) ice at 263K (0.96Tm) and strain rate of 3 × 10−5 s−1, as described in Chapters 4 and 6.

Source: (a) N.K. Sinha, unpublished; (b) Sinha (1988a) with permission from Springer Nature.

There are a number of excellent books published in the past with a primary emphasis on metals and alloys. These publications have received wide‐ranging attention from metallurgists over the last 50 years or more. However, none of these well‐known publications have (to the authors’ knowledge) provided any information on grain‐size‐dependent nucleation and the kinetics of grain‐facet size microcracking activities and crack‐enhanced matrix creep, which starts during early stages of primary (transient) creep, leading to minimum creep rates and tertiary stages. Minimum creep rates are evolved properties and are in fact predictable. Minimum creep rate does not necessarily mean steady‐state creep due only to the dynamics of dislocation creep/climb mechanisms. The use of the usual experimentally evaluated characteristics of the minimum creep rate as a fundamental material property was recognized as being inappropriate by several investigators, but this is still largely ignored. None of the available books that focus on metallurgical processes take notice of the fact that strain‐rate‐sensitive 0.2% yield stress depends on characteristics of transient creep. This yield stress is actually predictable for real engineering materials (e.g., Ni‐ or Ti‐base superalloys used in gas turbine engines) on the basis of the EDEV model using material characteristics that can be obtained from independent SRRT tests (elaborated and substantiated in Section 5.16 of Chapter 5).

The preceding text summarizes fundamental concepts that, although duly acknowledged in different ways by materials experts in different fields, are yet to be addressed comprehensively in a text that ties it all together. Moreover, the implications of applying the knowledge to different fields is vast: from predicting/designing to account for the creep of nickel‐base turbine blades in aerospace or power engineering, to guidelines for ice fishermen about how long a vehicle can remain parked on a floating ice sheet, or even to describe certain aspects of post‐glacial uplift and plate tectonics, including man‐made reservoir‐induced earthquakes, known as reservoir‐triggered seismicity (RTS).

The traditional concept of “strength” implies a specific material property. But the strength of a material is a low‐homologous temperature concept, say, less than about 0.3Tm. This low‐temperature concept, based primarily on stress‐strain diagrams without any reference to time, does not apply at the elevated temperatures relevant to all high‐temperature engineering, for example, hot sections of gas turbine engines or nuclear and power‐generation applications. Strength at elevated temperatures is rate sensitive and is therefore not a specific property. Nonetheless, the concept of strength as a specific property (a low‐temperature concept) has retarded growth in the understanding of microstructure–property relationships and failure processes in engineering components in general. The application of this concept has misleading implications, drawing away from one basic fact: transient or primary creep stage, involving the initial periods of damage accumulation, plays a dominant and perhaps decisive role in many engineering problems. In Chapter 8, we will use the crack‐enhanced Elasto – Delayed‐Elastic – Viscous (EDEV) model for predicting the rate sensitivity of strength in a rational manner.

One of the primary intentions of writing this text is to draw attention to the fact that polycrystalline ice can be used as an “ideal analogue” material to explain certain peculiarities of the elevated temperature response of engineered as well as natural materials. One such peculiarity is the observation that a polycrystalline material may exhibit both ductility and brittleness in a simultaneous manner. And this may happen at rather low levels of stress for engineering applications. But again, what do we mean by low or high stresses appropriate for high temperatures? Only by examining and analyzing the initiation of grain‐facet size cracks that can lead to tensile fracture can we offer a satisfactory mathematical and physical description for the stress as low or high. There is sufficient evidence to show that stresses higher than about 1 × 10−5E at T > 0.4Tm (where E is the Young’s modulus) may be considered as high stress for polycrystalline materials at high homologous temperature.

The onset of microcracking activities in pure, transparent ice can be monitored both visually and using AE technology. This dual process of evaluation is not possible for most opaque materials like metals, ceramics, and most rocks. Since it is not possible to visually identify the tiny grain‐facet size cracks inside most engineering materials, including bubbly ice, one‐to‐one correspondence between AE or microseismic activity (MA) signals and cracks could never be made. This is the dilemma for all metallic and ceramic materials. The predicament due to the opacity of specimens in most engineering materials allows AE/MA signals, even with 3D locator systems, only for monitoring the overall crack‐damage processes. We will discuss these issues in Chapter 4 (Section 4.10) and Chapters 7 and 8 for clarifying the advantages of using pure ice as an ideal analogue material for studies on engineering materials in general.

Although the very powerful Elasto – Delayed‐Elastic – Viscous (EDEV) model, described and applied for a wide range of engineering applications (Chapters 6–10), was developed from the rheological investigations on glass (Section 5.5 in Chapter 5), we are still unaware of any satisfactory answer as to why glass exhibits delayed elasticity identical to polycrystalline ceramics, metals, and complex alloys (see Section 5.6, Chapter 5). Why is the deformation‐induced birefringence (photoelastic effect) in glass independent of viscous strain and coupled “only” to pure elastic response of its complex structure?

Sea ice in the Arctic Ocean plays one of the most important roles in modifying the climate of the world. Sea ice in the Antarctic region is marginal and seasonal, as described in our earlier book, Sea Ice: Physics and Remote Sensing (AGU/Wiley, 2015). No doubt, we must pay attention to the formation and decay of sea ice as a measure of climate change. Coincidentally, air‐ or space‐borne images of sea ice bear all the likeness of micrographs of metals, alloys, rocks, and ceramics, as pointed out in Chapter 11. Ice floes in the oceans can be characterized as grains in polycrystalline materials. On the other hand, an image of floating pack‐ice may also evoke likeness to Earth’s tectonic plates and sub‐plates. Relative movements of sea ice floes with respect to each other and rafting can be described as divergence, convergence, subduction, etc. Can we apply the lessons learned from the bearing‐capacity of floating ice, on the basis of the EDEV model, to large‐scale global phenomena such as post‐glacial uplifting (see Chapter 10), which is a very complex issue related to the convergence and subduction of plate tectonics or RTS (see Chapter 11)?

In Chapter 1, we introduce three major cooling vents for Earth as the “Trinity of Earth’s Cryospheric Regions.” Cryosphere is historically an accepted term, depicting cold (from the human point of view), ice‐rich areas, including the atmosphere. Thermomechanically speaking, ice can be considered as cold only if the temperature is significantly below 0.4Tm or 109K (−165°C). Earth’s cryosphere, therefore, consists of three relatively hot zones: primary (two polar areas) and secondary (the Alps, Andes, Himalayas, Rockies, etc.). The Trishul or Trinity of major cryospheric zones of the world is: the North and South poles, and the Himalayan belt in the middle (Figure P.2).

Materialogists would perhaps give limited thought to the geophysically established fact that the secondary cryospheric zones of Earth – the Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, etc. – are products of high‐temperature phenomena active deep underneath Earth’s crust. Plate tectonics, very similar to sea ice dynamics, is briefly presented in Chapter 11. It is shown that the zone of reservoir‐induced earthquakes (or RTS), such as the Koyna–Warna area in India, may be predicted on the basis of the Elasto – Delayed-Elastic (EDE) aspect of the EDEV equation.

Figure P.2 “Trishul” (trident) of the two primary – North (N) and South (S) – polar regions, and the secondary regions represented by the Himalayas (H), with concentrations of snow and ice at extremely high homologous temperatures.

Source: Visionary sketch by N.K. Sinha.

History based on engineering physics looks to be the domain of professionals in metallurgy and materials science or materialogists. Where so much of the past, even the chronology, has to be teased from articulated intellectual objects emphasized in textbooks, scientific papers, and monographs, there surely must be need for a new perspective. However, much of the information required with state‐of‐art experimental observations was missing. The principal author, in particular, decided therefore to take a path that was a deviation from the normal.

Nirmal K. Sinha and Shoma Sinha

1Importance of a Unified Model of High‐Temperature Material Behavior

CHAPTER MENU

1.1 The World’s Kitchens – The Innovation Centers for Materials Development

1.1.1 Defining High Temperature Based on Cracking Characteristics

1.2 Trinities of Earth’s Structure and Cryosphere

1.2.1 Trinity of Earth’s Structure

1.2.2 Trinity of Earth’s Cryospheric Regions

1.3 Earth’s Natural Materials (Rocks and Ice)

1.3.1 Ice: A High-Temperature Material

1.3.2 Ice: An Analog to Understand High-Temperature Properties of Solids

1.4 Rationalization of Temperature: Low and High

1.5 Deglaciation and Earth’s Response

1.6 High-Temperature Deformation: Time Dependency

1.6.1 Issues with Terminology: Elastic, Plastic, and Viscous Deformation

1.6.2 Elastic, Delayed Elastic, and Viscous Deformation

1.7 Strength of Materials

1.8 Paradigm Shifts

1.8.1 Paradigm Shift in Experimental Approach

1.8.2 Breaking Tradition for Creep Testing

1.8.3 Exemplification of the Novel Approach

1.8.4 Romanticism for a Constant-Structure Creep Test

References

1.1 The World's Kitchens – The Innovation Centers for Materials Development

Engineering development is intricately linked with our understanding and manipulation of various kinds of materials, which are either readily available on land and sea or fabricated from them. Long before the dawn of civilization, Earth's surface had gone through many cycles of freezing and thawing. The ice age and deglacierization or melting of glaciers and ice sheets, still persisting on Earth's surface, played a pivoting role in shaping our lives and materials development. There is no question that ice played an important role in shaping the land and making adjustments in living conditions. But what does ice have to do with a book like this, entitled Engineering Physics of High‐Temperature Materials? In this book, we demonstrate how the knowledge of the physics of ice – a material that exists close to its melting point – can improve our understanding of all high‐temperature engineering materials. However, let us first explore a bit of human history and development in the usage of building materials.

The “Stone Age,” an archeological term of the three‐age system, was characterized by the use of stone as implements and ended variably between about 9000 and 2000 BCE in different areas of the world with the development of metalworking. It has been divided into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods (Bates and Jackson 1980). The “Bronze Age,” characterized by metalworking and primarily the alloying of copper with tin and arsenic, took over between roughly 3000 and 1000 BCE with the “Iron Age” starting roughly between 1200 and 600 BCE.

The advent of the current cycle of global warming, which roughly began around 18 000 years ago (estimated peak period of the last glaciation), led humans as well as other species to move into areas previously covered with ice. A straightforward, easy‐to‐read introduction to various aspects of geology, which is useful to materials scientists and engineers who are not familiar with geological science, can be found in Physical Geology (Plummer and McGeary 1985). The process of deglaciation took a long time. The bulk of the ice sheets on Earth's surface melted away around 10 000 years ago. The global sea level was at its lowest level during the peak period of the last ice age, but it started to rise as the meltwater returned to the oceans. However, as ice melted, the ice load on the glaciated land, floating on Earth's molten mantle, decreased and the land areas started to rebound rapidly in the beginning and then slowed down. Most of the global land areas being used today, including those far away from the previously glaciated areas, became available about 6000 years ago, with one well‐documented exception of the loss of land – Australia's Great Barrier Reef (GBR). The 2400 km long GBR did not exist 15 000 years ago.