Environmental Assessment in Developing and Transitional Countries E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 533

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Since the 1980s, and especially since the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, there has been a substantial extension in the adoption and use of Environmental Assessment (EA) procedures in developing countries and countries in transition (low and middle income countries). However, few existing texts in environmental assessment or development studies have reflected this trend sufficiently, until this publication.

Divided into two main parts:
* EA Principles, Processes and Practice.
* Country and Institutional Studies of EA Procedures and Practice.
This book explains the essentials of environmental impact association in the context of developing countries and assesses its importance to both developed and developing countries.

Leseprobe

Contents

Preface

List of Contributors

Abbreviations

List of Boxes, Figures, Maps and Tables

1 Introduction

1.1 Environmental Assessment, Developing Countries and Countries in Transition

1.2 The Origins of Environmental Assessment

1.3 The Environmental Assessment Process: Scope and Stages

1.4 Environmental Assessment and Sustainable Development

PART ONE EA Principles, Processes and Practice

2 Environmental Assessment in its Developmental and Regulatory Context

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Relationships Between the Development Process and Environmental Quality

2.3 Policy Instruments of Sustainability

2.4 Development and Environmental Quality Relationships in Low and Middle Income Countries

2.5 Environmental Pressures, Trends and Concerns

2.6 Environmental Regulatory Systems

2.7 Environmental Assessment, Environmental Regulatory Systems and Sustainable Development

3 Comparative Review of Environmental Assessment Procedures and Practice

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Sub-Saharan Africa

3.3 East Asia and the Pacific

3.4 South Asia

3.5 Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia

3.6 Middle East and North Africa

3.7 Latin America and the Caribbean

3.8 Development Banks and Aid Agencies

3.9 Comparative Overview

4 Screening and Scoping

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Screening

4.3 Scoping

4.4 Conclusions

5 Environmental Impact Prediction and Evaluation

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Principles of Impact Prediction and Evaluation

5.3 Data Collection

5.4 Impacts on Water

5.5 Impacts on Air and Noise

5.6 Impacts on Soils, Geology and Natural Resources

5.7 Impacts on Ecology

5.8 Impacts on Human Beings

5.9 Prediction and Evaluation in Strategic Level Assessments

5.10 Prediction Practice and Future Directions

6 Economic Valuation of Environmental Impacts

6.1 Introduction

6.2 The Concept of Economic Value

6.3 Valuation Techniques

6.4 Intertemporal Considerations: Choice of Discount Rate

6.5 Conclusions

7 Social Impact Assessment

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Methodology of SIA

7.3 Role of Participation in SIA

7.4 Why a Gender Analysis is Essential

7.5 ‘Content’ of SIA in Developing Countries

7.6 Some Important Considerations in Cross-cultural Assessments

7.7 Conclusions

8 Reviewing the Quality of Environmental Assessments

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Assessing EIS Quality: Context, Criteria and Method

8.3 Review Checklists and Packages

8.4 Findings of EIS Quality Reviews

8.5 Assessing the Performance of the EIA Process

8.6 New Forms of Assessment and Quality Assurance

8.7 Conclusions

9 Methods of Consultation and Public Participation

9.1 Why is Consultation and Public Participation Important?

9.2 What is Meant by Consultation and Public Participation?

9.3 How to Implement CPP?

9.4 Some Issues Relating to CPP

9.5 Future Trends in CPP

10 Integrating Appraisals and Decision-making

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Conceptual and Contextual Issues

10.3 Current Practice

10.4 Appraisal Methodologies

10.5 Conclusions

11 Environmental Monitoring, Management and Auditing

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Integrating Environmental Assessment, Environmental Management Plans and Environmental Management Systems

11.3 Environmental Management Plans and Monitoring Plans

11.4 Environmental Management Systems

11.5 Supervisory Monitoring and Enforcement

11.6 Environmental Audit

11.7 Monitoring in Strategic Environmental Assessment

11.8 Conclusions

PART TWO Country and Institutional Studies of EA Procedures and Practice

12 Country Studies of EA in Chile, Indonesia and the Russian Federation

12.1 EIA in Chile

12.2 EIA in Indonesia

12.3 EA in the Russian Federation

13 Country Studies of EA in Nepal, Jordan and Zimbabwe

13.1 EIA in Nepal

13.2 EIA in Jordan

13.3 EIA in Zimbabwe

14 Environmental Assessment in Development Banks and Aid Agencies

14.1 EA Procedures and Practice in the World Bank

14.2 EA Procedures and Practice in the Asian Development Bank

14.3 OECD guidelines for Bilateral Donors

15 Strengthening Future Environmental Assessment Practice: An International Perspective

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Key Challenges

15.3 The Way Forward

15.4 The Role of UNEP and Other Institutional Stakeholders

Index

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Preface

Environmental assessment (EA) originated, as a formalized system of environmental appraisal, at the beginning of the 1970s. Initially, it developed slowly but, from the middle of the 1980s, it has spread to cover most of the developed world. On the whole, EA has been introduced later, and is less firmly embedded, in the development process in low and middle income countries. However, since the late 1980s and especially since the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, there has been a substantial extension in mandatory and other EA procedures in developing countries (otherwise referred to as less developed countries, LDCs) and countries in transition (CITs).

The total volume of EA publications has increased rapidly in response to these developments. However, only a small proportion of the general texts which have been published relate to EA regulations and practice in LDCs and CITs. More fundamentally, few publications reflect the underlying conditions (political, institutional, cultural, economic and environmental) in these countries which shape their EA regulations and practice.

This book aims to remedy this deficiency, and both its contents and contributors have been selected with this in mind. Each author has experience of research, training or practical application of EA in low and middle income countries. Collectively, they cover all of the major regions of the world.

The book is intended for use by students and practitioners. It is written at a level appropriate to intermediate and advanced levels of study. As well as for EA specialists, it is primarily intended for use in courses relating to environmental planning and management, development studies and project appraisal. It is inter-disciplinary in nature and is accessible from different discipline backgrounds (environmental and other natural sciences, environmental technology, social sciences and development studies and various engineering disciplines). It combines regulatory and procedural reviews, analyses and evaluations of practice, proposals for improvements, and case study examples drawn from a wide variety of countries. It also contains advice on supplementary reading and discussion questions at the end of most chapters, to stimulate and guide further study.

The practitioners for whom the book is intended are of three types. There are those engaged in government administration and non-governmental organizations in low and middle income countries, who are dealing with environmental and development problems. There are those in bilateral aid agencies, international and regional development banks, and other international organizations who have environmental interests and responsibilities relating to LDCs and CITs. Finally there are those in consultancy organizations, universities and technical institutes, whose specialist scientific and technical skills contribute to the EA process.

The book begins with a general introduction (Chapter 1), which provides an overview of the EA process in developing countries and countries in transition, and its role in promoting sustainable development. The remainder of the book is divided into two main parts.

Part 1: EA Principles, Processes and Practice. This contains 10 chapters which first review the economic, environmental and regulatory context in which EA systems operate in LDCs and CITs (Chapter 2), and then overview EA procedures and practice in these countries in six different regions of the world (Chapter 3). Then, procedures and practice are examined in greater detail relating to key activities in the EA process:

Screening and scoping (Chapter 4)

Impact prediction and evaluation (Chapter 5)

Economic valuation of environmental impacts (Chapter 6)

Social impact assessment (Chapter 7)

Reviewing the quality of impact assessments (Chapter 8)

Public and stakeholder participation (Chapter 9)

Integrated appraisals and decision-making (Chapter 10)

Environmental monitoring, management and auditing (Chapter 11)

Part 2: Country and Institutional Studies of EA Procedures and Practice. This contains 10 studies prepared by contributors from the countries or institutions concerned. Chapters 12 and 13 contain six country studies, each drawn from a different region in the world. Chapter 12 covers three countries – Chile, Indonesia and Russia – each of which has a number of years of EA experience and whose systems are, in certain respects, relatively developed. In contrast, Chapter 13 covers three countries – Nepal, Jordan and Zimbabwe – whose EIA systems and experience are, in some respects, less developed. Chapter 14 contains three institutional studies – relating to the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank and bilateral aid agencies. All of these review EA procedures and practice and consider ways in which they might be improved.

The book concludes with an International Perspective on EA Practice in LDCs and CITs (Chapter 15). It identifies a number of challenges to be addressed, additional measures to be taken if EA is to become a more effective tool for sustainable development, and discusses the role of UNEP and other international stakeholders in helping to achieve this.

The completion of this book leaves us indebted to many people. First of all we wish to thank our contributors, who are drawn from many different parts of the world, without whose participation this kind of book would not have been possible. We are grateful to them for sharing their knowledge and experience with us. Each has been encouraged to write in a personal capacity. The views expressed are their own and are not necessarily shared by other contributors or by the organizations to which they are affiliated.

We also thank all those who assisted the preparation of the book by providing information and comments to authors of individual chapters. These are too numerous to mention all of them individually but, on behalf of the contributors, we warmly acknowledge their assistance. Additionally, we thank our colleagues in the EIA Centre, University of Manchester, for their assistance in obtaining documents, providing comments and generally supporting the preparation of the book.

We are also indebted to the publishers and authors of publications who have granted copyright permission to reproduce extracts from their work for inclusion in this book.

Finally, we thank Audrey Lee for her help in the preparation and editing of various drafts of the manuscript of the book, and both Audrey Lee and Kay George for their patience and generous support.

Norman LeeClive GeorgeJune 1999

List of Contributors

Hussein Abaza Chief, Economics and Trade Unit, United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva, Switzerland

Ron Bisset Director, CORDaH Environmental Management Consultants, Edinburgh, UK

Shem Chaibva Africa Regional Co-ordinator, International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, Harare, Zimbabwe

Aleg Cherp Director, Ecologia, Moscow, Russia

Clive George Senior Research Fellow, EIA Centre, University of Manchester, UK

Luis C. Contreras Geotechnica Consultants, Santiago, Chile

Ram B. Khadka Dean, School of Environmental Management and Sustainable Development, Kathmandu, Nepal

Mahmoud AI-Khoshman Environmental Specialist, Islamic Development Bank, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Colin Kirkpatrick Professor of Development Economics and Director of the Institute for Development Policy and Management, University of Manchester, UK

Norman Lee Senior Research Fellow, EIA Centre and the Institute for Development Policy and Management, University of Manchester, UK

Bindu Lohani Manager, Environment Division, Asian Development Bank, Manila, the Phillipines

Remy Paris Strategic Management of Development Co-operation Division, Development Co-operation Directorate, OECD, Paris, France

Colin Rees Advisor, Environment Department, World Bank, Washington DC, USA

Batu K. Uprety Assistant Planning Officer, Ministry of Population and Environment, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal

Frank Vanclay Associate Director, Centre for Rural Social Research, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, Australia

Christopher Wood Professor of Environmental Planning and Director of the EIA Centre, University of Manchester, UK

Zulhasni Co-ordinator, Environmentally Sound Beaches Program, Environmental Impact Management Agency, Indonesia

Abbreviations

ADB

Asian Development Bank

AMDAL

Assessment of environmental impacts (Indonesia)

ARA

Aqaba Region Authority

BAPEDAL

Environmental Impact Management Agency (Indonesia)

BAT

Best available techniques

BKPM

National Investment Board (Indonesia)

BPN

National Land Agency (Indonesia)

CBA

Cost-benefit analysis

CBO

Community-based organization

CEC

Commission of the European Communities

CEQ

Council on Environmental Quality

CIS

Commonwealth of Independent States

CIT

Countries in transition

CONAMA

National Commission for the Environment (Chile)

COREMA

Regional Commission for the Environment (Chile)

CPP

Consultation and public participation

CVM

Contingent valuation method

DAC

Development Assistance Committee

DMC

Developing member countries

EA

Environmental assessment

EBRD

European Bank for Reconstruction and Development

EEAA

Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency

EFL

Environment Framework Law

EIA

Environmental impact assessment

EIB

European Investment Bank

EID

Environmental impacts declaration

EIS

Environmental impact statement

EMP

Environmental management plan

EMS

Environmental management system

ENVD

Environment Division

ERCD

Environmental and Resource Conservation Division

ETEU

Economics, Trade and Environment Unit

EU

European Union

FMEA

Failure mode effects analysis

GAEAP

Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan

GCEP

General Corporation for Environmental Protection

GNP

Gross national product

HIA

Health impact assessment

IAP

Interested and affected people

ICES

International Centre for Educational Systems

IEE

Initial environmental examination

IMF

International Monetary Fund

IRDB

InterAmerican Reconstruction and Development Bank

ISA

Initial social assessment

ISO

International Standards Organization

IUCN

World Conservation Union, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

LDC

Less developed countries

MCA

Multi-criteria analysis

MET

Ministry of Environment and Tourism

MOPE

Ministry of Population and Environment

NCS

National conservation strategy

NEAP

National environmental action plan

NEPA

National Environmental Policy Act

NGO

Non-governmental organization

NORAD

Norwegian Agency for Development Co-operation

NPC

National Planning Commission

NPV

Net present value

OECD

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

OESD

Office of Environment and Social Development

OP

Operational policy

OVOS

Assessment of impacts on the environment (Russia)

PER

Public environmental review, public environmental expert review

PPA

Pollution action plan

PPP

Policies, plans and programmes

RCA

Environmental qualification resolution (Chile)

REA

Regional environmental assessment

RKL

Environmental management plan (Indonesia)

RPL

Environmental monitoring plan (Indonesia)

SAR

Staff appraisal report

SEA

Strategic environmental assessment, sectoral environmental assessment (World Bank)

SEIA

Summary environmental impact assessment

SEMDAL

Environmental impacts review (Indonesia)

SER

State environmental review, state environmental expert review

SERD

State Environmental Review Department

SIA

Social impact assessment

SIEE

Summary initial environmental examination

TANAPA

Tanzanian National Parks Authority

TEV

Total economic value

TOR

Terms of reference

UNCED

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UNECE

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

USAID

United States Agency for International Development

USEPA

United States Environmental Protection Agency

WHO

World Health Organization

WTA

Willing to accept

WTP

Willing to pay

WWF

World Wide Fund for Nature

List of Boxes, Figures, Maps and Tables

Boxes

Box 1.1

Extracts from the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and Agenda 21

Box 1.2

Benefits and Costs of EA Systems

Box 2.1

Command and Control Policies and their Implementation

Box 2.2

Environmental Assessment and Sustainable Development

Box 4.1

US Council on Environmental Quality Significance Criteria

Box 4.2

World Bank ‘Category A’ Projects/Components

Box 4.3

Indonesian Wetlands Scoping Guidelines for Plant Product Harvesting

Box 5.1

The Overall Prediction and Evaluation Process

Box 5.2

Types of Prediction Technique

Box 5.3

Criteria for Evaluating Impact Significance

Box 5.4

Alternative Means of Mitigation

Box 5.5

Additional Aspects of Impact Prediction

Box 5.6

Obtaining Data for Impact Prediction

Box 5.7

Thermal Power Stations in India – Air Pollution Impacts

Box 5.8

Xiaolangdi Multi-purpose Dam – Seismic Impact

Box 5.9

Oil Exploration off the Namibian Coast – Ecological Impacts

Box 5.10

Xiaolangdi Multi-purpose Dam – Impacts on Human Beings

Box 5.11

SEA Prediction Methodology

Box 5.12

Strategic Impact Management of Egyptian Coastal Development

Box 6.1

Market Failure and the Environment

Box 6.2

Coastal Forest Protection Project, Croatia

Box 6.3

Air Pollution Costs in Mexico City

Box 6.4

Flood Control and Soil Conservation Project, Yellow River Basin, China

Box 6.5

National Park Project, Madagascar

Box 6.6

Elephant Viewing Safaris in Kenya

Box 6.7

Slum Improvement Project, Visakhapatnam, India

Box 8.1

Assessment Areas and Categories in the Review Package

Box 8.2

Assessment Categories where EIS Quality is Least Satisfactory

Box 9.1

Types of CPP

Box 9.2

CPP in EA Procedures in Moldova and Zimbabwe

Box 9.3

Stakeholder Programme: Victoria Falls Strategic EA

Box 10.1

EIA – Project Planning Linkages in Sri Lanka, Philippines and Indonesia

Box 10.2

A Graphite Mining Project in Tanzania

Box 10.3

World Bank Experience in CPP Within the EIA Process and Project Cycle

Box 10.4

Examples of Weak Links Between EIA Findings and Decision-making

Box 10.5

Environmental Assessment and the Post-authorization Phase in the Project Cycle

Box 10.6

Cost-Benefit Analysis of a Forest Development Project in Nepal

Box 11.1

Good Practice in EA Monitoring

Box 11.2

Greater Cairo Wastewater Project – Environmental Management Planning

Box 11.3

Environmental Management Planning in Programmatic EA

Box 13.1

EIA in the Forestry Sector

Box 13.2

EIA in Bardibas–Jaleshwor Road Construction Project

Box 13.3

Environmental Monitoring of Hydropower Projects

Box 13.4

Environmental Assessment of the Red Sea – Dead Sea Canal – Jordan

Box 13.5

Environmental Assessment of Adasiya Dam Project – Jordan

Figures and Map

Figure 1 .l

Sequence of Actions and Assessments Within a Tiered Planning and Assessment System

Figure 2.1

Linkages Between Economic and Environmental Systems

Figure 2.2

Linkages Between Environmental Policy Instruments and Economic and Social Policy Instruments and the Consequences of their Application

Figure 4.1

The Screening Procedure in Egypt

Figure 4.2

Maadi (Cairo) Rock Tunnel Scoping Matrix

Figure 6.1

Total Economic Value and Selected Valuation Techniques

Figure 11.1

Integrated Environmental Management

Figure 11.2

SEA Monitoring and Management

Figure 12.1

AMDAL Process for New Projects in Indonesia

Map 1.1

Countries Classified by Income Category (1995)

Tables

Table 2.1

Population-related Development Pressures, Classified by Region

Table 2.2

Economic Activity-related Development Pressures, Classified by Region

Table 2.3

Regional Environmental Trends and Concerns

Table 3.1

EA Legislation in Low and Middle Income Countries

Table 3.2

Features of EA Systems of Selected Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa

Table 3.3

Features of EA Systems of Selected Countries in East Asia

Table 3.4

Features of EA Systems of Selected Countries in South Asia

Table 3.5

Features of EA Systems of Selected Countries in Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia

Table 3.6

Features of EA Systems of Selected Countries in the Middle East and North Africa

Table 3.7

Features of EA Systems of Selected Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean

Table 3.8

Features of EA Systems in Selected Development Banks and Aid Agencies

Table 6.1

Environmental Valuation Methods

Table 13.1

EIA Guidelines for Nepal

Table 13.2

Summary of Selected EIAs Completed in Zimbabwe, 1995–1997

Table 14.1

‘Framework Terms of Reference’ for Environmental Assessment of Development Co-operation Projects

Table 14.2

Detailed Guidelines for Managing Environmental Assessment of Development Assistance Projects

1

Introduction

Norman Lee and Clive George

1.1 Environmental Assessment, Developing Countries and Countries in Transition

Environmental assessment (EA) is a widely used policy tool for reducing the negative environmental consequences of development activities and for promoting sustainable development. It covers both the assessment of individual development projects, often known as environmental impact assessment (EIA), and the appraisal of development policies, plans and programmes, which is generally referred to as strategic environmental assessment (SEA). In both cases, the purposes of the assessment are:

a) To identify any potentially adverse environmental consequences of a development action, so that they may be avoided, reduced or otherwise taken into account during planning and design

b) To ensure that any such consequences are taken into account, both whilst planning and designing an action and when it is authorized

c) To influence how it is subsequently managed during its implementation.

EA is potentially applicable to any type of development action, which may result in significant environmental impacts, in any part of the world. Its underlying principles are general but the circumstances in which it is applied and, therefore, the particular forms it takes, vary considerably between different parts of the world.

The main focus of this book is upon developing countries (or less developed countries, LDCs) in Africa, Asia, the Middle East and Latin America and countries in transition (CITs) in Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The individual countries to be covered have been identified according to the level of their per capita national income, using official estimates of Gross National Product (GNP) in 1995 converted to US$ according to official exchange rates.

The World Bank (1997a) classifies 133 countries into four income categories as follows:

1. Low income economies with annual income per capita of less than 766 US$. This category includes 49 countries and their per capita incomes range between 80 (Mozambique) and 730 US$ (Armenia).

2. Lower middle income economies with annual income per capita between 766 and 3160 US$. This category includes 41 countries and their per capita incomes range between 766 (Lesotho) and 3020 US$ (Venezuela).

3. Upper middle income economies with annual per capita incomes between 3160 and 9386 US$. This category includes 17 countries and their average income levels range between 3160 (South Africa) and 8210 US$ (Greece).

4. High income economies with annual per capita incomes of 9386 US$ and above. This category includes 26 countries and their average incomes range between 9700 (Republic of Korea) and 40 630 US$ (Switzerland).

This study relates to the low and middle income countries in the first three categories. Taken together, they occupy 76% of the world’s land area and contain 93% of its total population, but only account for 19% of the total GNP of the 133 countries covered.

The geographic distribution of countries, according to income group, is shown in Map 1.1. This shows that:

Low income countries are mainly located in sub-Saharan Africa, South and East Asia (including China and India) and some parts of Central Asia

Lower middle income countries are located in parts of the former USSR and some adjoining European countries, the Middle East and North Africa, and Central/South America

Upper middle income countries are located in parts of Central Europe, the Middle East, South East Asia, South Africa and Central/South America

High income countries are mainly located in North America, North and Western Europe, parts of South East Asia, Japan, Australia and New Zealand.

The developmental, environmental and regulatory characteristics of low and middle income countries are examined, in their regional context, in Chapter 2. This demonstrates the great variations in many of the characteristics which may influence EA regulation and practice, both between low and middle income countries and high income countries, and among low and middle income countries themselves. The variability in EA regulations and practice between countries, which often reflects more fundamental differences in their economic, social, political and environmental circumstances, is a recurring theme in this book. In this connection, it is important to emphasise the dangers of indiscriminately transposing conceptions of good EA practice formulated in high income countries to the quite different situations which prevail in many LDCs and CITs.

Map 1.1 Countries Classified by Income Category (1995)

1.2 The Origins of Environmental Assessment

EA, as a mandatory regulatory procedure, originated in the early 1970s, with the implementation of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 1969 in the USA. Much of the initial phase of its subsequent development was in a small number of high income countries, such as Canada and Australia, but some developing countries also adopted it at a relatively early stage. Colombia introduced EIA procedures in 1974, and the Philippines established it by presidential decree in 1978 (Smith and van der Wansem 1995).

The major period of expansion of project-level EA has taken place since the mid-1980s. Virtually all high income countries now possess their own mandatory EIA procedures (Lee 1995), as do a large and rapidly increasing number of low and middle income countries. Additionally, most international and bilateral aid agencies and development banks have adopted their own EIA procedures, which they apply when providing development assistance (OECD 1996).

Certain of the earliest regulations (such as NEPA in the USA) covered policy and programming initiatives as well as projects (but they were much less frequently applied to these in practice). In general, SEA regulations and practices have developed at a much slower pace than EIA requirements. However, during the 1990s, both mandatory and less formalized requirements for SEA have been expanding more rapidly not only in high income, but also among lower and middle income countries (Lee 1995; Sadler and Verheem 1996; Therivel and Partidario 1996). This has been mirrored in some strengthening of SEA procedures and practices within aid agencies and development banks. The World Bank, for example, has introduced guidance for both sectoral and regional EA, covering the assessment of plans or programmes which the Bank funds for a specific sector of the economy or geographical region (World Bank 1997b).

A comparative review of current EIA and SEA regulatory provisions and practice in low and middle income countries is presented in Chapter 3, where a number of these features are examined in more detail.

1.3 The Environmental Assessment Process: Scope and Stages

Scope of EA

The types of impacts which are addressed by environmental assessment cover all aspects of the human environment, as well as the ecological and physical environment. A typical assessment might include impacts on:

Human beings

Flora and fauna

Land (including natural resources), water, air and climate

Cultural heritage assets (including buildings and other structures)

Landscape and townscape

Noise and vibration levels

Eco-systems and other interactions between different components of the environment

This breadth of coverage of the environment in environmental assessment entails overlaps with other forms of impact assessment, including social impact assessment, health impact assessment, risk assessment and cost-benefit analysis. The relationships between environmental assessment and other forms of assessment are explored more fully in Chapters 5–7 and 10.

The projects, to which EIA is applied, may be new developments or major modifications to existing facilities and can occur in a wide range of economic sectors. These include: agriculture, forestry and fishing; mining and other extractive industries; all parts of the energy sector, including fossil-fuelled electricity generation, hydropower, nuclear power and wind power; all major industries within the manufacturing and process industry sector; transport; tourism and leisure developments; water supply; waste treatment and waste disposal facilities; and other infrastructure and urban development projects.

The policies, plans and programmes (PPPs) to which SEA is applied are also wide-ranging and may relate to:

The overall development of key sectors in the economy (e.g. transport, energy, mining, water supply, forestry and tourism)

Associated infrastructure development plans, including waste water and solid waste treatment and disposal plans

Land use and territorial development plans

National, multi-sectoral PPPs (e.g. privatization programmes and fiscal reform policy measures)

International and multi-national policy and programme initiatives (e.g. international trade agreements, internationally financed structural adjustment programmes and overseas aid programmes)

Some SEAs may benefit from being co-ordinated with each other and with certain project-level EIAs, within a tiered system of environmental assessment, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. In such a system, a more strategic form of environmental assessment is first applied to selected policies, plans and programmes during the early stages of the development planning cycle. Then, as shown in Figure 1.1, account is taken of these higher level assessments at each subsequent level in the planning structure. In this way, SEA and EIA are intended to be complementary to each other; each performs tasks most appropriate to the phase of the development planning process at which it is to be used. In practice, as discussed in subsequent chapters, tiering arrangements are still in their infancy in many countries.

Figure 1.1 Sequence of Actions and Assessments Within a Tiered Planning and Assessment System. Source: Lee and Walsh (1992)

Stages in the EA Process

SEA and EIA processes, although applied during different phases of the planning and project cycle, contain similar kinds of assessment activities. These may include:

Screening

: deciding whether the nature of the proposed action and its likely impacts are such that it should be submitted to environmental assessment

Consideration of alternatives

: a review of alternatives to the proposed action (policy, plan, programme or project)

Description of the action

: describing the action in a suitable form to enable its effects to be predicted

Description of the environmental baseline

: describing the current state of the environment likely to be affected, and its expected future state in the absence of the proposed action

Impact identification and scoping

: determining which environmental impacts should be investigated in the assessment

Prediction of impact magnitude and significance

: determining how large the impacts are likely to be, and assessing their importance

Identification of mitigation measures

: defining what steps can be taken to eliminate or reduce any significant impacts or to compensate for them

Preparing the documentation of the assessment

: documenting the findings of the assessment (for example, in an environmental impact statement) in a manner that is clearly understandable to those involved in consultations and decision making

Review

: evaluating the documentation to determine its adequacy for consultation and decision-making purposes

Consultation and public participation

: enabling the environmental authorities and the public to comment upon the proposed action and its environmental impacts, based upon the documentation of the assessment (N.B. consultation and public participation may also take place at other stages of the process, notably in scoping)

Decision-making

: using the assessment documentation and consultation findings to reach a decision on the authorization of the proposed action, with or without conditions attached

Monitoring implementation

: checking whether the action is implemented in accordance with any environmental conditions of the decision and whether its environmental performance is consistent with the assessment’s predictions

These stages and activities in the EA process, and the assessment methods used within them, are reviewed more fully in Chapters 4–11.

1.4 Environmental Assessment and Sustainable Development

The overall purpose of EIA and SEA is to assist in shaping the development process, not to prevent development from taking place. More precisely, their role is to ensure that the environmental consequences of development proposals are systematically assessed and taken into account, in conjunction with their likely economic, social and other consequences, when determining development strategies and, later, when approving individual development projects.

Other forms of appraisal, such as cost–benefit analysis (CBA) and social impact assessment (SIA), may be used to assess the economic and social consequences of developments, so that they can be taken into consideration alongside the findings of the environmental assessment (Vanclay and Bronstein 1995; Kirkpatrick and Lee 1997). However, as discussed in Chapter 10, the integration of these different forms of appraisal, and their combined use for decision-making purposes, can be quite complex from both a procedural and a methodological standpoint. Yet, the pressure for integrated appraisal (sometimes called sustainability appraisal) grows as political commitments to sustainable development increase.

The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) gave considerable impetus to the adoption, by international organizations and national governments, of sustainable development objectives. It also recognized the role of environmental assessment in their attainment (see Box 1.1). This has two important consequences for EA procedure and practice:

It reinforces existing tendencies to improve procedures and methodologies for more integrated forms of appraisal and decision-making in the development process

It highlights the need to develop methods for assessing the significance of environmental, economic and social impacts according to sustainable development criteria

These consequences require that the term ‘sustainable development’ be given sufficient operational meaning. This was explicitly recognized at UNCED, in Agenda 21’s proposals for the development of national and global indicators of sustainable development.

Box 1.1 Extracts from the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and Agenda 21

Principle 17 of the Rio Declaration

Environmental impact assessment*, as a national instrument, shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority.

Agenda 21 proposes that governments should:

• Promote the development of appropriate methodologies for making integrated energy, environment and economic policy decisions for sustainable development, inter alia, through environmental impact assessments (9.12(b))

• Develop, improve and apply environmental impact assessments to foster sustainable industrial development (9.18)

• Carry out investment analysis and feasibility studies, including environmental impact assessment, for establishing forest-based processing enterprises (11.23(b))

• Introduce appropriate environmental impact assessment procedures for proposed projects likely to have significant impacts upon biological diversity, providing for suitable information to be made widely available and for public participation, where appropriate, and encourage the assessments of the impacts of relevant policies and programmes on biological diversity (15.5(k))

Sources: UNCED Report A/CONF.1 51/5/Rev.1 13, June 1992, Agenda 21 14 June 1992.

* The UNCED reports use the term ‘environmental impact assessment’ to include both strategic-level and project-level environmental assessments.

The phrase sustainable development first came to notice in the World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development, published jointly by the World Conservation Union (IUCN), the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) in 1980. It became more widely known through the publication in 1987 of Our Common Future, the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland. The phrase has subsequently secured wide international recognition following UNCED, the Rio earth summit of 1992.

The most widely used definition of sustainable development is still that derived from the Brundtland report, as:

[development which] meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

An alternative definition was put forward in the IUCN/UNEP/WWF report Caring for the Earth in 1991, as:

improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems.

The Rio Declaration (Principle 3) added a further dimension to the definition:

to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations.

Three guiding principles may be derived which assist in the formulation of criteria and indicators for use in environmental assessments and other appraisals:

Intergenerational equity.

Underlying this principle is the notion of passing on an equivalent resource endowment to the next generation, so that it has at least an equal opportunity to meet its needs as the present generation

Intragenerational equity.

In addition to Principle 3’s call for equity, Principle 5 of the Rio Declaration requires that ‘all states and all people shall co-operate in the essential task of eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order to decrease the disparities in standards of living and better meet the needs of the majority of the people of the world’

Carrying capacity.

In this case the guiding principle is that the ability of an ecosystem to support life is limited ultimately by the system’s capacity to renew itself or safely to absorb wastes

These principles provide some guidance on the ways in which impact assessments may be strengthened to incorporate sustainable development criteria. These include:

Greater attention to predicting and evaluating the impact of developments on natural resource stocks, and on total national capital

Greater use of strategic environmental assessment to assess the medium, longer term and cumulative impacts of developments, in relation to ecosystem security and waste absorption capacity

More explicit consideration of the economic and social implications of developments, particularly for the poorer, disadvantaged sections of communities, either through separate economic and social appraisals or within more integrated forms of impact assessment

A greater focus on identifying impacts which may be irreversible

A greater combined use of integrated appraisals and stakeholder involvement in decision-making processes

The International Study of the Effectiveness of Environmental Assessment (Sadler 1996) drew attention to approaches such as these, and to the need for EA to incorporate them at the level of global as well as national and local impacts. At the global level, this entails taking account of the differing past and present consumption and pollution loads of countries at different stages of development, and of relevant international conventions and other agreements.

The ways in which environmental assessments, and other forms of appraisal, may be adapted to serve sustainable development objectives is a challenge facing all countries and organizations. It is a theme which is revisited in a number of the following chapters.

Benefits and Costs of EA Systems

The value of environmental assessment as an appraisal tool depends, in the final analysis, on the relationship between the benefits and costs of its application as illustrated in Box 1.2.

Box 1.2 Benefits and Costs of EA Systems

Benefits

1. Environmental and other sustainability benefits, attributable to the EA system, resulting from modifications to actions prior to their approval and implementation.

2. Savings in the mitigation costs due to earlier detection of potential environmental problems and better designed corrective measures to deal with these problems.

3. Savings in time in obtaining approval for new developments, also due to the earlier detection and correction of environmental problems which reduce controversy and conflict during the authorization process.

Costs

1. Extra costs to the developer and the authorities in complying with EA study and procedural requirements.

2. Losses of time where the system does not work efficiently and unjustified delays occur.

3. Additional mitigation expenditures due to the EA process commencing too late in the planning and project cycle or where it is used to impose insufficiently substantiated mitigation requirements on developers.

The quantification of these benefits and costs for individual countries is a difficult task, but the main conclusions to be drawn from the available studies (e.g. European Commission 1996a) are reasonably clear:

The benefits of well-functioning EA systems usually exceed their costs of implementation; but

In a number of cases, their full potential is not being realized because either their full benefits are not being achieved, or their costs of implementation are higher, than those which are achievable

These are important findings for low and middle income countries. In particular, they highlight the need to look beyond the progress being made in approving new EA regulations, to the quality of EA practice which is being realized in such countries. In subsequent chapters, the causes of under-performance in practice and the means of addressing these, are examined in greater detail.

The Book’s Structure

The remainder of the book is divided into two main parts:

Part 1: EA Principles, Processes and Practice (Chapters 2–11).

This first reviews the economic, environmental and regulatory context in which EA systems operate in LDCs and CITs (Chapter 2) and overviews EA procedures and practices in these types of countries in six different regions of the world (Chapter 3). Then, procedures and practice are examined in greater detail relating to different stages and key activities in the EA process (Chapters 4–11). Each of these chapters includes guidance on further reading and discussion questions to assist further study.

Part 2: Country and Institutional Studies of EA Procedures and Practice.

This contains a collection of empirical studies, prepared by contributors from the LDCs, CITs and international institutions to which they relate, which exemplify leading issues identified and analysed in Part 1. Six country studies are included, covering Chile, Indonesia and Russia (Chapter 12) and Nepal, Jordan and Zimbabwe (Chapter 13). Chapter 14 contains studies of EA procedures and practices in the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank and bilateral aid agencies. The book concludes with an international perspective on EA practice in LDCs and CITs (Chapter 15). Measures are proposed to make EA a more effective tool for sustainable development and the role of international stakeholders in promoting this is reviewed.

Discussion Questions

1. What are the main similarities and differences between EIA and SEA? What reasons can be suggested for the slower development of SEA than EIA in low and middle income countries?

2. What characteristics of developing countries and of countries in transition may influence their environmental assessment procedures and practices, and how?

3. What contribution can EA make to achieving sustainable development? What are the main limitations in its capacity to promote sustainable development?

Further Reading

A useful introduction to the basic principles of environmental impact assessment in a developing country context is provided in UNEP (1988). A short historical overview of EIA and SEA developments in different parts of the world can be obtained from Lee (1995), supplemented by Sadler (1996), United Nations Environment Programme (1996), Sadler and Verheem (1996) and Bellinger et al. (1999). Vanclay and Bronstein (1995) provide useful surveys of different types of environmental, social and economic appraisal and Kirkpatrick and Lee (1997) examine, with case study illustrations, a number of issues relating to the integration of different appraisal methods. Operationalizing the sustainable development concept and constructing sustainable development indicators for use in appraisal and decision-making are discussed in Sadler (1996), and, in relation to global impacts, in George (1999).

References

Bellinger, E, Lee, N, George, C, Paduret, A (eds) (1999) Environmental Assessment in Countries in Transition, Central European University Press, Budapest (in press)

European Commission (1996a) Environmental Impact Assessment: a Study on Costs and Benefits. DGXI, Brussels

George, C (1999) Testing for sustainable development through environmental assessment: criteria and case studies, Environmental Impact Assessment Review19: 175–200

IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1980) World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development Gland, Switzerland

IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1991) Caring for the Earth: a Strategy for Sustainable Living Gland, Switzerland

Kirkpatrick, C and Lee, N (eds) (1997) Sustainable Development in a Developing World: Integrating Environmental Assessment with Socio-Economic Appraisal, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham

Lee, N (1995) Environmental assessment in the European Union: a tenth anniversary, Project Appraisal10: 77–90

Lee, N and Walsh, F (1992) Strategic Environmental Assessment: an overview, Project Appraisal7: 126–136

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (1996) Coherence in Environmental Assessment: Practical Guidance on Development Co-operation Projects, OECD, Paris

Sadler, B (1996) Environmental Assessment in a Changing World: final report of the International Study of the Effectiveness of Environmental Assessment, Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency, Ottawa

Sadler, B and Verheem, R (1996) Strategic Environmental Assessment Status, Challenges and Future Directions, No 53, Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, The Hague

Smith, DB and van der Wansem, M (1995) Strengthening EIA Capacity in Asia: Environmental Impact Assessment in the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka World Resources Institute, Washington DC

Therivel, R and Partidario, MR (eds) (1996) The Practice of Strategic Environmental Assessment, Earthscan, London

United Nations (1992) Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, UNCED Report A/CONF.151 /5/Rev.1, 13 June 1992

United Nations Environment Programme (1988) Environmental Impact Assessment: Basic Procedures for Developing Countries, UNEP, Bangkok

United Nations Environment Programme (1996) EIA: Issues, Trends and Practice (prepared by Bisset, R), UNEP, Nairobi

Vanclay, F and Bronstein, DA (eds) (1995) Environmental and Social Impact Assessment, John Wiley, Chichester

World Bank (1997a) World Development Report 1997: The State in a Changing World, Oxford University Press, Oxford

World Bank (1997b) The Impact of Environmental Assessment: The World Bank’s Experience (Second Environmental Assessment Review), World Bank, Washington DC

World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, Oxford

PART ONEEA Principles, Processes and Practice

2

Environmental Assessment in its Developmental and Regulatory Context

Norman Lee

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews the developmental and regulatory context in which EA provisions are formulated and implemented in low and middle income countries.

Sections 2.2 and 2.3 use a simple systems approach to examine:

The relationships between economic development and environmental quality

The relationships between regulatory systems (of which EA procedures form a part) and the economic, social and environmental systems whose performance they seek to improve

The second part of the chapter (Sections 2.4–2.6) examines how these development–environment–regulatory relationships operate in low and middle come countries in different regions of the world. It reviews:

The economic and social changes taking place

The changes in environmental pressures and environmental quality which result

The characteristics and effectiveness of the regulatory systems (environmental and general) which influence these

The picture which emerges is of an underlying similarity in the forces at work in all countries but of considerable differences in their detailed content and intensity between low, middle and high income countries, between different regions and between different countries within the same region.

The concluding section of the chapter (Section 2.7) summarizes the relationships between environmental assessment provisions in low and middle income countries and the environmental regulatory systems and development processes to which they relate. It also makes proposals concerning how EA provisions might be developed in the light of these relationships.

2.2 Relationships Between the Development Process and Environmental Quality

The links between economic and environmental systems are illustrated in a simplified economic-environmental model in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1Linkages Between Economic and Environmental Systems

During the economic development process, natural resources (water, minerals, wood, crops etc.) are extracted from the environmental system, processed into goods and services and distributed to consumers. Residuals (atmospheric emissions, effluent discharges, solid wastes, noise, surplus heat etc.) from extraction, production and consumption activities become wastes. These wastes are either reclaimed and recycled for use in future production or are returned to the environmental system, with or without further treatment.

In this model, development may influence the sustainability of the environmental system in two ways:

Through the abstraction of natural resources.

Depending upon the rate of resource abstraction relative to the size of the resource stock, and on whether the resources in question are renewable or non-renewable, development could give rise to a

resource conservation

problem

Through the discharge of residuals.

Depending on their nature, scale and location, and on the carrying capacity of the receiving environment, development could give rise to an

environmental pollution

problem

These two influences may damage the environmental system to the point where it can no longer supply certain natural resources or secure certain life-support systems. If so, the sustainability of the development process is threatened and its economic and social goals will remain unfulfilled. Whether or not development is sustainable depends on four sets of factors:

1. The rate and composition of economic growth.

2. The resource and residual coefficients which, taken into consideration with the rate and composition of growth, determine the size of the resource and residual flows between the economic and environmental systems.

3. The carrying capacity of the environmental system relative to the resource abstraction and residual discharge flows imposed upon it.

4. The responses of society to economic and environmental change.

In turn, these are affected by the interplay between the market forces (domestic and international) impacting on each country and the environmental protection and economic policies which its government decides to apply. Market forces are driven by such variables as incomes, tastes, relative prices, foreign trade, market induced technical changes etc. Economic, social and environmental protection policies modify these market forces, as well as influencing the relationship between development and environmental quality, as shown below.

2.3 Policy Instruments of Sustainability

Environmental Policy Instruments

The primary purpose of these instruments, which are grouped into three categories below, is to protect or improve environmental quality – but they may also have important economic and social consequences.

Command and control instruments

Typically these take the form of permit and authorization procedures relating to:

The types of products that may be produced and used

The types and quantities of raw materials that may be abstracted and used for production and consumption

The technologies by which goods and materials may be produced

The maximum quantities and types of residuals which may be released into the environment

The locations at which resource abstraction, production and other activities may take place

Economic instruments

These influence behaviour to improve environmental performance through the use of:

Pollution charges and environmental taxes

Environmental protection subsidies and grants

Market creation schemes, such as emission trading schemes

Environmental licensing charges and fines for non-compliance with environmental regulations

Planning and other instruments

These include:

Environmental planning studies

Environmental assessment (SEA and EIA) measures

Environmental audit procedures and environmental management systems

Voluntary agreements to encourage compliance with environmental quality targets through such measures as industry covenants etc.

Economic and Social Policy Instruments

The primary purpose of these instruments is to serve economic or social objectives – but they may also have important environmental side-effects. They include similar categories of instruments to those for environmental policy instruments but their content and policy orientation are different. They include:

Command and control measures

relating, for example, to the ownership and use of land and property, and to monopoly and foreign trade regulation

Economic instruments

including a wide range of fiscal measures (e.g. taxes, subsidies, grants and government spending programmes) serving economic and social purposes

Planning and other instruments

including the preparation of general, regional and local area development plans, and sectoral development plans (for transport, energy, minerals, tourism, water etc.)

Figure 2.2 Linkages Between Environmental Policy Instruments and Economic and Social Policy Instruments and the Consequences of their Application

The relationships between environmental and economic/social policy instruments and their environmental and other consequences are illustrated in Figure 2.2. The continuous lines indicate the consequences which are directly connected to the primary purpose of each of the policy instruments. The discontinuous lines identify the other potentially important consequences which may indirectly result.

Environmental assessment, as a policy instrument, fits into this scheme in a number of ways. In combination, these demonstrate its central role in the promotion of sustainable development – and its dependence on related policy instruments to perform that role effectively. For example:

It is an appraisal instrument within the environmental protection sector. It contributes to the application of environmental licensing and development permitting schemes. It can also assist in the appraisal of government environmental expenditure programmes, the appraisal of economic instruments for environmental protection and environmental planning, life cycle analyses etc.

It is also an environmental appraisal tool, for use alongside economic and social appraisals, in formulating economic and social policies and other measures relating to: (a) privatization, de-regulation, trade liberalization, structural adjustment programmes; (b) taxation measures and government spending proposals for development and infrastructure programmes; and (c) other development policies, plans and programmes of an economic and social character

At the same time, the scope of application and level of effectiveness of EA instruments depends, to a significant degree, on the scope and effectiveness of the environmental, economic and social policy instruments into which they are introduced, and the degree to which the EA appraisal process is successfully integrated into their procedures and practices. In both these respects, shortcomings are commonly found.

In a supportive cultural, political and institutional context, EA can contribute to the increased effectiveness of other policy instruments through its requirements for more systematic data gathering and analysis, more extensive consultations and greater transparency, and for more careful development planning, decision-making and implementation. On the other hand, where favourable conditions do not exist, EA may intensify existing problems of conflict, delay and unsatisfactory implementation unless other corrective measures are taken.

2.4 Development and Environmental Quality Relationships in Low and Middle Income Countries

The following review of development-environment relationships uses similar regional groupings of countries as in Chapter 1. It covers: Sub-Saharan Africa; East Asia and the Pacific, including China; South Asia; Europe and Central Asia; Middle East and North Africa; and Latin America and the Caribbean. Some data are also provided, relating to high income countries (all regions combined), for comparative purposes.

The information is presented within the framework of a simple ‘pressure-state-response’ model where:

One set of variables describes the development pressures on a country’s environmental quality and natural resource base. These pressures are assumed to be of two main types: population-related and economic activity-related

A second set describes the resulting state of the environment and the major concerns associated with this

A third set describes the principal characteristics of the regulatory systems which exist to deal with these concerns

The first two sets of variables are reviewed in this Section and Section 2.5 and the third is examined in Section 2.6.

Development Pressure Indicators

Population-related variables

Data relating to a number of population variables are presented in Table 2.1. Simple population density measures are only a crude measure of population pressure on land and other resources. Nevertheless, they reveal very considerable disparities between South and East Asia and all other regions, including the high income region. Development pressures change over time according to the rate of population growth. All regions, except the Europe and Central Asia region, record population growth rates which are almost 2–3 times greater than in the high income economies.

The degree of urbanization is currently much higher in the high income countries than in all other regions except the Latin America and Caribbean region. However, the rate of urbanization, measured according to the annual rate of growth in the urban population, is very much higher in the low and middle income economies than in the high income region. Urban population growth rates in Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, were seven times higher than in the developed economies over the previous 15 years.

Table 2.1Population-related development pressures, classified by region

Source: World Bank 1997.

Economic activity-related variables

Data relating to a number of these variables are presented in Table 2.2. Average incomes in high income countries in 1995 were more than seven times higher than in the richest regional group of low and middle income countries (Latin America and the Caribbean) and more than 70 times greater than in the poorest regional group (South Asia). Furthermore, the disparities between high and low/middle income regional groups have tended to grow over time (except in the case of East and South Asia).

The relationship between income levels and growth rates and pressures on the environment, within individual countries, is complex. First, major disparities in per capita income tend to be reflected in per capita consumption of different resources. As shown in Table 2.2, energy consumption per capita in the high income country groups in 1994 was over five times greater than in Latin America and the Caribbean and over 20 times greater than in South Asia. However, resource extraction, which is more closely associated with pressure on the natural resource stock in a country, may follow a different pattern due to the influence of international trade on the rate of resource abstraction.

Table 2.2Economic activity-related development pressures, classified by region

Source: World Bank 1997.

A second complicating variable relates to differences in industrial structure between individual countries and regional groups. The relative importance of the industrial sector, and of more heavily polluting industries within this, is of particular significance. These proportions were particularly high in a number of countries within the CIT region, prior to the period of transition.

During more recent years, the main growth in the high income countries has been in the services sector and the non-basic industrial sector where development pressures on the environment tend to be less. In contrast, the relative importance of the more highly polluting industries grew considerably, between 1980–1995, in certain low and middle income regions (e.g. East and South Asia and Latin America). If high income countries obtain natural resources and the products of heavily polluting industries through imports, they are net exporters of environmental pressures to other countries. Low and middle income countries, which export primary products and processed materials from heavily polluting industries, are often net importers of environmental pressures from other countries.

A third, complicating factor is that, where income levels and growth rates are higher, mitigation may be given a higher political and spending priority. Whether or not the development process contains or can create sufficient self-correcting mechanisms to secure its own sustainability is an unresolved issue. According to the World Bank, ‘some environmental problems decline as income rises; some initially worsen but then improve as incomes rise; other indicators of environmental stress continue to worsen as incomes rise so long as the technical solution is considered too expensive relative to the perceived benefits of its mitigation.’ (World Bank 1992, p. 10).

2.5 Environmental Pressures, Trends and Concerns

UNEP has attempted to identify the main environmental trends and concerns in several regions of the world, based on regionally-based consultations (UNEP 1997). Its findings are summarized in Table 2.3 using a regional classification system which differs, in certain respects, from that used in earlier tables within the chapter.1 They highlight the major areas of environmental concern in each region which, in the views of those consulted, need to be addressed through new or strengthened policy measures. These major concerns are summarized below.

Major Concerns in Individual Regions

Africa

One-third of all cropland and permanent pasture is modestly or severely degraded

Deforestation is a major problem, due to forest clearance for commercial agriculture and the harvesting of fuel wood

Important bio-diversity losses are occurring due to commercial exploitation of the land and its exploitation by the poor

Water availability in Africa is highly variable. Ground water quality is deteriorating. Out of 25 countries in the world with the highest percentages of population without access to safe drinking water, 19 are in Africa

Marine and coastal environments are significantly deteriorating due to development of tourism, over-fishing, clearing of mangrove forests, erosion and sedimentation, and rapid urbanization in coastal areas

Table 2.3Regional environmental trends and concerns

Source: UNEP 1997, pp. 6–7.

Asia and the Pacific

Soils suffer from varying degrees of erosion and degradation due to multiple development pressures

Deforestation rates are very high, reflecting the pressures of high population densities and rapid population growth, land clearing and over-harvesting

Water resources are highly variable. Extensive water pollution is caused by domestic sewage, industrial effluents and run-off from agriculture and mining

Urban air pollution is a serious problem in many of the major cities, due to rapid growth in their energy demands and heavy dependence on coal and other low-grade solid fuels

The region contains three of the world’s eight bio-geographic realms and includes the world’s highest mountain system, the second largest rain forest complex and more than half of the world’s coral reefs. Both terrestrial and coastal habitat loss are major sources of concern