Environmental Toxicants E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 2583

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Beschreibung

An Updated Reference on Human Exposure to Environmental Toxicants and A Study of Their Impact on Public Health

With the 4th edition of Environmental Toxicants: Human Exposures and Their Health Effects, readers have access to up-to-date information on the study and science of environmental toxicology and public health worldwide. Practitioners and professionals can use this resource to understand newly discovered information on the adverse health effects of toxins and pollutants in air, water, and occupational and environmental environments on large human populations.

The 4th edition of this book is updated to reflect new knowledge and research on:

●      Performing risk assessments on exposed individuals

●      Assessing the effects of toxicants and substances on large populations for health and medical professionals

●      Patterns of human exposure to select chemical toxicants

●      World Trade Center dust, agents for chemical terrorism, and nanoparticles

For health professionals, including health authorities, public health officials, physicians, and industrial managers, who are seeking new research and techniques for managing environmental substances, this invaluable reference will guide you through in a thorough, easy- to-read manner.

Leseprobe

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS

Human Exposures and Their Health Effects

Fourth Edition

Edited by

MORTON LIPPMANNGEORGE D. LEIKAUF

This edition first published 2020© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Inc.,

Edition history:“John Wiley & Sons Inc. (2e, 2000)”“John Wiley & Sons Inc. (3e, 2009)”.

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The right of Morton Lippmann and George D Leikauf to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Lippmann, Morton, editor. | Leikauf, George D., editor.Title: Environmental toxicants : human exposures and their health effects / edited by Morton Lippmann, George D. Leikauf.Description: Fourth edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2019051837 (print) | LCCN 2019051838 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119438809 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119438908 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119438915 (epub)Subjects: MESH: Environmental Pollutants–adverse effects | Environmental Pollutants–toxicity | Environmental Health | Environmental ExposureClassification: LCC RA565 (print) | LCC RA565 (ebook) | NLM WA 670 | DDC 363.7–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019051837LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019051838

Cover Design: WileyCover Images: Forest fire © Byronsdad/Getty Images,North America © FotografiaBasica/Getty Images

CONTRIBUTORS

Aaron Barchowsky, Professor, Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, 130 DeSoto Street, Room 4133, Pittsburgh, PA 1561, USA

Kifai Bein, Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, 130 DeSoto Street, Pittsburgh, PA 1561, USA

Linda S. Birnbaum, Director, National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233, Mail Drop B2‐01, Durham, NC 27709, USA

Meghan N. Buran, Senior Professional Research Assistant, Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, Aurora, CO, USA

James S. Bus, Senior Managing Scientist, Center for Toxicology and Mechanistic Biology, Exponent®, 5806 Woodberry Drive, Midland, MI 48640, USA

Lung‐Chi Chen, Professor, Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Medical Center, 550 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA

Farah Chowdhury, Managing Consultant, Ramboll, Inc., 4350 North Fairfax Dr, Arlington, VA 22203, USA

Mitchell D. Cohen, Research Professor, Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Medical Center, 550 First Ave, New York, NY 10016, USA

Lucio G. Costa, Professor, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, 4225 Roosevelt NE, Seattle, WA 98105, USA

Daniel P. Croft, Assistant Professor of Medicine, Pulmonary and Critical Care Division, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA

James P. Fabisiak, Associate Professor, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, 130 DeSoto Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA

Eric Garshick, Professor, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Channing Division of Network Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, 1400 VFW Parkway, West Roxbury, MA 02132, USA

Terry Gordon, Professor, Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Medical Center, 550 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA

Philippe Grandjean, Adjunct Professor, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 401 Park Dr, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.

Lester D. Grant†, Sole author of Third Edition Environmental Toxicants Chapter on Lead, Retired from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Naomi H. Harley, Research Professor, Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Medical Center, 550 First Ave, New York, NY 10016, USA

Jaime E. Hart, Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 401 Park Dr, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.

Fred D. Hoerger†, Contributor to Third Edition Environmental Toxicants Chapter on Industrial Perspectives, Retired from Dow Chemical

Xindi (Cindy) Hu, Data Scientist, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 401 Park Dr, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.

Michael T. Kleinman, Division of Occupational and Environmental Health, Department of Medicine, 100 Theory STE 100, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697‐1830, USA

Debra L. Laskin, Distinguished Professor and Chair, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, 160 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA

Jeffrey D. Laskin, Distinguished Professor, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Rutgers University School of Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, 170 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA

George D. Leikauf, Professor, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, 130 DeSoto St, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA

Morton Lippmann,  Research Professor, Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Medical Center, 550 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA

Raymond C. Loehr*, Sole author of Third Edition Environmental Toxicants Chapter on Reducing Risks, Retired from University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA

Larry W. Rampy†, Contributor to Third Edition Environmental Toxicants Chapter on Industrial Perspectives, Retired from Dow Chemical

Raymond C. Rancourt, Assistant Professor, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, 170 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA

Douglas A. Rausch†, Contributor to Third Edition Environmental Toxicants Chapter on Industrial Perspectives, Retired from Dow Chemical

Jason R. Richardson, Professor of Environmental Health Sciences, Associate Dean for Research, Robert Stempel School of Public Health and Social Work, Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th St. AHC5‐515, Miami, FL 33199, USA

Joseph V. Rodricks, Principal, Ramboll, Inc., 4350 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 300, Arlington, VA 22203, USA

Jonathan M. Samet, Dean and Professor, Colorado School of Public Health, 13001 E. 17th Place, Bldg. 500, 3rd Floor, Room C3000, Aurora, CO 80045, USA

Eric Saunders, Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Medical Center, 550 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA

Richard B. Schlesinger, Professor, Dyson College of Arts and Sciences, Pace University, 861 Bedford Road, Pleasantville, NY 10570, USA

Thaddeus T. Schug, Health Scientist Administrator, Division of Extramural Research and Training, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233, Mail Drop B2‐01, Durham, NC 27709, USA

Hong Sun, Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Medical Center, 550 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA

Elsie M. Sunderland, Gordon McKay Professor of Environmental Chemistry, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Pierce Hall 127, 29 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

Duncan Turnbull, Senior Managing Consultant, Ramboll, Inc., 4350 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 300, Arlington, VA 22203, USA

Mark J. Utell, Professor, Department of Medicine and Department of Environmental Medicine, Director, Occupationaland Environmental, Pulmonary and Critical Care Division, University of Rochester, Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA

Felicia Wu, John A. Hannah Distinguished Professor, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, 469 Wilson Rd, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA

.

PREFACE

This fourth (2019) edition of Environmental Toxicants reflects the evolution of the field of environmental health science. Most of the 26 chapters review the health effects associated with exposures of human populations to chemical toxicants encountered in the course of routine activities in and around their homes, while commuting, and in recreational microenvironments. They do not emphasize the generally higher levels of exposure to some of the same toxicants that can occur in occupational settings, which are the focus of other multi‐author reference works. However, two of the chapters address very high exposures that were intended to terrorize military and/or civilian populations.

Chapter 8 covers chemical and biological agents that may be used to kill, harm, or terrorize noncombatant people. Chapter 25 describes the results of a terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, that brought down the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. The resulting dense cloud of highly alkaline inhalable dust caused acute respiratory irritation among residents and recovery workers immediately, as well as chronic respiratory effects among those disturbing and re‐entraining the settled dust in the months that followed.

Other new chapters include Chapter 7, “Acrolein and Unsaturated Aldehydes,” wherein health risks have attained new prominence, and Chapter 19, which covers the risks of inhaling relatively low concentrations of a new type of man‐made particulate matter that is increasingly incorporated into a wide range of industrial and consumer products, that is, particles with diameters <50 nm. They are known as nanoparticles and represent a new challenge to our biological defense mechanisms.

Some of the differences between traditional occupational and other environmental toxicant exposures, and any adverse health effects that may result from such exposures, are affected by temporal exposure patterns, as well as by activity levels. Occupational exposures are generally limited to 8 h per day but often involve higher levels of minute ventilatory volumes and dermal exposures than those in most of their other microenvironments. In contrast, nonoccupational toxicant exposures usually involve low concentrations of more diverse chemical mixtures over longer time periods. For such exposures, it is often more difficult to detect increased rates of mortality, morbidity, or losses of function. In this volume, most of the chapters deal with exposures to complex chemical mixtures and/or multiple chemicals having similar biological impacts or common sources. Other chapters deal with either specific metals in their various chemical forms or the classes of gaseous ambient air pollutants that are regulated under the U.S. Clean Air Act and other U.S. governmental entities.

Some chapters that appeared in previous editions have been dropped on the basis that nonoccupational exposures of populations likely to cause adverse health effects have substantially diminished (sick building syndrome, benzene, and dioxins). Others (microwaves, ionizing radiation, ultraviolet radiation, noise, and drinking water) were dropped because the size of the volume was getting too great and/or they were not focused on chemical toxicants.

Some of the chapters that reappear have new authors or coauthors who have brought their topics up‐to‐date with new information and insights, acquired in the intervening decade, on exposures, biological responses, and their mechanisms.

BACKGROUND

The origin of the first edition of this reference book was the result of a visit to my office at NYU School of Medicine by Bob Esposito, who then worked at Van Nostrand Reinhold (VNR). He had seen the Lippmann comprehensive critical review paper on ozone, which appeared in the Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, and was interested in gathering together a series of such reviews on other environmental toxicants for a new title for VNR. I said I would think about it and let him know.

Before responding, I sounded out some professional colleagues who were experts on a variety of environmental toxicants, and, somewhat to my surprise, many were willing to prepare a chapter‐length critical review. On that basis, I signed a contract with VNR to produce the first version of the volume (containing 23 chapters), which was published in 1992. When Esposito, by then working for Wiley, which had acquired VNR, called again, in 1988, about preparing a second edition, I agreed. The second edition, with 30 chapters, appeared in 2000. The third edition, also published by Wiley, with 30 chapters, appeared in 2009.

When Esposito recently indicated that Wiley was interested in a fourth edition, I was hesitant to pull it all together again as a single editor. However, I was able to recruit one of my former NYU doctoral students, George D. Leikauf, by then a professor at the University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, to work with me as co‐editor for the fourth edition. It would be up to Professor Leikauf to carry it forward should there be any subsequent editions.

A PERSONAL NOTE FROM THE SENIOR EDITOR (ML)

I began my professional career, in 1954, by enrolling in an MS program in Industrial Hygiene at Harvard. I studied there under Philip Drinker and Leslie Silverman, who were, along with Ted Hatch, leading academic pioneers in occupational health and aerosol science. At that time, there was not yet an academic program in environmental health science at Harvard, or elsewhere.

Upon completion of my MS, I joined the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) in 1955 to work at the Occupational Health Program in Cincinnati; I met colleagues who investigated not only occupational exposures to workplace toxicants but also the lethal smog exposures in 1948 in Donora, PA. While in Cincinnati, I also had the opportunity to get to know Herb Stokinger, the chief toxicologist of the PHS, and to work with him in refining the design of animal chambers for inhalation exposures of toxicants.

When I moved on, in 1957, to work in the Industrial Hygiene Branch of the Health and Safety Laboratory (HASL) of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in New York City, I got to work with the lab director, Merrill Eisenbud, and my branch chief, Bill Harris, and became familiar with their work with their HASL colleagues in assessing stratospheric samples of radioactive aerosols and worldwide fallout from atmospheric testing of A‐bombs and H‐bombs. I also helped to develop early versions of particle size‐selective air samplers that could separate particles, during the sampling process, into those depositing within respiratory tract regions having different particle deposition and particle clearance dynamics.

I moved on to NYU in 1964 to pursue a doctoral research project under the supervision of Dr. Roy E. Albert, which was to define quantitative aspects of regional particle deposition and bronchial airway particle clearance in the human respiratory tract, along with a parallel and simultaneous effort in laboratory animals. My doctoral thesis was on the effect of particle size on regional deposition and particle clearance dynamics in human airways.

In retrospect, I recognize how fortunate I was to get to know personally and to appreciate the historic work of my mentors. They were pioneers who created so much of the knowledge base that I relied upon in pursuing my own subsequent research career.

After completing the PhD program at NYU in 1967, the Department Chair, Dr. Norton Nelson, arranged for me to be appointed to the faculty, where I remained for the next 50 years, pursuing research projects involving human exposure assessment, inhalation toxicology, and occupational and environmental epidemiology. This varied experience, along with my service on review and advisory committees for EPA, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the National Institute of Environmental Health Science (NIEHS), the World Health Organization (WHO), and other academic institutions, broadened my horizons, and enabled me to (1) focus my specific research proposals on key issues that were in most need of resolution, (2) help in guiding the regulatory and research programs elsewhere to make more effective use of their own resources, and (3) have the broad perspective in environmental health science to guide the organization and overall perspective for this unique book. I now pass the task of maintaining this unique reference book on to Dr. Leikauf.

The inclusion of chapters on the criteria air pollutants for which I was the senior or coauthor, those on airborne fibers, and on the dust generated by the collapse of the World Trade Center towers on September 11, 2001, reflects my own strong research interests, as well as my service on external scientific advisory committees dealing with such toxicant exposures to substantial populations. For the other toxicant classes covered in the other chapters, we are grateful to the expert authors, their excellent contributions, and their willingness to provide the complementary content on the other toxicant groupings.

My research career began at a time that occupational health science was nearing maturity and was beginning to broaden into environmental health science. In occupational health, it was possible and reasonable to focus research on the identification of specific toxic agents or elements as the or at least major causal components of an exposure‐related occupational disease or disability in a working adult population. As my research focus shifted, at least in part, to environmental health science, it became clear that the identification of specific toxic agents or elements as one or more major causal components of an exposure‐related environmental disease or disability in a community‐based population was a more complex and difficult task. The populations at risk for adverse environmental exposures can be much larger. The exposures include those in microenvironments other than occupational, such as in utero, residential, schoolroom, recreational, commuting, and retirement communities. They can occur over 24 h each day for people with highly variable activity patterns and minute volumes, ethnicities, dietary patterns and deficiencies, smoking and health histories, and preexisting diseases. Furthermore, even when the relative risks in a general population are typically much lower than those seen in the past for toxicant‐exposed occupational populations, there can be many more people at risk and therefore much larger numbers of affected people.

Based on these differences in the total numbers of people exposed, and the combinations of specific ambient air toxicant exposures with personal exposures to indoor radon, tobacco smoke, kitchen effluents, other combustion effluents, or the various pesticides in common usage, it is often much more difficult to assign causality for an environmental disease or disability to a specific environmental toxicant. In view of such complexities, most of the chapters in this book cover the exposures and reasonably likely adverse health effects that have been associated with such exposures while recognizing that other components in the environmental mixtures may also be contributing to the observed effects.

While the caveats outlined above indicate that caution is still needed in our chapter authors’ conclusions on likely causality, we also need to recognize that our research tools are much more powerful than they were in previous decades and that they continue to improve. These tools include (1) those in our laboratories for chemical identification and quantitation, cellular and genetic factors and their alterations resulting from toxicant exposures, and access to in vitro cellular and in vivo animal models for effects bioassays and (2) more powerful biostatistical models for identifying susceptibility and risk factors in epidemiological studies.

We also need to recognize that environmental interventions in recent decades have been remarkably effective in reducing environmental pollution in many parts of the richer countries, as well as in some parts of the developing world. This creates opportunities to document improvements in environmental quality and in any associated improvements in public health. Such documentation could provide additional public support for further gains in environmental quality and public health.

1INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Morton Lippmann and George D. Leikauf

This book identifies and critically reviews current knowledge on the health effects of human exposure to selected chemical agents and physical factors in the ambient environment. It provides a state‐of‐the‐art knowledge base essential for risk assessment for exposed individuals and populations to guide public health authorities, primary care physicians, and industrial managers having to deal with the consequences of environmental exposure.

Aside from professionals in public health, medicine, and industry who may use this book to guide their management functions, the volume can also be used in graduate and postdoctoral training programs in universities and by toxicologists, clinicians, and epidemiologists in research as a resource for the preparation of research proposals and scientific papers.

The subject is focused on those environmental toxicants, that is, chemical or physical agents released into the general environment that produce adverse health effects among large numbers of people. Such effects are usually subclinical, except when cumulative changes lead to chronic effects after long exposure. Short‐term responses following acute exposures are often manifest as transient alterations in physiological function that may, in some sensitive members of the population, be of sufficient magnitude to be considered adverse. Each of the specific topic chapters has a thorough discussion of the extent of human exposure as well as of toxic responses. The four chapters on the uses of the data for risk assessment, risk management, clinical applications, and industrial operations provide guidance for those performing individual and/or collective population hazard evaluations. The first provides individuals and public agency personnel with a basis for decisions on risk avoidance and relative risk assessment. The second outlines the operational philosophies and techniques used by environmental engineers in scoping and managing environmental risks. The third enables the primary care physician to recognize diseases and symptoms associated with exposures to environmental toxicants and to provide counsel to patients. The fourth assists decision makers in industry in evaluating the potential impacts of their plant operations and products on public health.

Although many books provide brief reviews of hundreds of chemicals encountered in the work environment at levels that can cause demonstrable health effects, both acute and chronic, they contain relatively little information on the effects of low‐level exposures on large populations of primary interest in environmental health and risk assessment. This book is designed to provide in‐depth, critical reviews of the environmental toxicants of contemporary public health concern.

1.1 CHARACTERIZATION OF CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS

1.1.1 Concentration Units

In environmental science, confusion often arises from the use of the same or similar sounding terms having different meanings in different contexts. This is especially true in describing the concentrations of water or air contaminants. For water contaminants, solutes are expressed frequently in parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb). However, when used for air contaminants, the units are molar or volume fractions, whereas when used for water contaminants, they are weight fractions. This problem can be avoided by expressing all water contaminant concentrations as the weight of contaminant per unit volume (e.g., m3 or L) of fluid. In air, the units generally used are mg/m3 or μg/m3, whereas in water they are most often mg/L or μg/L.

1.1.2 Air Contaminants

At normal ambient temperatures and pressures, chemical contaminants are dispersed in air in gaseous, liquid, or solid forms. The latter two represent suspensions of particles in air and were given the generic term “aerosols” by Gibbs (1924) based on analogy to the term “hydrosol,” used to describe disperse systems in water. On the contrary, gases and vapors, which are present as discrete molecules, form true solutions in air. Particles consisting of moderate‐ to high‐vapor‐pressure materials tend to evaporate rapidly, since those small enough to remain suspended in air for more than a few minutes (i.e., those smaller than about 10 μm) have large surface‐to‐volume ratios. Some materials with relatively low vapor pressures can have appreciable fractions in both vapor and aerosol forms simultaneously.

1.1.2.1 Gases and Vapors