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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
A new edition of a highly respected textbook and reference in the rapidly emerging field of equitation science. Equitation Science, 2nd Edition incorporates learning theory into ethical equine training frameworks suitable for riders of any level and for all types of equestrian activity. Written by international experts at the forefront of the development of the field, the welfare of the horse and rider safety are primary considerations throughout. This edition features a new chapter on research methods, and a companion website provides the images from the book in PowerPoint.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Preface
Acknowledgements
About the Companion Website
1 Introduction – The Fascination with Horses and Learning
Introduction
The Scientific Approach
2 Ethology and Cognition
Introduction
Ethological Challenges
The Role of Ethology in Horse‐Training
Conclusions
Take‐Home Messages
Areas for Further Research
3 Anthropomorphism and the Human–Horse Relationship
Introduction
Conclusion
Take‐Home Messages
4 Non‐associative Learning
Introduction
Learning
Non‐associative Learning
The Evolution of Habituation and Sensitisation
Contact
Sensitisation
Imprinting and Early Handling
Take‐Home Messages
Areas for Future Research
5 Associative Learning (Attractive Stimuli)
Introduction
Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Cue Salience
Reinforcement and Punishment
Using Attractive Stimuli
Ethical Considerations on Positive Reinforcement
Reinforcement Schedules
Shaping Behaviour
Clicker Training
Contiguity
Combining Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Take‐Home Messages
Ethical Considerations
Areas and Anticipated Limitations for Further Research
6 Associative Learning (Aversive Stimuli)
Introduction
Escape and Avoidance Learning
Negative Reinforcement
Releasing the Pressure
Control and Predictability
Trialling Responses
How to Use Negative Reinforcement
A Continuum of Reinforcing Possibilities
Round‐Pen as Negative Reinforcement
Combined Reinforcement
Punishment
Experimental Neurosis
Learned Helplessness
Conclusion
Take‐Home Messages
Areas for Future Research
7 Applying Learning Theory
Introduction
Achieving Stimulus Control
Application of Learning Theory
Classical Conditioning
Installing Signals
Combined Reinforcement
Perseveration
Contact
Using the Whip
Clucking
Rewards
Shaping
Stimulus Generalisation
Principles of Training Arising from Learning Theory
TP 1 Train According to Horse Ethology and Cognition
TP 2 Use Learning Theory Appropriately
TP 3 Train Easy‐to‐Discriminate Signals
TP 4 Shape Responses and Movements
TP 5 Elicit Responses One‐at‐a‐Time
TP 6 Train Only One Response per Signal
TP 7 Form Consistent Habits
TP 8 Train Persistence of Elicited Responses (‘Self‐Carriage’)
TP 9 Avoid and Dissociate Flight Responses
TP 10 Demonstrate Minimum Levels of Arousal Sufficient for Training
Take‐Home Messages
Ethical Considerations
Areas for Future Research
8 Training
Introduction
In‐Hand Training
Under‐Saddle Training
Equipment
Posture and Position of the Rider
Jumping
Other Signals
Movements
Higher Steps – Collection
Take‐Home Messages
Ethical Considerations
9 Horses in Sport and Work
Introduction
Performance Sports
Racing
Steeple‐Chasing and Hurdling
Harness Racing (Pacing and Trotting)
Other Forms of Racing
Mounted Games
Stock Sports
Gaited Horse Classes
Hunting
Driving
Showing: Breed and Hack Classes
Rodeo
Work
Vaulting
Conclusion
Take‐Home Messages
Ethical Considerations
Areas for Further Research
10 Apparatus
Introduction
Stabling and Feeding
Apparatus used to Distribute and Apply Pressure to Horses
Dentition and Mouth Pain
Apparatus Used in Enhancing Performance
Apparatus Used in Restraint
Take‐Home Messages
Ethical Considerations
Areas for Further Research
11 Biomechanics
Introduction
Locomotion
The Mechanics of Locomotion
The Gaits
The Central Pattern Generator
The Vertebral Column
Muscular Development Effects of Horse Sports
Take‐Home Messages
Ethical Considerations
Areas for Further Research
12 Unorthodox Techniques
Introduction
Simultaneous, Contradictory Pressure
Inducing Confusion by Using One Signal for More than One Response
Forcing the ‘On the Bit’ Head and Neck Position
Contraction
Rapping
Gingering
Soring
Weighted Boots and Training Shackles
Sedation and Nerve Blocks
Electric Training Devices (Shock‐Collars and Spurs)
Conclusion
Take‐Home Messages
Areas for Further Research
13 Stress and Fear Responses
Introduction
Perception of Stressors
Consequences of Prolonged or Chronic Stress
Typical Stressors for Domestic Horses
Stress and Performance
Fear Responses
One‐Trial Learning
Pain
Manifestations of Fear and Stress
Take‐Home Messages
Ethical Implications
Areas for Further Research
14 Ethical Equitation
Introduction
Whips and Welfare
Restrictive Nosebands
Ethical Considerations and Equitation Science
Take‐Home Messages
15 Research Methods in Equitation Science
Introduction
Designing a Study and Reporting Results
Sample Size
Rider and Environmental Variables
Recording Horse Behaviour
Physiological Measures
Measurement of Human–Horse Interactions
Conclusion
16 The Future of Equitation Science
Introduction
Areas and Anticipated Limitations for Further Research
New Technologies
Ethology
Nutrition
Genetics
Conclusion
Glossary of the Terms and Definitions and of Processes Associated with Equitation
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 02
Table 2.1 Hierarchy of learning abilities.
Table 2.2 Some examples of regular equitation that represent environmental challenges to horses by running counter to their ethology.
Table 2.3 Common attributes and elusive terms assigned to horses with plausible scientific interpretations.
Chapter 04
Table 4.1 Examples of desensitisation techniques (adapted from McLean and Christensen, 2017).
Table 4.2 Results of imprint training.
Chapter 05
Table 5.1 Punishment versus reinforcement – effect of the treatment (with examples).
Chapter 06
Table 6.1 Distribution of trialled responses that arise from the closing pressure of the legs of the rider.
Table 6.2 Facilitating the learning of locomotory responses: the relationship between applying various aversive stimuli and the negative reinforcement of removing them.
Table 6.3 Learning various unwelcome behaviours: the relationship between various aversive stimuli and the negative reinforcement provided by their removal.
Chapter 07
Table 7.1 Examples of the training phases of negatively reinforced locomotory responses during training and riding. In phase 1, the stimulus–response relationship is established through negative reinforcement. In phase 2, the light signal (the discriminative stimulus) becomes the trigger that elicits the response (i.e. avoidance learning). The response to the light signal is acquired through classical conditioning. In phase 3, other neutral stimuli become associated with the response through classical conditioning.
Table 7.2 Examples of some traditional and contemporary training scales for horses in equitation.
Chapter 08
Table 8.1 An example of shaping a response, in this case forward:
go
.
Table 8.2 Examples of stimulus–response characteristics of
in‐hand
training.
Table 8.3 Examples of stimulus–response characteristics of under‐saddle training.
Table 8.4 The basic responses that produce the movements in dressage.
Chapter 09
Table 9.1 Summary of the ethological and learning challenges offered by various sporting and working contexts.
Table 9.2 Some of the features of a racehorse’s behaviour and presentation that can be used to predict poor performance (i.e. not winning).
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 The anatomical sites of negative reinforcement in which bridles and bits of different basic design can act. The severity of action (implied by the degree of shading) would depend on various factors, such as the tightness of curb chains, the thickness of the bits and the length of shanks.
Table 10.2 The sites in which various devices are attached. The severity of action (implied by the degree of shading) would depend on various factors such as the tightness of nosebands, the length of straps and the inclusion of elastic.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 An example of different aspects of equestrian activities, their associated costs and benefits to both horses and humans and potential measures to optimise cost:benefit ratios.
Table 14.2 Verbatim instructions on acceptable and unacceptable use of the whip according to BHA rules.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Factors to be recorded and suggested mode of recording for each factor: Riding discipline, horse/pony (sample) characteristics, rider features and environmental factors.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 The number of presentations at the annual conferences of the International Society of Equitation Science is steadily increasing (source: www.equitationscience.com).
List of Illustrations
Chapter 01
Figure 1.1 ‘Horses on the run’: In 2013, the story about Mariska hit the world press after her owner posted a YouTube video showing how Mariska could open not only her own box door but also make her way to open the doors of the other horses’ boxes.
Figure 1.2 Horses can learn to respond to and differentiate between light tactile cues from their riders, regardless of the type of gear used.
Figure 1.3 Modern training manuals for many species are based on learning theory.
Figure 1.4 Theoretical normal distributions to show how the numbers of horses that cope with training can be increased by using more enlightened approaches.
Figure 1.5 Equitation science is for everyone who spends time with horses and ponies. The training techniques presented in this book apply to all types of horses and all disciplines. Regardless of whether you are an international competition rider, a horse‐trainer or a leisure rider, knowing how to use learning theory is the key to all good training and good horse welfare.
Chapter 02
Figure 2.1 Feral horses and herds that receive minimal management, such as these Konik horses in Oostvaarders Plassen, the Netherlands, provide critical information on normal horse behaviour.
Figure 2.2 Success in horse‐training is influenced by many variables.
Figure 2.3 Retinal ganglion cell‐density maps from horses of three breeds with the dorsal part of the retina in the background, ventral in the foreground, nasal to the left and temporal to the right. Each shaded band represents 400 cells/mm
2
. Studies of the retinae of horses with different skull shapes have shown that (at least some of) the neural tissue of morphologically diverse breeds differs. Brachycephalic horses, such as Arabians, are thought to have lower acuity in their peripheral vision field and a central field with higher acuity.
Figure 2.4 Ears moving independently are typically regarded as a sign of attentiveness.
Figure 2.5 (a) Horses allogrooming and (b) human grooming a horse’s withers.
Figure 2.6 Grazing horses do not randomly forage but instead select food on the basis of sight, smell, taste and previous experience of that pasture.
Figure 2.7 Horse showing a flight response under‐saddle.
Figure 2.8 The man with the white hair and beard, wearing a long coat, (a) and (d), is Mr von Osten, who became famous for claiming that his horse, Clever Hans, had been successfully trained to count, perform mathematical calculations and read. von Osten never accepted the criticism of this claim. Instead he helped some of his admirers, (b) and (c), to train and test successors to Clever Hans, as shown in this set of photographs from 1912. In (e), von Osten is on the right of the four onlookers and wearing the hat that, unknown to him, was probably critical in training Clever Hans, since it would have amplified the inadvertent visual cue of head tilting.
Figure 2.9 The notion of the horse being ‘stubborn’ encourages punishment.
Figure 2.10 It is adaptive for naïve horses to investigate water or marshy ground.
Figure 2.11 Strength in numbers facilitates investigative behaviour.
Figure 2.12 The relevance of a bucket to a naïve horse may be enhanced by observation of feeding.
Figure 2.13 The transmission of information from mare to foal merits detailed scrutiny.
Figure 2.14 (a) Horses following one another. (b) Horses being ridden towards each other in a formal exercise.
Figure 2.15 A horse being hyperflexed under‐saddle (Rollkur).
Figure 2.16 One horse following another into water.
Figure 2.17 It is interesting to speculate on whether horses train one another.
Figure 2.18 Adult horses showing licking and chewing (a) in response to a stressor, such as chasing, adopt a different posture, and mimic, typically with lowered head and only slightly opened mouth, compared to foals showing the snapping response (b) towards an adult horse displaying threats. In the latter case, the foal’s head is typically extended horizontally, with the mouth wide open and the corner of the mouth pulled backwards and upwards. To date there is limited scientific evidence that the two different behaviour patterns share a common biological background.
Figure 2.19 There is no convincing evidence that horses showing trained postural responses are offering either submission or respect.
Figure 2.20 Humans sometimes groom horses in areas that are usually not groomed by other horses.
Figure 2.21 Behaviours described as exuberance can reflect previous confinement.
Figure 2.22 (a) A well‐established social group provides important enrichment in domestic contexts. (b) Even at pasture, isolated horses may have compromised welfare.
Figure 2.23 The value of ethologically relevant visual stimuli for stabled horses is becoming better understood.
Figure 2.24 Baroque breeds are naturally more upstanding in the forequarters than many modern breeds and are, thus, more easily collected.
Figure 2.25 Studies of grazing horses (McGreevy
et al
., 2007) have examined the preference for many lateralised behaviours, including standing (a), flexing (b) and moving relative to conspecifics (c).
Figure 2.26 Even in the absence of lameness, some foals lock in a strong preference for an unbalanced grazing stance before weaning.
Figure 2.27 Displacement of the hindquarters (red) relative to the median plane (blue) may have some predictive qualities for laterality during riding.
Chapter 03
Figure 3.1 Horses star in numerous movies and comics and are often assigned human characteristics (a). This may contribute to an anthropomorphic view on horse behaviour and indirectly to horse–human accidents when children anticipate human‐like reactions from horses (b)
Figure 3.2 Horse misbehaviour – naughty or confused? Terms such as naughty inappropriately shift the blame from the rider to the horse.
Figure 3.3 The horse is not likely to share the same goals as humans.
Figure 3.4 The pet horse: a projected image of ourselves?
Figure 3.5 A nervous handler (a) or rider (b) may cause the horse to become more fearful. In this study, the handlers (n = 20) and riders (n = 17) were asked to lead/ride their horses around a riding arena four times. They were told that during the fourth round an umbrella would suddenly appear from behind the barrier, which would probably frighten the horse. However, the umbrella was never presented, so the increase in the handlers’ and riders’ heart rates on the fourth round likely reflects their anticipation of their horse’s fear response. It is interesting to note the similar increase in the horses’ heart rates. The pathway for transmission of arousal from humans to horses remains to be identified.
Figure 3.6 Horses appear to have long‐lasting memories of their interactions with humans. Horses that had been trained using food as a reward for correct responses (positive reinforcement, PR) spent more time close to both a familiar and an unknown person than horses trained without food (control, C).
Figure 3.7 Singly stabled stallions are more likely to bite (a) and kick (b) humans during training compared to group‐housed horses. This probably reflects their strong motivation for social contact.
Figure 3.8 Results of a survey of Australian equestrian coaches (professional,
n
= 830) and dog‐trainers (amateur and professional,
n
= 430), showing the distribution of correct, partially correct and incorrect explanations of key terms in learning theory.
Note
: The poor performance of equestrian coaches shown in this chart does not necessarily mean that they were less effective as coaches than dog‐trainers, but it does imply that they bring less scholarship to learning theory and developments in training protocols.
Figure 3.9 Many training methodologies feature the horse seeking to follow a human. This behaviour is a result of the innate tendency of a social animal to follow conspecifics. However, training horses to follow does not train them to be led and subsequent confusion can contribute to conflict behaviours.
Figure 3.10 Conditioning rather than leadership qualities provides a more plausible explanation of leading behaviours. A horse will lead forward from pressure, even from a well‐trained dog.
Chapter 04
Figure 4.1 An example of a maze. Simple experiments, such as maze learning, allow us to study cognitive processes (e.g. recall).
Figure 4.2 An illustration of a rat and a pigeon in so‐called ‘Skinner boxes’, where animals work to obtain rewards such as food or freedom. Skinnerian principles have emerged largely from studies of just these two operant models: rats pressing levers (a) and pigeons pecking keys (b) to obtain rewards.
Figure 4.3 Horses can habituate to potential predators.
Figure 4.4 Police horses are habituated to a range of stimuli and situations that would normally elicit fear through systematic desensitisation.
Figure 4.5 Overshadowing an aversive stimuli, such as noisy clippers, through the use of lead‐rein pressure can be used as a desensitisation technique. The method should preferably be used in combination with systematic desensitisation.
Figure 4.6 If a horse has habituated to hosing, this situation can be used to desensitise the horse to other stimuli, such as aerosols, through
stimulus blending
. The aural and tactile characteristics of the aerosol can be gradually mixed with the hosing making identification of the aerosol difficult, and the hose can gradually be turned off.
Figure 4.7 Head‐shy horses tend to show increasing sensitivity towards an epicentre of the ears or a single ear.
Figure 4.8 Young horses reacted less to a suddenly moving object (a plastic bag pulled up from the ground) when paired with a habituated companion horse, compared to when paired with a naïve companion horse (a). The graph (b) shows the maximum heart rate (beats per minute; mean and standard error) of the horses in the two groups during three subsequent stimulus presentations (session 1–3). This pattern remained when the horses were presented with the same moving object again three days later without companion horses (c,d).
Figure 4.9 The dam is an important source of information for the young foal. The habituated mare can help decrease fearfulness in the foal if they are exposed to usually fear‐eliciting situations together and the mare remains calm.
Figure 4.10 Horses do not appear to generalise between objects if these vary in both shape and colour (a, b). The graph (b) shows the latency (mean and standard error) for the test horses to eat from the familiar feed container on days 1–6; every day a novel object was presented in front of the container. Control horses also entered the test arena (without objects) and their latency times reflect the time taken to walk from the entrance of the test arena to the feed container. Test and control horses differed significantly within days, but there was no reduction in the latency time across days (i.e. test horses reacted with the same intensity to object number six as to object number 1). However, when the same objects were wrapped (i.e. all the same colour), the horses did show stimulus generalisation (i.e. their reaction towards new blue objects decreased significantly once habituated to one blue object (c,d))
Figure 4.11 It may be possible to reduce general fearfulness in horses if they are routinely exposed in their paddock to various objects that usually elicit fear. The natural tendency of horses to explore objects in their home environment will eventually make them overcome their fear and they will habituate to the objects. It is usually possible to speed up the habituation process if food items, such as small pieces of carrot, are distributed around the objects.
Figure 4.12 During foundation training, horses are expected to habituate to the bridle and the bit.
Figure 4.13 Some horses have difficulty habituating to the constant pressure of the girth.
Figure 4.14 Mounting the horse bareback during foundation training is employed by some trainers. This has a number of advantages in habituating the horse to human body contact and separates it from the sometimes troubling girth/saddle experience with a human astride.
Figure 4.15 Horses are expected to habituate to a certain level of rein tension (called ‘contact’). However, when exposed to strong inescapable tension, horses are likely to develop conflict behaviours and, in the worst‐case scenario, learned helplessness
Figure 4.16 If a stimulus, such as an electric shock, is highly aversive, the horse may become sensitised to previously innocuous stimuli, such as an ordinary wire.
Figure 4.17 Dr Robert Miller’s contention that a young foal can imprint onto humans is based on his interpretation of its neonatal tendency to follow its mother.
Figure 4.18 It is important to reflect on the effect of the foal’s first experiences with humans.
Figure 4.19 Perhaps the greatest contribution from Dr Robert Miller is the assurance that as a precocial neonate, some training, such as lead training, can begin early in the foal’s life. This can help ensure safety when veterinary attention is required.
Chapter 05
Figure 5.1 A cat in a puzzle box must trial the use of a lever (i.e
. make an instrumental change
) to access its reward (
liberty
).
Figure 5.2 A horse nuzzling an operant device to turn on a light.
Figure 5.3 (a)‐(f). Operant conditioning can be used to design consumer‐demand studies, for example, to assess the relative value horses place on different levels of social contact versus social isolation. (a) lever; (b) horse operating the lever; (c) free social interaction possible; (d) social interaction restricted to head‐and‐neck region; (e) social interaction limited to nasal contact; and (f) social isolation. (Sondergaard
et al
., 2011).
Figure 5.4 Pavlov’s apparatus for collecting saliva as a measure of the association between food and various novel stimuli.
Figure 5.5 Post‐race urine samples being taken on cue from a gelding (a) and a mare (b).
Figure 5.6 Horses being ridden without a bit (a) and without a bridle (b).
Figure 5.7 Remotely controlled reward devices (delivering positive reinforcement) can be used in combination with bit pressure (negative reinforcement).
Figure 5.8 Different rewards used in positive and negative reinforcement go along with different levels of relaxation and are of different valence (negative or positive) and value to the horse, depending on its general (e.g. the horse’s innate level of tactile sensitivity) and temporal situation (e.g. the horse’s current degree of hunger). Choosing an appropriate type and intensity of reward for a given horse to balance motivation and relaxation is crucial to training success.
Figure 5.9 (a) A horse stretching (i.e. making an operant response) towards a target, as a part of being trained to traverse a ground‐based obstacle. (b) A horse in early training of piaffe being reinforced using positive reinforcement. (c) A horse trained to piaffe at liberty using positive reinforcement.
Figure 5.10 Horse being clipped in the presence of food, an example of counter‐conditioning.
Chapter 06
Figure 6.1 Rats show avoidance learning when they respond to a flashing light that heralds an electric shock. Avoidance responses are learned through classical conditioning and are highly persistent.
Figure 6.2 Even an up‐turned chair (a) can be perceived as a novel object worthy of fear and horses may learn to shy away suddenly (b) from stimuli they perceive as aversive.
Figure 6.3 Operant conditioning comprises reinforcement and punishment, which can be further subdivided into ‘positive’ (addition) and ‘negative’ (subtraction). Escape and avoidance behaviour are negatively reinforced through the removal of an aversive stimulus.
Figure 6.4 Horses learn to
stop/slow
from the release of pressure through trial and error. This highlights the need for trainers to release at the appropriate moment: the onset of the targeted response.
Figure 6.5 An arbitrary scale showing that the neutral stimulus, the classically conditioned cue (the lightest pressure signal) and the stronger motivating level of pressure can be considered a linear scale of pressure.
Figure 6.6 Training a naïve horse to
lead forward
involves reinforcing a single step of the forelegs slightly sideways. Sideways facilitates the
step forward
by inhibiting backward resistance.
Figure 6.7 Shortening the strides can be trained by variations in the duration and magnitude of rein tension that become associated with seat characteristics.
Figure 6.8 The likelihood of a horse in training offering a particular response is a result of the level of the attractiveness or aversiveness of the reinforcer/punisher. Within this structure lie all forms of reinforcement.
Figure 6.9 Negative reinforcement training (release of pressure) can be augmented by primary (e.g. food or wither scratching) or secondary (e.g. voice) positive reinforcement and this combined reinforcement may enhance the reinforcing effects.
Figure 6.10 Punishment is replete with associated problems that range from a disinclination to trial new learned responses to the development of fearful associations with humans.
Figure 6.11 Masserman induced experimental neurosis in cats by punishing them with a blast of air after they had learned to open a box for a food reward.
Figure 6.12 Seligman’s dogs became apathetic when the warning light inconsistently predicted pain (illustrations (a) and (b)) and avoidance became impossible.
Figure 6.13 From the domestic horse’s viewpoint, increasing amounts of losses of control followed by inescapable pain arising from poor equitation can lead to learned helplessness. This amounts to a major loss of controllability.
Chapter 07
Figure 7.1 As illustrated in the previous chapter, contact is a neutral stimulus and thus obliges the rider to release the reins briefly yet regularly during locomotion to check that the rein contact pressure is not confusing. The horse should maintain his speed, direction and outline if contact training is correct.
Figure 7.2 Removing your hand at the wrong time from the head of a head‐shy horse reinforces head‐shyness.
Figure 7.3 In some disciplines such as reining, the rider leans back when using the reins to stop the horse and, by classical conditioning, the horse soon learns to stop from the leaning back of the rider without the reins being used.
Figure 7.4 Diagram showing that the correct order of training begins with stronger pressure used to motivate
stop
,
go
and
turn
responses. Pressures should rapidly shrink to light versions, and from here other signals can be introduced. Finally, after consolidation of these basic responses, movements that consist of composites of these basic elements can be trained.
Figure 7.5 The presence or not of constant rein contact is one of the chief differences between reining (a) and dressage (b) training.
Figure 7.6 Precise discrimination of signals is necessary for the horse both in‐hand and under‐saddle. It makes sense to use the same regions on the horse’s body to train the horse to respond from tapping with the whip for both in‐hand and under‐saddle training. The zones should be used consistently, but may differ between different training systems in relation to which area is used to elicit which response.
Figure 7.7 Judicious use of the term ‘good boy’ followed by wither caressing provides a convenient means of secondary reinforcement in training. Here a horse is trained to lower his head.
Figure 7.8 A modern tendency in dressage has been to achieve neck flexion from rein tension. Altering the horse’s outline with the reins can confuse the
stop/slow
response and result in hyper‐reactive behaviours and further deleterious effects.
Figure 7.9 The ‘
go
’ response requires several shaping stages, beginning with training a single step (a), then a stride followed by multiple strides (b) and ultimately training in new environments (c).
Figure 7.10 To generalise the stimulus of a water obstacle, a horse may need to have experienced going into several different water obstacles.
Figure 7.11 When a horse acquires a new learned response in training, specific neural pathways are activated. Repetitions strengthen these until habits begin to form.
Figure 7.12 The behavioural repertoire of horses remains relatively unchanged by domestication. Grooming Przewalski stallions (a); Plains zebra stallions (b); Warmblood stallions (c); and foals (d).
Figure 7.13 Whereas the reins and legs of the rider are in relatively close contact with the horse, the rider’s seat is separated from the horse’s back by layers of padding. This not only prevents back injury to the horse but also disperses signals from the rider. This compromise renders the rider’s seat a less salient signal locus than the reins or legs.
Figure 7.14 When both reins and leg signals are applied simultaneously, confusion sets in. Deterioration of one or both responses can also occur by overshadowing, which results in significant losses of responding to the reins or legs for
stop
or
go
.
Figure 7.15 The rider should begin to signal the turn with the direct rein when the foreleg (on the side to which the horse is to turn) is leaving the ground.
Figure 7.16 The rider should begin to signal the
leg‐yield
with the leg signal when the hindleg (on the opposite side to which the horse is to yield) is leaving the ground.
Figure 7.17 In horse‐training using negative reinforcement, the operant contingency is expressed in this sequence: light signal, increasing pressure, release of pressure. In a short time, the period of stronger pressure is removed and the horse readily responds to light signals. The three beats can be thought of as
Please; Do it; Thank you
.
Figure 7.18
Überstreichen
provides an important way of proving that the horse is in self‐carriage, in any movement.
Chapter 08
Figure 8.1 The advance–retreat method of catching horses is one of the more subtle examples of negative reinforcement. As the trainer approaches the wary horse (a), he makes sure that he retreats a step before the horse does. The trainer can then take two or more steps towards the horse before having to retreat a step and, thus, he gradually closes in on the horse (b). The retreating (removal) of the trainer negatively reinforces the horse’s immobility.
Figure 8.2 As visual cues can sometimes be given unintentionally and are, therefore, confusing for the horse, it can be useful to ensure that the sight of the whip or the approach of the whip is not a signal for movement. To do this, the whip is gently rubbed over the horse’s body while simultaneously reinforcing immobility with the reins (overshadowing). This helps ensure calmness and responsiveness to the tapping of the whip as a useful signal.
Figure 8.3 When positive and negative reinforcement are used concurrently, one may overshadow the other, depending on their relative salience. At low levels of negative reinforcement (rein tension/leg pressure) and high levels of positive reinforcement (jackpotting), positive reinforcement may be more salient, but as pressures increase, positive reinforcement may become less salient. This suggests that positive reinforcement is best used when negative reinforcement pressures have been converted to light signals.
Figure 8.4 Horses are very adept at classical conditioning, so it is easy for a horse to learn to
step forward
when its trainer takes a step. Thus, the horse may appear to have learned to
step forward
from a light rein signal while in fact it has not, because in the past the light rein signal has been preceded by the visual cue of the moving trainer.
Figure 8.5 The whip‐tap can fortify
lead forward
responses, because it is more difficult to habituate to the whip‐tap than to lead pressure.
Figure 8.6 In‐hand, the signal for going forward is lead‐rein tension in the anterior direction (a), while for stopping, slowing and stepping back, it is posterior lead‐rein tension (b). This difference is easily perceived by the horse.
Figure 8.7 Training the horse to
step‐back
in‐hand enhances the
stop
and
slow
signals and provides a useful tool in re‐training problems with the
stop
signals. This is because the neuromuscular coordination of stepping back is incorporated in all downward transitions to a greater or lesser extent.
Figure 8.8 If the
step‐back
response is difficult to elicit and tactile pressure (e.g. from a finger) is ineffective, it can be fortified by applying the light rein cue just before squeezing the brachiocephalic muscle (a) or just before tapping the metacarpal (cannon) bone of the foreleg that is likely to step first (b).
Figure 8.9 Training the horse to turn in‐hand is useful in certain situations where the horse may veer to one side, such as when loading into a trailer.
Figure 8.10 Stepping sideways (a) away from the whip‐tap signal is facilitated by first tapping the horse’s hock (where sideways is a more obvious reaction to the horse) and then (b) moving up the leg to the position of the rump.
Figure 8.11 Training the horse to lower its head is a useful tool during in‐hand interactions. It is important that this response is shaped gradually, beginning with initially reinforcing (release) for the smallest responses and gradually approximating the final targeted response where the horse will maintain its head lowered.
Figure 8.12 Lungeing is often used in training to assist in physical development, to help associate locomotory responses with signals, and to exercise a horse. Trainers should bear in mind that continuously lungeing a flighty horse can create associations between humans and the flight response that can be indelible.
Figure 8.13 When the angle of the trainer’s position opens or closes relative to the horse’s shoulder, this may increase or diminish speed.
Figure 8.14 Some horses find girth pressure aversive and it is appropriate to use systematic desensitisation to habituate horses to the girth (see also Chapter 4, Non‐associative Learning). The horse is initially habituated to stroking on the body and especially in the girth area with the folded girth (a). When the horse reliably fails to react to this stage, the girth is gradually made longer so the horse habituates to the loose girth hanging from its body, (b), (c). The trainer then habituates the horse to a hand moving under the stomach and picking up the girth on the other side without closing the girth (d). The girth should be completely removed at regular intervals at a moment where the horse shows appropriate behaviour (e.g. standing still, as the girth removal will then negatively reinforce immobility). It is preferable to have a second handler controlling the horse’s movement to avoid the risk that the horse itself removes the girth by moving away, which will negatively reinforce an undesired response. When the horse reliably fails to react to closing the girth (e), it should be trained to
move forward
and
step back
while wearing the girth. Habituation to girth pressure is an important part of foundation training and should always precede mounting of the saddle.
Figure 8.15 Long‐reining the horse is sometimes a feature of foundation training. Because the trainer’s hands are at a considerable distance from the horse’s mouth, skill is required to ensure smooth and consistent delivery of rein signals. It is also important to ensure that the driven horse does not perceive that he is being chased or else fearful, hyper‐reactive associations can be incorporated into training.
Figure 8.16 As riders become more experienced, they tend to be able to sit more upright and their limb‐torso angles open.
Figure 8.17 The difference between the so‐called working gaits and the lengthened gaits is seen in the overtrack of the foretracks by the hindhooves.
Figure 8.18 Longitudinal flexion is an important stage of daily training in the warm‐up phase, because it stretches, loosens and therefore relaxes the horse.
Figure 8.19 When riders sit asymmetrically, it becomes difficult for the horse to maintain its own symmetry and balance and typically results in the horse drifting and becoming crooked in its vertebral column, especially at the base of the neck.
Figure 8.20 The parabolic jumping shape that characterises correct jumping technique results from the translation of forward locomotion to vertical thrust. Therefore, the take‐off moment is critical in maintaining velocity and rhythm.
Figure 8.21 In best practice, the tongue should sit underneath the bit in a relaxed way. Relentless pressure across the tongue can restrict blood flow to the end of the tongue (a), a condition known as ischaemia that is characterised by the tongue’s blue colour. (b) When the horse’s tongue remains permanently retracted, it is a sign that the horse finds the bit aversive: mouth pressure is too strong and unrelenting. (c) When the tongue cannot escape highly aversive bit pressure by retraction, it may droop in a seemingly paralysed way.
Figure 8.22 A horse under‐saddle develops a rounded neck outline through longitudinal, lateral and vertical flexion. From this position, the horse gradually develops collection, where the poll is at its highest point and there is increased arching of the neck.
Figure 8.23 These photographs show the (a) direct and (b) indirect turn signals. In both cases, the hands shift towards the intended direction, but in the direct turn, the opening rein (moving away from the midline) is pressured, while in the indirect turn, the closing rein (rein moving towards the midline) is pressured.
Figure 8.24 When the horse is moving on curved lines under‐saddle in dressage, lateral flexion is required. This entails laterally flexing at the atlanto‐occipital joint, as well as the joints surrounding C1, C2.
Figure 8.25 When the horse falls‐in or falls‐out, its head and neck are carried to one side, which becomes the concave side, while the horse drifts towards the convex side.
Figure 8.26 During lateral movements (including side‐pass in reining), the sideways movement is conferred by consecutive abductions and adductions of the forelegs and hindlegs. To maintain balance, abduction of the forelegs can occur only during adduction of the hindlegs when the horse is going forward.
Figure 8.27 The rider’s seat shows different characteristics with different gaits and stride lengths. For example, it has a long sweeping motion for longer strides (green arrow) and moves only a small amount for shorter strides (blue arrow).
Figure 8.28 During the rising trot (i.e. when the rider rises within the beat of the trot), optimal balance is believed to occur when the rider rises (a) and falls (b) as the outside forelegs and inside hindleg undertake their swing and stance phases. Correct equitation involves refining this synchrony.
Figure 8.29 The canter is an asymmetrical gait characterised by leading foreleg and hindleg. The signals for canter require indicating to the horse the appropriate leg to lead with, and this is made possible by the altered outside leg position (farther back).
Figure 8.30 When the horse does a flying change (of leading leg), all four legs alter from leading/trailing to trailing/leading, (a) and (c), during the moment of suspension (b). Skill is required to elicit this successfully at the optimal moment.
Figure 8.31 This graph shows the increased collection and simultaneous shortening of the stride as the horse becomes more educated towards piaffe.
Chapter 09
Figure 9.1 A horse being hyperflexed.
Figure 9.2 If given the choice between taking a straight way to a food reward with a small (up to 50 cm) obstacle and a detour, most horses will take the detour rather than jump or walk over the obstacle (figure amended and redrawn with permission by Aleksandra Górecka‐Bruzda).
Figure 9.3 Eventers that show ‘boldness’ are highly prized.
Figure 9.4 A Thoroughbred being habituated to starting stalls.
Figure 9.5 It is interesting to speculate on whether horses have any concept of racing.
Figure 9.6 Harness‐racing horses wearing hobbles to prevent changes in rhythm away from a pace (1 a), an over‐check (2 a and b) enforcing a high head position that makes it difficult for a horse to fall into a gallop, a tie‐down (3 a and b) to stop the horse from a too‐high head carriage, ear plugs connected with a cord to the driver (4 a) that are used as an ‘acoustic whip’ by being pulled when approaching the finish line, and a tongue tie (5 b), ostensibly to prevent dorsal displacement of the soft palate.
Figure 9.7 A racehorse wearing blinkers to modify its flight response and reduce distraction by other horses.
Figure 9.8 Arabian horse showing a big trot that is a characteristic of an endurance horse.
Figure 9.9 Neck‐reining turn.
Figure 9.10 (a) Camp‐drafting. (b) Cow sense is an innate trait found in some stock breeds, such as the Quarterhorse.
Figure 9.11 Horses typically used for different tasks and of different breed types seem to have different tendencies to show flight responses and to show habituation when faced with a potential threat.
Figure 9.13 An Arabian being shown in‐hand. Too much emphasis on in‐hand appearance in the show ring may signal a departure from selection for an optimal riding horse.
Figure 9.14 A police horse being habituated to crowds.
Figure 9.15 Vaulting horses need to learn to distinguish between pressures exerted by vaulters, to which they need to habituate, and pressures used as cues by the trainer or a rider during ridden work.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Animals of certain breeds are often clinically obese yet, in the show‐ring, their owners are frequently rewarded for creating this condition.
Figure 10.2 After periods of confinement and overfeeding, horses show a post‐inhibitory rebound of locomotory responses.
Figure 10.3 Fluoroscopic studies have revealed where the bit lies: (a) in the normal case; (b) when the tongue is retracted; and (c) when held between the molars.
Figure 10.4 Bits used by (a) Xenophon and (b) the Classical Masters were at least as severe as the most severe modern designs (c).
Figure 10.5 The action of various items of headgear (arrows show the direction of pressure). The illustrated items are: (a) Bosal; (b) Hackamore; (c) Flash noseband; (d) Figure‐of‐eight noseband; (e) Gag; (f) Pessoa.
Figure 10.6 The classification of levers depends on the position of the pivot point (PP) or fulcrum and the direction of effort (E) and force (F). The curb bit and chain act as a lever that compresses the tongue and mandible, thus magnifying the horse’s pain with little extra effort by the rider. In contrast, curb bits used without chain or chin‐strap have no pivot point; therefore, in such cases, forces are not magnified but delayed by the shanks.
Figure 10.7 A rearing‐bit with an inverted port bit presses the tongue onto the bars of the mouth.
Figure 10.8 Side‐reins and draw‐reins are used to coerce the horse into adopting a rounder outline, compromising the
stop/slow
response.
Figure 10.9 Horses often toss their heads upwards when trying to resolve inescapable mouth pain.
Figure 10.10 A so‐called humane twitch (a) and a rope twitch (b).
Figure 10.11 Using a skin‐fold twitch while giving an injection.
Figure 10.12 Hobbles are often applied to immobilise horses and limit the expression of a flight response.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 (a) All movements required of trained horses are derived from the basic responses of acceleration, deceleration, turning the forequarters (FQ) and turning the hindquarters (HQ). Dotted arrows refer to shaped preparatory movements that usually precede elicitation of the targeted movements. (b) In dressage, the canter pirouette represents a movement that consists of a cascade of the largest number of single responses: shortened canter, turn of the forelegs and turn of the hindlegs.
Figure 11.2 (a) Training the horse to go forwards or backwards is a matter of reinforcing the biomechanical responses of protraction and retraction of the limbs. (b) Training the horse to turn the forelimbs, hindlimbs or both requires reinforcement of abduction and adduction of the limbs.
Figure 11.3 (a) When the horse goes forwards, protraction of the limbs occurs in the swing phase, while retraction of the limbs occurs in the stance phase. (b) When the horse steps backwards, the opposite occurs. (c) On the other hand, going sideways is conferred by consecutive abductions and adductions of the forelimbs and hindlimbs in swing and stance phases.
Figure 11.4 Locomotion requires certain muscles to move the limbs and other associated muscles to stabilise them.
Figure 11.5 The lowering of the croup that is the hallmark of collection is first seen in the stop response when the hindlegs increase their role in deceleration. The muscle groups used are the sub‐spinal, sub‐lumbar, abdominals and others, such as the
iliacus
and the
psoas
. In addition, the raised head in collection raises the foreleg through the connection of the
brachiocephalic
muscle to the humerus of the foreleg.
Figure 11.6
Turning the forelegs
involves consecutive abductions and adductions. Smooth turns are a result of a consistent tempo and stride length during these biomechanical actions.
Figure 11.7 In the sport of dressage, horses are required to step into their foretrack line with their hindhooves on all curved lines greater than 6 m in diameter. This means that the vertebral column of the horse should show some flexion, which is known in dressage nomenclature as ‘bend’.
Figure 11.8 Turning with the hindlegs or going sideways involves consecutive adductions (a) and abductions (b).
Figure 11.9 As with all training, it is much more efficient to shape and consolidate the required behaviour gradually. Therefore, when the horse is learning to leg‐yield, simply going sideways (a) is rewarded at first, regardless of whether the horse is straight in its vertebral column or not. Straightening (b) is dealt with later.
Figure 11.10 Each of the four gaits, (a) walk; (b) trot; (c) canter and (d) gallop, has different beat and suspension characteristics, although the shift from a canter to a gallop may be a gradual one, leaving it open to debate whether these two should be considered as two distinct gaits or just an alteration of rhythm within one gait.
Figure 11.11 The cycle of limb movements at walk (a), trot (b), canter (c), transverse gallop (d), tölt (e) and pace (f). Colour coding shows right (red) and left (blue) weight‐bearing limbs.
Figure 11.12 Horses may make a transition from a transverse to a rotary gallop during fatigue or when lead changes are initiated by the forelimbs. The footfall sequences of a rotary gallop are similar to those of a disunited canter.
Figure 11.13 Icelandic horses showing the typical one‐leg (a) and two‐leg (b) support phase of a tölt under a rider (a) and at pasture (b).
Figure 11.14 The three phases of jumping: (a) the approach phase; the jump phase (including (b) take‐off, (c) jump suspension, (d) landing subsets); and (e) the move‐off phase.
Figure 11.15 Show‐jumping trainers aim to train horses to take off close to the obstacle and thus to make the shape of the jumping effort parabolic, rather than longer and flatter. This shape (also known as a bascule) requires the horse to arch its neck and flex its back and allows it to jump as athletically as possible.
Figure 11.16 The central pattern generators (CPGs) are directly responsible for the precise synchronisation of the limbs in each gait. For example, in the trot they coordinate the alternating sequence of diagonal couplets.
Figure 11.17 Dorsoventral flexion/extension, lateral bending and axial rotation are characteristics of the equine thoracolumbar column in walk, trot and canter (Faber
et al
., 2001a,b).
Figure 11.18 Horses have difficulty in scratching their rumps with their teeth owing to the limitations of lateral bending of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae compared with the cervical vertebrae.
Figure 11.19 Collection involves a shift of weight from the horse’s forehand to its hindquarters. This shift is a function of altered stride kinematics and joint flexion of the hindlegs, flexion of the horse’s lumbar vertebrae and raising the head and neck. This posture is a prerequisite for all higher dressage movements.
Figure 11.20 Cadence is the term ascribed to the accentuated suspension phase in the collected trot and its derivations (piaffe, passage).
Figure 11.21 Negative DAP occurs when the foreleg begins its stance phase before its diagonal hindlimb. Positive DAP is when the opposite situation occurs: the hindlimb begins its stance phase before the forelimb.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Longitudinal (neck extension), vertical (poll raised) and lateral flexion as used in equestrian (rather than veterinary) parlance.
Figure 12.2 (a), (b), (c) and (d) Head and neck postures (HNP) with different dorso‐ventral flexions.
Figure 12.3 A horse with a so‐called broken neck (arrow indicates the abrupt change in the positions of cervical vertebrae 4 and 5 relative to one another).
Figure 12.4 An example of a horse being hyperflexed under‐saddle.
Figure 12.5 When strong rein tensions are used to produce a collected outline, false collection typically occurs with concomitant hyper‐reactive associations and increasing levels of conflict behaviour.
Figure 12.6 An illustration of the so‐called ‘rapping’ technique, banned by the Fédération Equestre Internationale. It involves hitting the horse’s hindlegs as it jumps a fence to make it allow greater clearance than each obstacle would seem to require.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 The standard stress model. When the brain perceives a stressor, two main sets of physiological reactions prepare the body for bursts of exercise (‘fight or flight’) and activate a range of other reactions (e.g. reduced pain perception and immunological responses).
Figure 13.2 (a) Effects of predictability. Rats exposed to unsignalled mild electric shocks develop more severe stress‐induced gastric lesions (ulcers) compared to rats that receive no shock and signalled rats that suffer the same number of shocks but receive a warning signal before it. (b) Effects of control. Rats that can show a behavioural response (lever‐pressing) to avoid or escape the shock develop less severe ulcers than paired rats that get the same number of shocks but have no control.
Figure 13.3 Horses at liberty have control of their environment to the extent that they can retreat or attack.
Figure 13.4 Occurrence of lesions in the glandular and non‐glandular (squamous) mucosa in Warmblood riding horses (n = 96), according to the Equine Gastric Ulceration Syndrome score (EGUS). Horses with scores 2–4 are considered affected (i.e. 55% had lesions in the glandular mucosa and 41% in the non‐glandular mucosa).
Figure 13.5 Examples of healthy and moderately affected mucosa. Lesions in the upper non‐glandular mucosa may relate to inappropriate feeding with too little roughage. Lesions in the deeper, glandular part of the stomach have been related to chronic stress.
Figure 13.6 Yerkes‐Dodson’s law describes how stress (arousal) can enhance learning performance to a point and then inhibit it (i.e. at low levels it can be beneficial for learning due to increased attention, but at higher levels it is detrimental).
Figure 13.7 The physiological reaction to fear is characterised by activity in the sympathetic nervous system and the HPA‐axis, which enable the body to perform more strenuous exercise than would otherwise be possible. (Modified from www.anxietyboss.com.)
Figure 13.8 Diets with a high starch content are associated with increased stereotypic behaviours and health problems and may also increase reactivity.
Figure 13.9 The flight response is strongly implicated in horses that jump ‘hollow and flat’ (i.e. with raised head, extended neck and extended vertebral column).
Figure 13.10 (a) Round‐pen training should be managed so that there is minimal or no flight response, otherwise it can make indelible associations between fearfulness in the horse and the presence of humans. (b) Flight responses should be avoided at all costs in horse‐training.
Figure 13.11 Hyper‐reactive behaviours (attempts to run away, bucking, bolting, shying and rearing) may relate to fear or pain.
Figure 13.12 Head‐shyness may be desensitised by rubbing the horse’s head through a towel or other novel or innocuous stimulus, which may be further elaborated by moistening it and then gradually reintroducing human fingers.
Figure 13.13 The girth‐shy response can be successfully overshadowed by simultaneously
stepping
the horse
forward
and
back
. It is useful to initially habituate the horse to an elastic girth (Chapter 8 Training Figure 8.14).
Figure 13.14 Training or re‐training the horse to load onto the (a) float/trailer or (b) into racecourse starting gates is a matter of reinforcing the correct response and shaping it so that the smallest correct attempts and all improvements are rewarded. Combined reinforcement (i.e. the use of both positive and negative reinforcers to reward correct behaviour) can be effective.
Figure 13.15 Rushing and jogging problems (including bolting) in‐hand and under‐saddle are largely associated with inadequately trained
stop
/
slow
responses.
Figure 13.16 Rehabilitating a rearing horse can be very dangerous as the horse can easily be pulled off balance by the rider’s efforts to stay aboard.
Figure 13.17 Horses can learn to refuse jumping obstacles if riders reward losses of effort and turning away. Once horses have learned to refuse and run out to the side, approaching at greater speeds will generally result in faster swerving.
Figure 13.18 Lugging bits are typically used on racehorses to hold them to their designated line and prevent drifting out. This drifting tendency involves losses of speed. A more sensible approach is to train the horse to self‐maintain its designated line.
Figure 13.19 Horses that barge into the trainer’s space are frequently described as having ‘no respect’. However, the simplest explanation shifts the blame from the horse to the trainer; the horse has simply not been trained to maintain its designated line in‐hand (i.e. it does not lead straight).
Figure 13.20 A fear response that is thwarted by the reins will lead to increased tension, because when escape is thwarted, anxiety escalates.
Figure 13.21 Aggression among horses rarely leads to injuries in well‐socialised horses, because most agonistic interactions consist of threats without physical contact. Lack of social contact can lead to increased biting during training.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 The whip can exert different forces on impact, depending on how it is held. Both regular whips (a) and padded whips (b) can leave welt marks (c).
Figure 14.2 In less developed countries, donkeys and mules remain an important source of power. Their health and ability to work can directly affect a family’s livelihood.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Heart rate monitors, developed for endurance training, have been used for studies in equitation science.
Figure 15.2 Saliva can be sampled for laboratory analysis of cortisol concentrations.
Figure 15.3 Infra‐red thermography of the eye detects radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum and produces visible images of that radiation.
Figure 15.4 Rein‐tension measurement is now reliable and affordable and will continue to play a central role in equitation science, coaching and undergraduate education.
Figure 15.5 Saddle‐pressure pads are revealing the complex interactions between the saddle and the horse’s back.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 (a) An example of a response surface for a racehorse with only rudimentary foundation training and a highly probable high‐speed forward response shown as a peak in sensitivity to acceleration cues. (b) An example of a response surface for a highly trained dressage horse, showing multiple peaks for given speeds and high responsiveness to
slow
,
stop
and
step‐back
signals.
Figure 16.2 Paris Texas, one of the world’s first cloned horses.
Guide
Cover
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