Ethnobotany E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 614

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

Ethnobotany: A Phytochemical Perspective explores the chemistry behind hundreds of plant medicines, dyes, fibers, flavors, poisons, insect repellants, and many other uses of botanicals. Bridging the gap between ethnobotany and chemistry, this book presents an introduction to botany, ethnobotany, and phytochemistry to clearly join these fields of study and highlight their importance in the discovery of botanical uses in modern industry and research.

Part I. Ethnobotany, explores the history of plant exploration, current issues such as conservation and intellectual property rights, and a review of plant anatomy. An extensive section on plant taxonomy highlights particularly influential and economically important plants from across the plant kingdom. Part II. Phytochemistry, provides fundamentals of secondary metabolism, includes line drawings of biosynthetic pathways and chemical structures, and describes traditional and modern methods of plant extraction and analysis. The last section is devoted to the history of native plants and people and case studies on plants that changed the course of human history from five geographical regions: Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe, and Ocean. Throughout the entire book, vivid color photographs bring science to life, capturing the essence of human botanical knowledge and the beauty of the plant kingdom.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

List of Contributors

Foreword

Preface

The Purpose of This Book

Target Audience

Inclusions and Exclusions

Words of Caution

Acknowledgments

Part I: Introduction to Ethnobotany and Phytochemistry

1 Ethnobotany

Key Terms and Concepts

Ethnobotany throughout History

References and Additional Reading

Current Topics in Ethnobotany

References

Taxonomy: Plant Families

References and Additional Reading

Plant Anatomy and Architecture: The Highlights

References and Additional Reading

Keys for Plant Identification

Herbaria, Plant Collection, and Voucher Specimens

References and Additional Reading

2 Phytochemistry

Primary and Secondary Metabolites

Databases

References and Additional Reading

Extraction and Chromatographic Techniques

References

Evaluation of Biological Activities

References

Part II: Case Studies

3 Introduction

4 Africa

Introduction

Northern Africa

Southern Africa

The African Diaspora

References and Additional Reading

Achillea millefolium : Re‐Exploring Herbal Remedies for Combating Malaria

References

Vanilla: Madagascar’s Orchid Economy

References

Traditional Treatments for HIV in South Africa

References

Duckweed as a More Sustainable First‐Generation Bioethanol Feedstock

References

5 The Americas

Introduction

North America

Central America and the Caribbean

South America

References and Additional Reading

Phlorotannins in Seaweed

References

Agave: More Than Just Tequila

References

Quinoa: A Source of Human Sustenance and Endurance in the High Andes

References

Maqui (Aristotelia chilensis): An Ancient Mapuche Medicine with Antidiabetic Potential

References

Betalains from Chenopodium quinoa: Andean Natural Dyes with Industrial Uses beyond Food and Medicine

References

6 Asia

Introduction

Central Asia

Western Asia

South Asia

Southeast Asia

East Asia

References and Additional Reading

Ethnobotany of Dai People’s Festival Cake in Southwest China

References

The Ethnobotany of Teeth Blackening in Southeast Asia

References

Artemisia Species and Human Health

References

Traditional Treatment of Jaundice in Manipur, Northeast India

References

Ethnobotany and Phytochemistry of Sacred Plant Species Betula utilis (bhojpatra) and Quercus oblongata (banj) from Uttarakhand Himalaya, India

References

Neem‐Based Insecticides

References

7 Europe

Introduction

References and Additional Reading

Differential Use of Lavandula stoechas L. among Anatolian People against Metabolic Disorders

References

Mad Honey

References

Indigo: The Devil’s Dye and the American Revolution

References

Insecticides Based on Plant Essential Oils

References

8 Oceania

Introduction

References and Additional Reading

Banana (Musa spp.) as a Traditional Treatment for Diarrhea

References

Pharmacological Effects of Kavalactones from Kava (Piper methysticum) Root

References

Botanical Index

Subject Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 01

Table 1.1 Legumes with a history of human use.

Table 1.2 Ethnobotanically important members of Solanaceae with their origin, use, and relevant phytochemicals.

Table 1.3 Major constituents of the essential oils from commonly used members of Lamiaceae (Kumari

et al

. 2014).

Chapter 04

Table 4.1 Crops that originated in Northern Africa.

Table 4.2 Common medicinal plants from Southern Africa.

Table 4.3 Crops that originated in Southern Africa.

Table 4.4 Antiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of sesquiterpene lactones

1‐4

from

Achillea millefolium

.

Table 4.5 Herbs commonly used in South Africa to treat HIV and/or its complications with scientific research to support the ethnobotanical use.

Chapter 05

Table 5.1 Crops originating in North America.

Table 5.2 Crops originating in Central America or the Caribbean.

Table 5.3 Crops originating in South America.

Table 5.4 Main phytochemical constituents reported in

Aristotelia chilensis

.

Chapter 06

Table 6.1 Crops that originated in Central Asia.

Table 6.2 Crops that originated in Western Asia.

Table 6.3 Crops that originated in South Asia.

Table 6.4 Common Ayurvedic medicinal herbs for different

doshas

(Dass, 2013).

Table 6.5 Crops that originated in Southeast Asia.

Table 6.6 Crops that originated in East Asia.

Table 6.7

Artemisia

species and their use in traditional medicine.

Table 6.8 Monoherbal treatments for jaundice in Manipur, India.

Table 6.9 Polyherbal treatments for jaundice by Meitei healers in Manipur, India.

Table 6.10 Restricted food items for jaundice patients.

Table 6.11 Marketed Ayurvedic product with constituents similar to those reported in the present study.

Chapter 07

Table 7.1 Crops that originated in Europe.

Table 7.2 Medicinal plants native to Europe.

Table 7.3 The classification of

L. stoechas

.

Chapter 08

Table 8.1 Crops that originated in Oceania.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01

Figure 1.1 Papyrus Ebers, column 38.

Figure 1.2 Portrait of Dioscorides receiving a mandrake root in an early sixth‐century copy of

De Materia Medica

.

Figure 1.3 Shennong, one of the mythical emperors of China, Indian ink on silk by Xu Jetian.

Figure 1.4

Kitâb al‐Qânûn fî al‐ṭibb

(The Canon on Medicine) by ibn Sînâ.

Figure 1.5 Nicolás Monardes describes the use of tobacco plant.

Figure 1.6 A page from Nicholas Culpeper’s

The Complete Herbal

. Plant names (left to right from top left): Sweet Flag, Foolston, Fumitory, Frogbit, Fleabane, Yellow Flag, Feverfew, Fluellin, Alkanet, Purging Flax, and Pellitory of Spain.

Figure 1.7 A page from the Bandianus manuscript.

Figure 1.8 Tu Youyou and her teacher Lou Zhicen working in the laboratory in 1951.

Figure 1.9

Ginkgo biloba

bark and leaves, autumn color.

Figure 1.10 Block of rosin is used to condition stringed instrument bows.

Figure 1.11 Coastal redwoods (

Sequoia sempervirens

) in Muir Woods National Monument, CA, the United States, are considered the tallest living things.

Figure 1.12 Bark of the Pacific yew (

Taxus brevifolia

) contains taxol.

Figure 1.13 Unripe soursop (

Annona muricata

) fruit.

Figure 1.14 American pawpaw fruit (

Asimina triloba

).

Figure 1.15 Leaves of

Sassafras albidum

growing in eastern North America.

Figure 1.16 Thick‐barked cinnamon sticks from

Cinnamomum cassia

are the most common type of cinnamon marketed in North America.

Figure 1.17 Fruit from a wild avocado (

Persea

sp.) tree in Belize.

Figure 1.18 Flooded taro field on the island of Hawaii.

Figure 1.19 Wild autumn crocus (

Colchicum autumnale

) growing in Switzerland.

Figure 1.20 Buddhist monk in Luang Prabang, Laos, wears robes dyed with saffron. The color fades from intense orange to pale yellow after long‐term exposure to the sun.

Figure 1.21 Cluster of nuts from the cohune palm,

Attalea cohune

.

Figure 1.22 A load of coconuts (

Cocos nucifera

) is shipped down the Mekong River.

Figure 1.23 Pineapple fruit growing wild near Lake Sandoval, Peru.

Figure 1.24 Sugarcane field in Maui, Hawaii.

Figure 1.25 Spices for sale including powdered ginger, turmeric, and galangal (foreground), cardamom pods (third row, right), and grains of paradise (third row, center).

Figure 1.26 (A) Poppies growing in a field in Helmand province, Afghanistan (US Marine Corps photo by Sgt. Pete Thibodeau); (B) Dried poppy seed capsules show scoring to extract opium (US Marine Corps photo by Lance Cpl. James Purschwitz).

Figure 1.27 Afghani poppy farmers tend to their crops while US Marines hold position in Helmand province, Afghanistan (US Marine Corps photo by Gunnery Sgt. Bryce Piper).

Figure 1.28 Mayapple (

Podophyllum peltatum

) growing at the John J. Tyler Arboretum, Pennsylvania, the United States. © 2016 Derek Ramsey.

Figure 1.29 A variety of white grapes nearly ready for harvest.

Figure 1.30 Coca leaf tea is commonly served in the Andes.

Figure 1.31 Passionflower blooms.

Figure 1.32 Tapped rubber trees (

Hevea brasiliensis

) in Kerala, India.

Figure 1.33 A woman in Zambia holds an armful of freshly harvested peanuts (

Arachis hypogaea

).

Figure 1.34 Locoweed (

Astragalus lentiginosus

) growing in Red Rock Canyon, Spring Mountains, Nevada, the United States.

Figure 1.35 Apples ready to harvest.

Figure 1.36 (A) A woman in Sasquisili, Ecuador, selling strawberries and blackberries (notice how the blackberry receptacle remains in the fruit compared to raspberries, where it remains on the plant).

Figure 1.37 (A)

Cannabis sativa

; (B) grow room at New Jersey, the United States medical

Cannabis

production facility; (C) harvested plants drying before extraction; (D) concentrated extract rich in cannabinoids.

Figure 1.38 Breadfruit (

Artocarpus atilis

).

Figure 1.39 (A) Woman in Nha Trang, Vietnam, peels jackfruit (

Artocarpus heterophyllus

); (B) Jackfruit tree.

Figure 1.40 Leaf, unripe, and ripe fruits from the allspice tree,

Pimenta dioica

.

Figure 1.41 Several varieties of mangoes for sale at a market in Tagatay, Philippines

Figure 1.42 Pistachios (

Pistacia vera

), cashews (

Anacardium occidentale

), and dried mango (

Mangifera indica

) are three members of Anacardiaceae being sold by this vendor in Dushanbe, Tajikistan.

Figure 1.43 An orange tree at the Orangerie at Versailles, France.

Figure 1.44 Cauliflory flowers and fruit of a cocoa (

Theobroma cacao

) tree growing inside a Nestle research greenhouse.

Figure 1.45 A durian (

Durio

sp.) vendor’s bicycle in Hanoi, Vietnam.

Figure 1.46 Ripe

Opuntia

fruit with aeroles and glochids in Arizona, the United States.

Figure 1.47 (A) Dragon fruit (

Hylocereus

sp.) growing on supports; (B) immature flower; (C) red dragon fruit outside; (D) red dragon fruit cross section.

Figure 1.48 Lucuma tree growing in Peru.

Figure 1.49 Women picking tea (

Camellia sinensis

) in Cisarua Bogor, West Java, Indonesia.

Figure 1.50 Lowbush blueberries (

Vaccinium angustifolium

) growing in Maine, the United States.

Figure 1.51 (A) Noni (

Morinda citrifolia

) fruit cross section; (B) noni fruit on tree.

Figure 1.52

Coffea arabica

unripe (A) and ripe (B) fruit.

Figure 1.53 Green

Coffea arabica

“beans.”

Figure 1.54 Woman drying

Coffea arabica

outdoors in Laos.

Figure 1.55 Coffee sorting machine in Hawaii.

Figure 1.56 Hermann Adolf Köhler drawing of

Cinchona officinalis

.

Figure 1.57 Spines on the bark of a

Ceiba

sp. tree.

Figure 1.58 Women selling different varieties of potatoes (

Solanum tuberosum

) in Peru.

Figure 1.59 Tobacco farm in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, the United States.

Figure 1.60 (A) Olive trees (

Olea europaea

) on the island of Mallorca.

Figure 1.61

Digitalis purpurea

inflorescence.

Figure 1.62 (A) Dried

Ilex paraguariensis

leaves are used to make yerba mate; (B) Gourd for making yerba mate. During the mate gourd ceremony, yerba and hot water are added to the gourd. Then, the mate is sipped from the bombilla, with the gourd passed around a circle of friends

Figure 1.63

Artemisia absinthium

.

Figure 1.64 Ginseng (

Panax ginseng

) farm in China.

Figure 1.65 Examples of herbaceous perennials,

Echinacea purpurea

(L.) Moench (foreground, Asteraceae),

Rudbeckia hirta

L. (Asteraceae), and

Crocosmia

sp. (Iridaceae)

Figure 1.66 Example of a biennial,

Digitalis purpurea

L. (Plantaginaceae).

Figure 1.67 Ariel roots extend down from tropical rainforest trees in Puerto Rico.

Figure 1.68 “Strangler fig” (

Ficus aurea

Nutt.) prop roots look like multiple trunks.

Figure 1.69 Cross section of red cedar (

Juniperus virginiana

L.) showing the vibrant red heartwood and lighter sapwood. According to the growth rings, this tree was 35 years old.

Figure 1.70 Dragon fruit (

Hylocereus

sp.) and many other species in Cactaceae are excellent examples of cladodes.

Figure 1.71 Women selling the Andean tuber oca (

Oxalis tuberosa

Molina, foreground) at a market in the Urubamba Valley, Peru.

Figure 1.72 Common leaf arrangements.

Figure 1.73 Common types of leaf margins.

Figure 1.74 Diagram of a complete flower.

Figure 1.75

Phalaenopsis

sp. orchid, an example of a zygomorphic flower.

Figure 1.76 Examples of common flower inflorescences.

Figure 1.77 Grasses produce caryopses, dry indehiscent fruit in which the pericarp is fused with the seed and enclosed in a chaff at maturity.

Figure 1.78 Common types of fruit.

Figure 1.79 Plant material drying in a forced air drier at the New York Botanical Garden Herbarium.

Figure 1.80 Herbarium specimen label.

Figure 1.81 Herbarium specimen sheet.

Chapter 02

Figure 2.1 Plant secondary metabolite biosynthesis overview.

Figure 2.2 Phenylpropanoid biosynthesis.

Figure 2.3 Terpenoid biosynthesis.

Figure 2.4 Alkaloids derived from terpenes, steroids, and the acetate pathway.

Figure 2.5 Alkaloids derived from the shikimic acid pathway.

Figure 2.6 Alkaloids derived from ornithine, nicotinic acid, and lysine.

Figure 2.7 Alkaloids derived from histidine and purine.

Figure 2.8 Acetate pathway: Fatty acids and polyketide biosynthesis.

Figure 2.9 Rotary evaporators are used to remove solvents from plant extracts. The extract is heated under vacuum; volatile solvents condense on chilled coils and drip into a collection flask.

Figure 2.10 Example of a drum manifold lyophilizer. After solvents are removed, plant extracts are frozen in round‐bottomed flasks, and then placed on the lyophilizer until water is removed via sublimation.

Figure 2.11 Vacuum column chromatography using a hydroxylated methacrylic polymer as the stationary phase.

Figure 2.12 Silica gel TLC plate of essential oils developed with mobile phase toluene–ethyl acetate (93:7 v/v), sprayed with vanillin in H

2

SO

4

, and heated.

Figure 2.13 HPLC chromatogram using a diode array detector (DAD).

Figure 2.14 Mass spectrum of a blueberry fraction showing increasing degrees of oligomeric proanthocyanidin polymerization.

Figure 2.15 NMR absorption spectrum of a blueberry fraction showing increasing degrees of oligomeric proanthocyanidin polymerization.

Figure 2.16 Isobologram.

Chapter 04

Figure 4.1 NASA satellite image of Africa showing diverse ecological regions.

Figure 4.2 Teff (

Eragrostis tef

) harvest in Northern Ethiopia.

Figure 4.3 Calabash gourds (

Lagenaria siceraria

) hanging from a support.

Figure 4.4 Chat (

Catha edulis

, qatt, jaad, or khat) market near Harar, in southeastern Ethiopia. Chat users prefer to chew the newest leaves from freshly harvested stems. For this reason, fresh chat stems are bought and sold at daily markets.

Figure 4.5 Common incense resins and powders (from top down, left to right) Makko powder (

Machilus thunbergii

Siebold & Zucc., Lauraceae), Borneol camphor [

Dryobalanops sumatrensis (J.F.Gmel.) Kosterm

., Dipterocarpaceae], Sumatra benzoin (

Styrax benzoin

Dryand., Styracaceae), Omani frankincense (

Boswellia sacra

Flueck., Burseraceae), guggul [

Commiphora wightii

(Arn.) Bhandari, Burseraceae], golden frankincense [

Boswellia papyrifera

(Caill. ex Delile) Hochst., Burseraceae], Tolu balsam [

Myroxylon balsamum

(L.) Harms, Fabaceae], Somalian myrrh [

Commiphora myrrha

(Nees) Engl., Burseraceae], labdanum (

Cistus creticus

L., Cistaceae), opoponax [

Commiphora erythraea

(Ehrenb.) Engl., Burseraceae], and white Indian Sandalwood powder (

Santalum album

L., Santalaceae).

Figure 4.6 Goats in an argan tree (

Argania spinosa

), Morocco.

Figure 4.7 Tamarind comes from the sticky pulp of a legume.

Figure 4.8 Fruits of

Cola nitida

contain stimulating kola nuts.

Figure 4.9 Fruit of the oil palm (

Elaeis guineensis

).

Figure 4.10 Madagascar periwinkle (

Catharanthus roseus

) flower.

Figure 4.11 African American men and women planting sweet potatoes [

Ipomoea batatas

(L.) Lam.] or yams (

Dioscorea

spp.) at James Hopkinson's Plantation circa 1862/63

Figure 4.12 A row of okra (

Abelmoschus esculentus

).

Figure 4.13

Achillea millefolium

L.

Figure 4.14 Chemical structures of sesquiterpene lactones isolated from

Achillea millefolium

.

Figure 4.15 Vanilla orchid (

Vanilla planifolia

) flower and pods.

Figure 4.16 Vanilla cultivation on

Dracaena reflexa

tutors, Réunion Island.

Figure 4.17 Man sorting dried vanilla pods, Réunion Island.

Figure 4.18 Chemical structures of the four major aroma constituents in vanilla: (A) vanillin, (B) 4‐hydroxybenzaldehyde, (C) 4‐hydroxybenzoic acid, and (D) vanillic acid (Takahashi

et al

. 2013).

Figure 4.19

Myrothamnus flabellifolia

, the resurrection plant.

Figure 4.20 Structure of the norlignan diglucoside hypoxoside from

Hypoxis hemerocallidea

.

Figure 4.21

Sutherlandia frutescens

.

Figure 4.22 A species of duckweed,

Spirodela polyrhiza,

floating on liquid media in a petri dish. Each cluster comprises multiple plants.

Figure 4.23 Commercial‐scale duckweed wastewater treatment project between MamaGrande, a social biotechnology company, and Aguas Del Norte. Salta, Argentina.

Chapter 05

Figure 5.1 Political map of the Americas (courtesy of United States of America Central Intelligence Agency).

Figure 5.2 North American farm growing corn (

Zea mays

) and tobacco (

Nicotiana tabacum

).

Figure 5.3 Cross section of a sugar maple (

Acer saccharum

) with spiles or tapping spouts. The red arrow indicates one of the many places where the tree had been tapped.

Figure 5.4 Harvested cranberries (

Vaccinium macrocarpon

) floating in a bog in New England, the United States

Figure 5.5 Wild blueberries (

V. angustifolium

) are typically smaller and darker than highbush (

V. corymbosum

) or rabbiteye (

V. virgatum

) blueberries.

Figure 5.6 Immature avocado (

Persea americana

) fruit.

Figure 5.7

Capsicum annuum

varieties include hot chili peppers, mild bell peppers, and a range of peppers in between.

Figure 5.8 Culantro or recao (

Eryngium foetidum

) is a biennial herb with a flavor similar to cilantro (

Coriandrum sativum

).

Figure 5.9 Guava (

Psidium guajava

).

Figure 5.10 Papaya (

Carica papaya

)

Figure 5.11 Peyote cactus (

Lophophora williamsii

).

Figure 5.12 Allspice (

Pimenta dioica

) leaf and fruit.

Figure 5.13 Cashew (

Anacardium occidentale

) has a pseudo‐fruit “apple” born on top of the true cashew fruit, a kidney‐shaped nut enclosed in a double shell containing irritating phenolic resin.

Figure 5.14 Annatto (

Bixa orellana

) fruit. Food coloring is obtained from a carotenoid‐rich resinous coating on the seeds.

Figure 5.15 A pot of Ayahuasca.

Figure 5.16 A bottle of Dover’s Powder cold remedy: opium (

Papaver somniferum

) with ipecacuanha (

Carapichea ipecacuanha

).

Figure 5.17 Guarana (

Paullinia cupana

) fruit have black seeds covered by white aril.

Figure 5.18 Fresh

Fucus distichus

(“bladder wrack” or “popweed”) harvested near Whittier, Alaska, the United States.

Figure 5.19 Structural classes of phlorotannins, oligomers of phloroglucinol.

Figure 5.20

Jimadores

use a dried calabash gourd [

Lagenaria siceraria

(Molina) Standl.] called an

acocote

to suck

aguamiel

out of the center of an Agave stem.

Figure 5.21 Bottle of pulque in Zacatlán, Puebla, Mexico.

Figure 5.22 SEM micrograph (scale bar = 10 μm) of sisal fiber conductive vessels (A). Micrograph (B) (scale bar = 1 μm) is a detail of (A). The arrows show the middle lamella. Martins

et al

. 2004.

Figure 5.23 Pulque vendor in Zacatecas, Mexico.

Figure 5.24 A red variety of

Chenopodium quinoa

Willd. (quinoa).

Figure 5.25 A quinoa field in the Aymara village of Ancovinto, Tarapacá, northern Chile, a village situated 3681 m above sea level that receives less than 200 mm of rainfall annually. January 2013.

Figure 5.26 Examples of biologically active compounds in quinoa from five classes of molecules: (A) flavonoid glycoside, (B) phenolic acid, (C) phytoecdysteroid, (D) phytosterol, and (E) saponin.

Figure 5.27 Ecuadorian fruit compote for children.

Figure 5.28 Maqui fruits.

Figure 5.29 “Rehue” in Araucanía Region of Southern Chile.

Figure 5.30 Variety of colors of quinoa fruits and vegetative parts.

Figure 5.31 Variation in quinoa seed color.

Figure 5.32 The structure scheme shows (A) betalamic acid, the chromophore and precursor of all betalains; (B) betanidin, the aglycone of most of the betacyanins; and (C) indicaxanthin, a proline‐containing betaxanthin.

Chapter 06

Figure 6.1 Political map of Asia

Figure 6.2 A farmer dries his rice in the high mountains of Bhutan.

Figure 6.3 A woman sells medicinal herbs at a market in Central Asia.

Figure 6.4 Field of rapeseed (

Brassica napus

) in bloom.

Figure 6.5 A US Marine greets opium farmers in their poppy field in Helmand province, Afghanistan (US Marine Corps photo by Cpl. Marco Mancha).

Figure 6.6 (A) Farmers in the distance tend to their rice fields near Nha Trang, Vietnam; (B) a load of rice travels down the Mekong.

Figure 6.7 Timeline of Chinese history including dynasties and important historical developments.

Figure 6.8 Wasabi for sale in Japan. True wasabi comes from the enlarged stems of

Wasabia japonica

and is not generally available outside Japan.

Figure 6.9 A woman in Cambodia working on a lacquered vase.

Figure 6.10 Buddha’s hand, a variety of citron (

Citrus medica

L.)

Figure 6.11 Traditional Dai people’s festival cake.

Figure 6.12

Gmelina arborea

flowers

Figure 6.13 Structures of compounds isolated from

G. arborea

flowers: acylated iridoid glycosides (A) and verbascoside (B).

Figure 6.14 (A)

Piper betle

leaves and (B) areca nuts for sale at a market in Hoi An, Vietnam.

Figure 6.15 Betel quid preparation in Myanmar.

Figure 6.16 A Vietnamese woman with blackened teeth.

Figure 6.17 Structure of tannins that cause teeth blackening: (A) condensed tannin; (B) arecatannin B1.

Figure 6.18 Pyridine alkaloids from areca palm (

Areca catechu

L.) seeds.

Figure 6.19

A. absinthium

.

Figure 6.20 Structure of the sesquiterpene lactone artemisinin, determined by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1975.

Figure 6.21 Diagnosis of jaundice by checking color of the eye.

Figure 6.22 Meitei healer preparing for ear candling.

Figure 6.23 One healer reading from the transcribed ancient medicinal texts.

Figure 6.24 Putative active components of

M. maderaspatana

: (A) ursolic acid, (B) luteolin, (C) eugenol;

P. fraternus,

(D) phyllanthin, (E) hypophyllanthin; and

A. paniculata

, (F) andrographolide, (G) andrographiside, and (H) neoandrographolide.

Figure 6.25

Betula utilis

D. Don; local name

Bhojpatra

; synonyms,

B. bhojpatra

Wall. and

B. jacquemontii

Spach; family, Betulaceae; leaves alternate, ovate‐elliptic, or rhomboid, with irregularly serrated margins; flowering and fruiting: June‐September; grows along with small shrubs and herbs in alpine regions with an altitude of 3000–3600 m. (A) Tree and (B) flowering twig; (C) chemical structure of betulin.

Figure 6.26

Quercus oblongata

D. Don; local name

Banj

; syn.

Q. leucotrichophora

,

Q. incana

; Fagaceae. Evergreen tree, 20–30 m high, leaves sharply toothed, 6–15 cm long, dense white‐wooly hairs on the underside. Flowers arranged in catkins; male catkins are woolly‐haired. Nuts are ovoid, approximately 1.5 cm, half covered by the involucral cup at maturity; flowering and fruiting April–June. Found in alpine regions with altitude 1700–2400 m. (A) Tree and (B) fruiting twig; chemical structure of (C) catechin and (D) gallic acid.

Figure 6.27 Neem tree (

Azadirachta indica

) and foliage.

Figure 6.28 Chemical structure of azadirachtin and 3‐tigloylazadirachtol, the primary insecticidal principles in neem seeds (Tig = tigloyl = (E)‐2‐methyl‐2‐butenoyl; Ac = acetate).

Chapter 07

Figure 7.1 Political map of Europe

Figure 7.2 Vineyard on the banks of the Rhine River, Germany.

Figure 7.3 (A) Field of cultivated hops near Munich, Germany; (B) wild hops growing near Rust, Germany.

Figure 7.4 (A) Poison hemlock (

Conium maculatum

) flowers, Lincolnshire, England. (B) henbane (

Hyoscyamus niger

) growing in Suomenlinna Fortress near Helsinki, Finland. (C) aconite or monk’s hood (

Aconitum napellus

)

Figure 7.5 Foxglove,

Digitalis purpurea

.

Figure 7.6

Lavandula stoechas

.

Figure 7.7 (A) A countrywoman is selling fresh bunches of

Lavandula stoechas

in the district bazaar. (B) The color of infusion prepared from fresh plant.

Figure 7.8 (A) camphor, (B) pulegone.

Figure 7.9 Grayanotoxin structure.

Figure 7.10 Structures of the indole alkaloid gelsemine (A), the tropane alkaloid scopolamine (B), and the sesquiterpenes tutin (C, R1=H) and hyenanchin (C, R1=OH).

Figure 7.11 Jars of “mad honey” are still available for purchase in areas along the Black Sea.

Figure 7.12

Indigofera tinctoria

.

Figure 7.13

Isatis tinctoria

.

Figure 7.14 Illustration of German woad mill in Thuringia from Daniel Gottfried Schreber's book on woad.

Figure 7.15 Indigo dye cake.

Figure 7.16 A girl in Tanzania wearing a traditional indigo‐dyed garment over top of indigo‐dyed denim

Figure 7.17 Chemical constituents of indigo dyes: (A) isatan A, (B) isatan B, (C) indican, (D) indoxyl, and (E) the reduction of indigo to leucoindigo and oxidation back to indigo.

Figure 7.18 BASF synthetic indigo production plant, 1890.

Figure 7.19 Members of Lamiaceae used as essential oil insecticides include (A) peppermint; (B) rosemary; (C) sage; and (D) thyme.

Figure 7.20 Some major constituents of plant essential oils with insecticidal activity.

Chapter 08

Figure 8.1 Map of Oceania with Indonesia, Philippines, and China (courtesy of United States Central Intelligence Agency).

Figure 8.2 Rainbow eucalyptus (

Eucalyptus deglupta

Blume), native to New Guinea.

Figure 8.3 Noni fruit (

Morinda citrifolia

).

Figure 8.4 Pandan or screwpine fruit (

Pandanus

sp.) growing in Moreton Bay, Australia.

Figure 8.5 Breadfruit (

Artocarpus altilis

).

Figure 8.6 Coconut palm (

Cocos nucifera

) on the island of Hawaii.

Figure 8.7 (A) Banana in cross section; and (B & C) longitudinal section showing the ovarian cavity with abundance of seeds and reduced mesocarp compared to cultivated varieties.

Figure 8.8 Bunch of wild bananas (

Musa

sp.)

Figure 8.9 Wild banana is an important treatment for acute diarrhea in children throughout the tropics.

Figure 8.10 Wild banana phytobezoars (up to 5 cm diameter) extracted from the intestine of a Laotian man. Slesak

et al

. 2011.

Figure 8.11 Young women preparing kava in a bowl, Samoa c. 1899

Figure 8.12 Structure six bioactive kavalactones: (A) methysticin; (B) dihydromethysticin; (C) kavain; (D) dihydrokavain; (E) yangonin; and (F) desmethoxyyangonin.

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Ethnobotany

A Phytochemical Perspective

Edited by B. M. Schmidt and D. M. Klaser Cheng

This edition first published 2017© 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of B. M. Schmidt and D. M. Klaser Cheng to be identified as the editors of this work/of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

Registered OfficesJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication data applied for

ISBN ‐ 9781118961902

Cover Image: Courtesy of Professor Ilya RaskinCover Design: Wiley

List of Contributors

C. CalfíoFacultad de Química y Biología Universidad de Santiago de ChileSantiago, Chile

D. M. Klaser ChengVisiting ScientistRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, New Jersey, USA

M. D. ChoudhuryDepartment of Life Science and BioinformaticsAssam UniversitySilchar, Assam, India

P. ChuDepartment of Plant Biology and Pathology, SEBSRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, New Jersey, USA

K. Cubillos‐RobleFacultad de Química y BiologíaUniversidad de Santiago de ChileSantiago, Chile

H. Aguayo‐CumplidoFacultad de Recursos Naturales Renovables Universidad Arturo Prat Iquique, Chile

J. Delatorre‐HerreraFacultad de Recursos Naturales RenovablesUniversidad Arturo PratIquique, Chile

M. H. GracePlants for Human Health InstituteNorth Carolina State UniversityKannapolis, North Carolina, USA

B. L. GrafDepartment of Plant Biology and Pathology, SEBSRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, New Jersey, USA

W. GuKey Laboratory of Economic Plants and BiotechnologyKunming Institute of BotanyChinese Academy of SciencesKunming, China.

M. IsmanFaculty of Land and Food SystemsUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, British Columbia, Canada

C. Jofré‐JimenezFacultad de Química y Biología Universidad de Santiago de ChileSantiago, Chile

J. KelloggPlants for Human Health InstituteNorth Carolina State UniversityKannapolis, North Carolina, USA

S. KhatoonPharmacognosy and Ethnopharmacology DivisionCSIR‐National Botanical Research InstituteLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

P. LiKey Laboratory of Economic Plants and BiotechnologyKunming Institute of BotanyChinese Academy of SciencesKunming, Yunnan, China

M. A. LilaPlants for Human Health InstituteNorth Carolina State UniversityKannapolis, North Carolina, USA

C. LongKunming Institute of BotanyChinese Academy of SciencesKunming, Yunnun, China

B. M. SchmidtL'Oreal USAClark, New Jersey, USA

D. S. NingombamDepartment of Life SciencesManipur UniversityImphal, Manipur, India

S. S. NingthoujamDepartment of BotanyGhanapriya Women’s CollegeImphal, Manipur, India

K. S. PotsangbamDepartment of Life SciencesManipur UniversityImphal, Manipur, India

I. RaskinDepartment of Plant Biology and Pathology, SEBSRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, New Jersey, USA

L. E. RojoFacultad de Química y Biología Universidad de Santiago de ChileSantiago, Chile

H. SinghPlant Diversity, Systematics and Herbarium DivisionCSIR—National Botanical Research InstituteLucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

P. J. SmithDivision of PharmacologyUniversity of Cape Town Medical SchoolCape Town, South Africa

A. D. TalukdarDepartment of Life Science and BioinformaticsAssam UniversitySilchar, Assam, India

A. Troncoso‐FonsecaFacultad de Química y Biología Universidad de Santiago de ChileSantiago, Chile

T. B. TumerFaculty of Arts and SciencesDepartment of Molecular Biology and GeneticsÇanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Terzioglu Campus,Çanakkale, Turkey

Foreword

Science, especially with the rise of the ‐omics technologies, has made amazing strides to decipher and elucidate the capacity of plants to synthesize and accumulate natural products that are uniquely capable of interfacing with human therapeutic targets to prevent or treat chronic human diseases. However, these revelations made in the modern scientific community would hardly come as a surprise to many indigenous communities, who have relied on well‐known, highly potent medicinal plants for centuries. Modern science has only recently allowed us to characterize the phytochemical structures that provide anti‐inflammatory or chemopreventive relief to humans, or to discern their mechanisms of action, but the traditional ecological knowledge of native communities has both channeled the search for phytoactive compounds and guided tests for safety and efficacy based on long history of human use. This book illustrates how traditional ethnobotany enriches the scientific discovery process, and in turn, how science validates and reinforces the wisdom of the elders.

Mary Ann LilaDirector, Plants for Human Health InstituteDavid H. Murdock Distinguished ProfessorFood Bioprocessing & Nutrition SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityNorth Carolina, USA

Preface

The Purpose of This Book

Both lead authors/editors and all contributing authors work in the fields of ethnobotany and/or phytochemistry. We wrote this book to help bridge the gap between the two fields of study and to bring about new collaborations and discoveries. A range of applications from around the world is presented, illustrating many areas of relevance and importance to phytochemical research. In industry, there is an ongoing initiative to discover new molecules from nature with a specific usefulness, be it nutritional, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, dyes, and so on. But there are not many reference books that describe the traditional use of a plant and also explain the chemistry at work “behind the scenes.” Existing ethnobotany textbooks and reference books tend to focus on the anthropological side of ethnobotany, often ignoring phytochemistry altogether. They offer information on how a plant was used, but fall short of describing why a plant produces the observed effects. There are many edited reference books available that contain only case studies, with each contributing author following their own format. Occasionally the case studies stray far from the topic at hand or provide little background information. There are a few quality ethnobotany reference books on the market with a focus on phytochemistry, but the case studies need to be updated. This book features relevant, modern case studies in a uniform format that will be easy for the reader to follow. It also contains basic information on ethnobotany and phytochemistry, as tools to understand the information presented in the case studies and published ethnobotany research articles in general.

Target Audience

This book is intended as a reference book for an upper‐level undergraduate‐ or graduate‐level ethnobotany or phytochemistry course. Basic organic chemistry knowledge will be required to fully understand the phytochemistry. However, the book is still useful for readers without a chemistry background who are interested in ethnobotany. Industry scientists may use this book to gain a basic understanding of ethnobotany and phytochemistry and to become familiar with recent research for their position in the pharmaceutical, personal care, food, nutrition, or raw materials industry.

Inclusions and Exclusions

One of the most difficult tasks when writing a book is deciding where to draw the boundaries. What information will be included and what will be excluded? This book focuses on examples of ethnobotany where phytochemistry plays a role in the observed effects or activities. Therefore, aspects of ethnobotany that cannot easily be explained by science (such as supernatural or religious uses) and aspects that have only limited connections to phytochemistry (such as art and building materials) are not covered in depth. Unfortunately, fungi, microalgae, and other “lower plants” are not covered, although there are case studies on macroalgae and duckweed. There are thousands of cultural groups that all deserve mention for their ethnobotanical ingenuity, but there are not enough pages in this book to mention everyone. Readers may notice that this book does not include many long lists of bioactivities described for a specific plant. It seems that, even when studying the use of one plant by one cultural group, the list of uses is extensive, in some cases ranging from snakebite treatment to liver tonic with 20 other remedies in between. The task of deciding which activities to include usually came down to how often the plant and activity in question were mentioned in respected publications (journal articles, pharmacopoeias, historical texts, etc.). Please use the provided references for additional in‐depth information, as this book provides just the tip of the iceberg on many topics.

The first section of the book contains a mini‐course on botany and phytochemistry written by the lead authors. It should provide the reader with tools to understand the case studies and other related literature. The largest section in the ethnobotany chapter is “Taxonomy” (page 21). Families are arranged using the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) III phylogenetic classification system. The chapter describes hundreds of ethnobotanical plants, why they are important, their primary uses and/or activities, and active phytochemicals. Understanding taxonomy is essential if you want to make new phytochemical discoveries. You may notice that plants in the same family and closely related families tend to produce similar phytochemicals. So, for example, if you were searching for new isoquinolone alkaloids, you would be wise to investigate plants from families where they are known to occur such as Berberidaceae, Euphorbiaceae, or Ranunculaceae. We made every attempt to include the class of molecule with chemical names, to aid in further research.

Some may consider the case studies in Part II the most interesting part of the book. Most of the case studies were written by contributing authors in their field of expertise. The lead authors wrote the regional introductions and a few of the case studies as well. Many of the cases are cutting‐edge research at the time of publication. Others tell in‐depth stories of plants that had a huge impact on society.

Words of Caution

Scientific literature quickly becomes out of date and this textbook is no exception. What may have been state of the art or common knowledge at the time of publication may give way to new ways of thinking. Taxonomy is one important example. Plant names and classifications change quickly. Please take care to check the currently accepted names using a respected database, such as The Plant List by Royal Botanic Gardens Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden. Another problem area is plant centers of diversity/origin. Many scientists still use Russian botanist Nikolai Vavilov’s 1940 work, The theory of origins of cultivated plants after Darwin as a reference. But new discoveries in archaeology, paleobotany, and molecular genetics have proved a number of Vavilov’s assumptions incorrect. Along the same lines, the authors have carefully attempted to provide accurate information regarding historical use of plants. Quite frequently, date agreement is a problem. Occasionally, a reference claimed that an ancient culture used a plant species plant that was not native to the region and was not introduced until hundreds to thousands of years later. This problem typically occurs when an author is either not familiar with botany or when there has been disagreement as to a plant’s origins.

The final lesson for anyone reading this book comes from a quote attributed to Albert Einstein: “The more I learn, the more I realize how much I don’t know.” Both ethnobotany and phytochemistry are immense fields of study with so much more to be discovered. We hope readers will go away somewhat dissatisfied, with a desire to learn more about a particular plant or culture.

Acknowledgments

We would like to give special thanks to our academic advisors who helped guide us as young scientists, especially David Seigler at the University of Illinois, Mary Ann Lila at North Carolina State University, and Ilya Raskin at Rutgers University. Alain Touwaide from the Institute for the Preservation of Medical Traditions at the Smithsonian Institution provided valuable information and editing for the first chapter of the book. Furthermore, this book would not have been possible without the generous contributions from all the contributing authors, photographers, and technical experts. Please accept our sincere gratitude for the work you put into your chapters and your willingness to share your botanical photos with the world. Finally, we would like to thank our families for their patience and support as we spent many hours working on this book.

Part IIntroduction to Ethnobotany and Phytochemistry

1Ethnobotany

B. M. Schmidt

Key Terms and Concepts

Ethnobotany is the scientific study of the relationship between plants and people. It includes traditional and modern knowledge of plants used for medicine, food, fibers, building materials, art, cosmetics, dyes, agrochemicals, fuel, religion, rituals, and magic. A broader definition also includes how people classify, identify, and relate to plants along with reciprocal interactions of plants and people. In many ways, ethnobotany is a product of European curiosity with the New World and other native peoples encountered during their exploration voyages starting in the fifteenth century. Before the American botanist John Harshberger coined the term “ethnobotany” in 1896, “aboriginal botany” was used to describe European interest in the way aboriginal people used plants for medicine, food, textiles, and so on. Many European exploration missions were undertaken with the sole purpose of exploring natural and cultural wonders (see Captain Cook’s breadfruit voyages, Chapter 1, the section titled “Moraceae: Mulberry Family”), often followed by colonial or imperialist expeditions. Early explorers, missionaries, clergy, physicians, traditional healers, historians, botanists, anthropologists, and phytochemists have all contributed to the field of ethnobotany. Botany is the study of plants (Kingdom Plantae) including physiology, morphology, genetics, ecology, distribution, taxonomy, and economic importance. Sometimes fungi (Kingdom Fungi) are included in botany, but for the purposes of this book, they will not be covered.

Ethnobiology is a multidisciplinary field that studies the relationships of people and their environment, which includes plants and animals. Ethnobotany could be considered a specialized branch of ethnobiology. There are several specialized branches of ethnobotany that focus on one particular aspect of the field. Ethnomedicine focuses on traditional medicine including diagnostic and healing practices along with herbal medicines. Ethnopharmacology is the study of the uses, modes of action, and biological effects of plant‐based medicines, stimulants, or psychoactive herbs. Economic botany is closely related to ethnobotany. The main distinction is that economic botany focuses on applied economic, agricultural, or commercial aspects of human uses of plants, but does not deeply explore traditional cultures, the “ethno” side of ethnobotany. Economic botany studies often have the goal of developing new plant‐derived products, which may or may nor be based on traditional uses, while ethnobotany studies may simply document facts about plant use when there is no prospect of commercial gain.

Ethnobotanists use a variety of tools for their scientific investigations including historical texts, surveys, interviews, and field observations of human–plant interaction. They typically collaborate with indigenous people or local scientists to make an inventory of local natural resources, identifying which plants are useful and in what way. Biocultural diversity is the total variety exhibited by the world’s natural and cultural systems. It includes both the biodiversity index (the diversity of plants, animals, habitats, and ecosystems), and the cultural diversity index (diversity of human cultures and languages). Biodiversity is measured by dividing the number of distinct species in an area by the total number of individuals in the area. Cultural diversity can be calculated by dividing the number of distinct languages, religions, and ethnic groups in an area by the number of total individuals in the area. Hot spots of biocultural diversity include Central Africa, Malesia, and the Amazon Basin.

Phytochemistry is the study of plant natural products. Natural products include both primary metabolites (e.g., amino acids, carbohydrates, and fats) and secondary metabolites (e.g., alkaloids, carotenoids, and polyphenols). Phytochemistry also encompasses plant biosynthetic pathways and metabolism, plant genetics, plant physiology, chemical ecology, and plant ecology. It can be considered either a branch of chemistry or botany, depending on whether the scientist and/or research program focuses more on the plant or the chemicals.

Historically, there has been a significant gap between the fields of ethnobotany and phytochemistry. Ethnobotanists are often great anthropologists, with rich knowledge of traditional cultures, texts, and historical context. They provide valuable plant inventories in vulnerable areas and are particularly interested in the cultural role of plants. But when it comes to phytochemistry, the fundamental nature of how a plant works as a biologic (drug, stimulant, etc.), what properties make it a good building material or fiber, or why one natural dye requires a mordant and another does not, they frequently provide superficial answers. Therefore, their publications or presentations will often stop short of describing the chemistry behind the traditional use. Phytochemists, on the other hand, have a thorough grasp of the chemical nature of plants, from the biosynthetic pathways to the effects of the environment on the production of secondary metabolites, to the metabolism of phytochemicals in the human body. Often, they have a background in botany, with a picture of how plants are related and function on the basis of their common chemistries. But they lack training in anthropology or linguistics, with limited awareness of the historical and cultural context of plants. Collaboration between these two groups of scientists is essential to present the whole story of how valuable plants are to our society. More and more, university programs are preparing ethnobotanists and phytochemists with tools from both disciplines. Together, with the common goal of preserving biocultural diversity and promoting social well‐being, we can make the best use of our natural resources.

Ethnobotany throughout History

Humans have been using plants since before recorded history. Our earliest relatives gathered plants to use as food, medicine, fibers, and building materials, passing on their knowledge through oral traditions. Agriculture, the practice of producing crops and raising livestock, came about independently in different regions of the world 10,000–15,000 years ago. Botanical knowledge was a great advantage in ancient civilizations, as it conferred a greater chance of survival. Many ancient scholars took a keen interest in botany, publishing herbals that contained botanical information, as well as plants’ usefulness. With this information, a person could identify a plant in the wild or in a garden and also know how to use it.

Ethnobotany as a science did not come about until more modern times. While people historically had a close connection to plants and many scholars studied botany, few studied the botanical knowledge of a social group until the twentieth century. The following are a few of the influential botanical scholars and texts that helped disperse ethnobotanical knowledge throughout the ages.

Early Botanical Figures and Texts (Antiquity–500 CE)

Egypt, Greece, and Rome

The mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt (c. 1508–1458 BCE) at Deir el‐Bahri depicts a trade expedition to the region of Punt. This is one of the earliest documentations of botanical trade. Her ships returned with myrrh trees, among other treasures. Scholars believe she died of bone cancer, which may have been caused by inadvertently using a carcinogenic skin salve composed of palm oil, nutmeg apple oil, and creosote. Creosote contains benzo(a)pyrene, which is highly carcinogenic. Her story provides a glimpse into the extent of botanical knowledge over 3500 years ago.

Around the same time (c. 1500 BCE), the Egyptian Papyrus Ebers (Figure 1.1) was written. It is considered the oldest book of botanical knowledge, a collection of old folk medicine that was likely copied from books that were hundreds of years older. The papyrus was found in a tomb along with another medical text, the Edwin Smith Papyrus. Numerous herbal remedies are listed, such as Acanthus, aloe, balsam, barley, beans, caraway, cedar, castor oil, coriander, dates, figs, garlic, grapes, indigo, juniper, linseed, myrrh, onions, palm, pomegranate, poppy, saffron, turpentine, watermelon, wheat, willow, and zizyphus lotus.

Figure 1.1 Papyrus Ebers, column 38.

© 2009, Einsamer Schütze.

Hippocrates (c. 460–350 BCE) was a Greek physician, often called the Father of Western Medicine. The Hippocratic Collection, a compilation of treatises containing medical remedies and most notably the Hippocratic Oath, was attributed to Hippocrates in ancient times. However, scholars now believe the Hippocratic Collection was actually written by several authors, perhaps medical scholars from different schools.

Theophrastus (c. 372–287 BCE) was the student of Aristotle and is known as the Father of Botany. After Aristotle’s death, he inherited Aristotle’s library and garden. Two of his most notable works are Peri phytôn historia also known by the Latin title, De historia plantarum, “Inquiry into Plants” (ten books) and Peri phytôn aitiôn, “The Causes of Plants” (eight books). Theophrastus described roughly 500 plant species, classifying them into four groups: herbs, undershrubs, shrubs, and trees. He noted many anatomical differences and separated flowering from non‐flowering plants. Many of the names he gave to plants are still used today.

Pliny the Elder’s publication of Historia Naturalis (c. 77–79 CE) built upon Theophrastus’s work, but De Materia Medica (c. 70 CE) by the Roman physician Pedanios Dioscorides (c. 40–90 CE) (Figure 1.2) became the authoritative text on botany and medicinal plants for the next 1500 years. Dioscorides traveled as a surgeon with the Roman army, which allowed him to study the features of many medicinal plants. He advocated observing plants in their natural environment, during all stages of growth. Materia Medica describes 600 species of medicinal plants, including 100 not described by Theophrastus. These plants include opium and Mandragora (mandrake root) as surgical anesthetics, willow for pain relief, and henna for shampoo. Numerous drugs, spices, oils, cosmetics, and beverages still in use today were mentioned in Materia Medica. Dioscorides’ work became the foundation for modern botany. He formed the connection between plants and medicine, which eventually gave rise to ethnobotany. De Materia Medica was widely copied and translated into Arabic and Latin through the Middle Ages.

Figure 1.2 Portrait of Dioscorides receiving a mandrake root in an early sixth‐century copy of De Materia Medica.

Claudius Galen (c. 129–199), a Greek physician who brought about “Galenic medicine,” is another notable figure of this time period. He wrote De Alimentorum Facultatibus, “On the Properties of Foodstuffs,” a physiological treatise rather than a materia medica. He described a wide range of plants for food and medicine, for all classes of citizens. Some of his works were translated into Arabic and influenced Islamic medicine.

China

Chinese botanical legends date back farther than Queen Hatshepsut, but lack the same documentation. Chinese Emperor Shen Nong (Figure 1.3) was a legendary ruler of China. Although he may or may not have been a true historical figure, he is considered the founder of Chinese Herbal Medicine. Legend says that he wrote Pen Ts’ao Ching, “Great Herbal,” in 2700 BCE. Modern researchers believe it was actually a compilation of oral traditions, written around 200–300 CE. The original text is no longer in existence, but it was said to be a catalog of 365 medicines from plants, minerals, and animals that formed the foundation of Chinese medicine. Emperor Shen Nong is credited with the discovery of tea when a tea leaf accidentally landed in his pot of boiling water. He taught his people to plow the land and cultivate grains. Legend says that his love for plants lead to his demise, as he was poisoned by a toxic plant.

Figure 1.3 Shennong, one of the mythical emperors of China, Indian ink on silk by Xu Jetian.

The oldest known traditional Chinese medicine text, Huangdi Neijing, “Yellow Emperor‘s Cannon” (c. 300–100 BCE), predates Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica. Two influential herbalists emerged during the Han Dynasty (c. 202 BCE–220 CE), Zhang Zhongjing and Hua Tuo. Zhang Zhongjing (c. 150 CE–219 CE) was a physician, the Hippocrates of China and the Father of Medical Prescriptions. His text Shang Han Lun, “Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders,” contains remedies still used in Chinese medicine today. It is one of four books students of Chinese medicine are required to study. Zhang Zhongjing advocated treatment according to symptoms, using a combination of acupuncture and herbs. Hua Tuo (c. 140–208 CE) was a physician best known for introducing the use of wine and hemp (Ma Fei San) for surgical anesthesia. There is speculation among scholars that Ma Fei San may have actually contained more potent anesthetics such as opium or other powerful alkaloids from Datura, Aconitum, or Mandragora species.

India

Ayurveda, Indian naturalistic medicine, came about sometime during the sixth century BCE. The Saṃhitâs or “collections” are the main source of recorded knowledge for Ayurveda. The chronology remains unclear, but three primary Sanskrit texts were written c. 100 BCE–600 CE: the Charaka Samhita (c. 100 BCE–100 CE), Suśrutha Saṃhitâ (c. 300–400 CE), and Bheda Samhita (c. 600 CE). Excerpts from the Bheda Samhita are found in the medical portions of the Bower Manuscript (c. 400–600 CE), a birch bark document discovered by British intelligence officer Hamilton Bower in 1890. It also remains unclear if Charaka, Suśrutha, and Bheda were historical figures or divine beings, but they were likely not the authors of the manuscripts that bear their names.

The Middle Ages (500–1500 CE)

Europe and the Arabo‐Islamic World

Little progress was made in European botany during the Middle Ages, as manuscripts were destroyed during wars and the fall of the Roman Empire. But it was during this time period that Islamic botany began to thrive. Islam was widespread, and there was extensive travel throughout northern Africa, India, and the Middle East. Abû Ḥanîfa Dînawarî or “Al‐Dinawari” (c. 828–896) is considered the founder of Arabic botany for his publication Kitab al‐nabat, “Book of Plants.” The first section of the book contains an alphabetical list of plants, mostly from the Arabian Peninsula. The second section contains monographs of plants and their uses. Al‐Dinawari’s “Book of Plants” became the authority on Arabic plant names. Ibn Juljul (c. 944–1009) built upon the work of Dioscorides, publishing a supplement titled Maqalah containing 60 plants not mentioned by Dioscorides. Ibn Sina “Avicenna” (c. 981–1037) was considered the father of early modern medicine. His Qanun (Canon) of Medicine (1025 CE) (Figure 1.4) is an encyclopedia of medicine based in part on Galen’s work from the first century. Book two is a materia medica that describes, among other things, plant‐based drug treatments for disease. Book five is a formulary of compounded drugs.

Figure 1.4Kitâb al‐Qânûn fî al‐ṭibb (The Canon on Medicine) by ibn Sînâ.

Al‐Ghafiqi was born near Córdoba, Spain (c. 1100–1165) during the Muslim rule of the Iberian Peninsula. He was an influential physician and medical author, publishing Kitab al‐jami' fi ‘l‐adwiya al‐mufrada, “Book of Simples,” and a Materia Medica manual. “Book of Simples” included plants not mentioned in any Greek text or Middle Eastern publications. His Materia Medica is considered one of the best from the Middle Ages. Al‐Idrisi (c. 1100–1166) was born in Morocco, lived and studied in Spain, and traveled extensively throughout the region. He knew many languages and botanical names. In his Jami' on Materia Medica, he names botanical drugs in Spanish, Arabic, Berber, Hebrew, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. Ibn al‐Suri (c. 1177–1242) was another physician botanist that traveled extensively. Accompanied by an artist, he documented plants throughout the region, especially in the Lebanon range. His Materia Medica contained paintings of plants at different stages in their life cycles and as they looked dried on a pharmacist’s shelf. It was the first Arabic book illustrated in color. Ibn al‐Baytar (c. 1197–1248) was an outstanding Islamic herbalist of the Middle Ages. Born in Malaga Spain, he studied in Seville and published several notable books including Al‐Mughni fi al‐Adwiyah, “The Sufficient”; Al‐Kitab ‘l‐jami' fi ‘l‐aghdiya wa‐'l‐adwiyah al‐mufradah, “The Comprehensive Book of Foods and Simple Remedies”; and a Materia Medica. He concentrated on “simples,” one‐ingredient drugs and remedies. “The Comprehensive Book of Foods and Simple Remedies” contained 3,000 simples listed in alphabetic order. As its title suggests, it was the most comprehensive encyclopedia of simples in the Middle Ages.

There are few (non‐Islamic) European botanists worth mentioning from the Middle Ages. Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179) was a German nun who wrote medical texts including Physica, based on her experiences in the monastery herb garden. Matthaeus Platearius (?–1161), an Italian physician from the medical school in Salerno, wrote Liber de Simplici Medicina