Evidence Based Coaching Handbook E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 797

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2010

Beschreibung

The first reference to bring scientifically proven approaches to the practice of personal and executive coaching

The Evidence Based Coaching Handbook applies recent behavioral science research to executive and personal coaching, bringing multiple disciplines to bear on why and how coaching works. A groundbreaking resource for this burgeoning profession, this text presents several different coaching approaches along with the empirical and theoretical knowledge base supporting each.

Recognizing the special character of coaching-that the coaching process is non-medical, collaborative, and highly contextual-the authors lay out an evidence-based coaching model that allows practitioners to integrate their own expertise and the needs of their individual clients with the best current knowledge. This gives coaches the ability to better understand and optimize their own coaching interventions, while not having to conform to a single, rigidly defined practice standard.

The Evidence Based Coaching Handbook looks at various approaches and applies each to the same two case studies, demonstrating through this practical comparison the methods, assumptions, and concepts at work in the different approaches.

The coverage includes:

• An overview: a contextual model of coaching approaches
• Systems and complexity theory
• The behavioral perspective
• The humanistic perspective
• Cognitive coaching
• Adult development theory
• An integrative, goal-focused approach
• Psychoanalytically informed coaching
• Positive psychology
• An adult learning approach
• An adventure-based framework
• Culture and coaching

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgements

Contributors

Introduction

THE NATURE OF COACHING

TOWARD AN INFORMED-PRACTITIONER MODEL OF PROFESSIONAL COACHING

WHAT IS EVIDENCE-BASED COACHING?

OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS

REFERENCES

PART I - Single-Theory Perspectives

CHAPTER 1 - Coaching from the Humanistic Perspective

KEY CONCEPTS FROM HUMANISTIC APPROACHES

EVIDENCE FROM RESEARCH ON HUMANISTIC APPROACHES

HUMANISTIC APPLICATIONS IN COACHING

THE HUMANISTIC GUIDE TO COACHING

CASE STUDIES FROM THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 2 - People Are Complex and the World Is Messy: A Behavior-Based ...

KEY CONCEPTS

CASE STUDY—BONITA

CASE STUDY—BONITA REVISITED

EVIDENCE FOR EFFECTIVENESS

PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 3 - Adult Development Theory and Executive Coaching Practice

CONSTRUCTIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES OF ADULT DEVELOPMENT

USING DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES IN EXECUTIVE COACHING

CASE STUDIES

USING ADULT DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES FOR SELF-ASSESSMENT AND SELF-DEVELOPMENT

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 4 - Cognitive Coaching

BACKGROUND ON COGNITIVE THERAPY

THE SCHEMA CONSTRUCT IN TERMS OF COGNITIVE COACHING

COGNITIVE COACHING FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS

ACTION SCIENCE, MENTAL MODELS, AND THE LADDER OF INFERENCE

COGNITIVE THERAPY AND ACTION SCIENCE CONTRIBUTE TO COACHING

MENTAL MODELS

LADDER OF INFERENCE

APPLYING COGNITIVE COACHING TO THE CASE OF BOB

UNDERSTANDING BONITA THROUGH THE EYES OF THE COACH

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 5 - Psychoanalytically Informed Executive Coaching

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR PSYCHOANALYTICALLY INFORMED COACHING

USE OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY IN EXECUTIVE COACHING

INTERPERSONAL WORLD OF OBJECT RELATIONS

OBJECT RELATIONS AND COACHING

SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTERTRANSFERENCE IN UNDERSTANDING THE WORKPLACE

CREATING CHANGE—USING TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTERTRANSFERENCE AS THE BASIS FOR ...

CASE STUDIES

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

PART II - Integrative and Cross-Theory Approaches

CHAPTER 6 - An Integrative Goal-Focused Approach to Executive Coaching

ISSUES RELATED TO BEHAVIORAL SELF-MONITORING

A SOLUTIONS FOCUS

GOAL SETTING: THE “HOW” OF GOALS

SELF-CONCORDANT GOALS: THE “WHY” OF GOAL-FOCUSED COACHING

MODELS OF TRANSITION, CHANGE, AND GOAL-FOCUSED COACHING

CASE CONCEPTUALIZATION AND GOALS

CASE STUDIES

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 7 - An Adult Learning Approach to Coaching

KEY CONCEPTS IN ADULT LEARNING

IMPACT—A MODEL FOR COACHING

CASE STUDIES

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 8 - Positive Psychology: The Science at the Heart of Coaching

RESEARCH EVIDENCE FROM POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FOR COACHING

TRIAGE FOR HAPPINESS: THE AUTHENTIC HAPPINESS COACHING MODEL

USING AUTHENTIC HAPPINESS COACHING IN A SESSION

CONCLUSION

APPENDIX: TESTS USED IN AUTHENTIC HAPPINESS COACHING

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 9 - Coaching from a Cultural Perspective

KEY CONCEPTS AND ASSUMPTIONS OF CULTURAL COACHING

CULTURAL APPROACH TO CASE STUDIES

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 10 - An Adventure-Based Framework for Coaching

FOUNDATIONS OF ADVENTURE

DEFINING THE ADVENTURE

RISK AND UNCERTAINTY: THE ESSENCE OF THE ADVENTURE

PROCESSING THE ADVENTURE: FRAMEWORKS FOR COACHING CONVERSATIONS

METAPHORS AND ISOMORPHS: KEYS TO LEARNING TRANSFER THROUGH COACHING

CRITICAL COACH COMPETENCIES FOR ADVENTURE PROGRAMMING

ADVENTURE INITIATIVES AS A GROUP-BASED COACHING LABORATORY

THE EMERGENCE OF ADVENTURE THERAPY

TOWARD A MODEL OF ADVENTURE-BASED COACHING

ADVENTURE COACHING FUNNEL

CASE STUDIES

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 11 - Coaching from a Systemic Perspective: A Complex Adaptive Conversation

SYSTEMS THEORY BACKGROUND

WHAT IS A COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEM (CAS)?

HOLISM AND INTERDEPENDENCE

OPENNESS, TRANSFORMATION, AND ENTROPY

DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM AND THE EDGE OF CHAOS

AGENCY, EMERGENCE, AND FEEDBACK

ATTRACTORS AND SENSITIVITY TO INITIAL CONDITIONS

ENGAGING WITH THE UNPREDICTABLE AND UNCONTROLLABLE NATURE OF COMPLEX SYSTEMS

INDIVIDUALS AND ORGANIZATIONS AS CONVERSATIONS

THE IMPORTANCE OF EMOTION FOR THE FREE FLOW OF INFORMATION

A DYNAMIC MODEL OF THE COACHING ENGAGEMENT

DEVELOPING CONVERSATIONAL FITNESS—THE TASK OF COACHING AND A TASK FOR COACHES

COACHING CASE STUDIES

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 12 - Toward a Contextual Approach to Coaching Models

THE MEDICAL MODEL AND COACHING

THE CONTEXTUAL MODEL AS A META-MODEL FOR COACHING: THEMES AND PRINCIPLES

THE CONTEXTUAL MODEL IN EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE

AN INTEGRATION OF CORE COACHING PRINCIPLES ACROSS PERSPECTIVES: SEVEN ...

THE ROLE OF EXPERT KNOWLEDGE IN COACHING

CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

APPENDIX - Workplace and Executive Coaching: A Bibliography from the Scholarly ...

Author Index

Subject Index

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Stober, Dianne R.

Evidence based coaching handbook : putting best practices to work for your clients / by Dianne R. Stober and Anthony M. Grant.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN-13: 978-0-471-72086-7 (cloth) ISBN-10: 0-471-72086-0 (cloth)

1. Personal coaching. 2. Executive coaching. I. Grant, Anthony (Anthony M.) II. Title.

BF637.P36S76 2006

658.3’124—dc22 2005029366

This book is dedicated to

My parents, for starting me on a path of knowledge, to Ben, for walking it with me, and to my children, for taking me down interesting side trails. (DRS)

My family, Georgie, Ben, and Toby, my parents, Eva and Avi, my sisters, Claire and Jane, and in loving memory of my brother, David. I love you all. (AMG)

Preface

AS AN EMERGING area of study, coaching holds many opportunities to contribute to our bases of knowledge. There is knowledge to be gained in applying coaching to the world as we know it. But before we go too far in that direction, there is also the opportunity to apply existing knowledge to the current practice of coaching. This volume is intended to take some initial steps in that direction with the humble hope that this will prove helpful in grounding coaching practice in a wealth of applicable knowledge. This is not a complete picture of existing theories and bodies of knowledge that can inform the development of coaching but does provide at least a range of perspectives. It is our hope that readers of this book will find information that is useful, stimulating, and maybe even challenging for their own development as coaches.

Putting this book together has been an exciting endeavor for us. From our first conversations at a conference about the need for such a book, we have found ourselves in rousing discussions about what the appropriate models are for coaching, what theoretical foundations are essential, and where the next steps lie in the professionalization of coaching. We have each learned much through this project and hope that others will too.

DIANNE R. STOBER ANTHONY M. GRANT

April 2006

Acknowledgments

OF COURSE THERE are a number of acknowledgments we would like to make. There are a number of people without whom this project would have never been possible. Most importantly, we would like to acknowledge the contributing authors for their expertise, willingness to share that knowledge in this format, and their hard work in translating all of this into well-written, useful works. Without them, the breadth and depth of this book would not have been possible.

In addition to the contributing authors, a variety of colleagues and friends have given us feedback, support, and encouragement: Shirley Anderson, Michael Cavanagh, Barclay Hudson, Jenny Schwartz, Leni Wildflower, Patrick Williams, Richard Zackon. Thank you all for your contributions that have made this a better book. Our students at Fielding Graduate University and University of Sydney have given us important feedback, asked great questions, and generally pushed our thinking.

Another important source of support we would like to acknowledge involves those at John Wiley & Sons. David Bernstein not only believed in this project, he also provided keen insights, great encouragement, and those all important reality-checks when things were topsy-turvy or looking grim. Ester Mallach was a source of calm, steady support in the midst of infinite details. Micheline Frederick demonstrated her great capabilities of keeping things rolling along smoothly through production of this book (no small feat!). And the staff at Cape Cod Compositors was indispensable in their thoroughness in helping us through the copyediting process.

There are some individuals who were very personally involved in this project: our families. Our spouses, Ben Slocumb and Georgie Grant, not only supported this work but remained enthusiastic and interested even when it meant late dinners, absent-minded partners, and those “It will just be a few more minutes” white lies. And our children, Hannah Slocumb, Eli Slocumb, Ben Grant, and Toby Grant proved to be patient or distracting as our experience required; we hope we were able to do likewise.

And finally, there are clients who contributed to the development of our and the contributors’ practice and expertise. Without their willingness to engage with us and to share their lives and experience, there would not be any theories to apply or stories to tell.

Contributors

Geoffrey N. Abbott is an executive coach and researcher. He has been based in El Salvador since 2003, where he is completing his doctoral dissertation under scholarship from the Faculty of Economics and Commerce of the Australian National University. He has been working with expatriate managers and studying how coaching might assist cultural adaptation. Geoff’s academic background is in organizational psychology. His related consulting and research interests include the influence of culture and values in the workplace, and—of course—executive coaching. Geoff’s coaching clients in Central America, the United States, and Australia are drawn from the commercial, government, development, and academic sectors. His expertise lies particularly with executives who work in cross-cultural or multicultural contexts. Geoff is an associate with the School of Economics and Business (ESEN) in El Salvador. He was formerly Senior Policy Advisor for SBS Australia, a government-funded national television and radio broadcaster specializing in multicultural programming, where he managed strategic planning and cultural research. He has a keen interest in improving his Spanish and golf.

Seth Allcorn, PhD, is an assistant dean and chief financial officer for the Texas Tech Health Sciences Center School of Medicine. Dr. Allcorn has 20 years of experience working with physicians, hospitals, and academic medical centers. He has served as Associate Dean for Fiscal Affairs at the Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola-Chicago, and as the administrator of the departments of medicine at the University of Missouri-Columbia and University of Rochester schools of medicine. He has worked for 20 years as a part-time and full-time organizational consultant specializing in the management of change, strategic planning, and organizational restructuring. Dr. Allcorn is extensively published. He is the author or co-author of 10 books and over 60 papers that have appeared in scholarly and practitioner journals. He is a founding member of the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organizations.

Dr. Jeffrey E. Auerbach is the founder and president of the College of Executive Coaching, the leader in coach training for professionals with graduate degrees. The College of Executive Coaching is an International Coach Federation Accredited Coach Training Program with courses ongoing worldwide and is based in Pismo Beach, California. Jeffrey is the author of the best-selling Personal and Executive Coaching: The Complete Guide for Mental Health Professionals and Seeing the Light: What Organizations Need to Know—The 2005 State of the Coaching Industry, the editor of Building Competence in Personal and Executive Coaching, and the research director of the 2005 State of the Coaching Industry Project. He is the program committee co-chair of the Tenth International Coach Federation Conference, a steering committee member of the Executive Coaching Summit, on the editorial board of the International Journal of Coaching in Organizations, board of directors member of the Association of Coach Training Organizations, steering committee member of the American Psychological Association Healthy Workplace Awards, a consulting psychologist, a certified personal and executive coach, a professional certified coach, and a master personal and executive coach. Dr. Auerbach is available for keynote presentations and consultations to industry groups on the emerging field of executive coaching.

Jennifer Garvey Berger consults and teaches in the areas of adult development, individual differences, and transformational learning. She teaches coaches about complexity of mind and leadership, and how to use advanced listening and questioning techniques to better understand and support their clients. In her writing and her teaching, Jennifer explores the workplace as one of the major centers of learning for adults, and she uses her research and consulting to help adults think about their work and their workplaces in ways that help them make positive changes. An assistant professor at George Mason University, Jennifer has also taught undergraduate, graduate, and professional development courses at Harvard and Georgetown Universities, among others. As a partner with Kenning Associates, Jennifer works with executives in a variety of industries (e.g., BNSF Railroad, Fidelity Investments, McKinsey & Company, SpectraLink) to help people develop the skills and the perspectives that will make their work more effective. She is co-editor of two books, Acts of Inquiry in Qualitative Research (Harvard Educational Publishing Group, 2000) and Executive Coaching: Practices and Perspectives (Davies-Black, 2002), and is currently writing a book called Thriving in a Complex World: Twenty-First Century Professional Development (Elsevier: Butterworth-Heinemann Business Books, scheduled for publication spring, 2007). Jennifer holds a master’s degree in teaching and learning and a doctorate in adult development from Harvard University.

Michael Cavanagh, PhD, is both a practicing coaching psychologist and an academic. Michael is the deputy director of the Coaching Psychology Unit at the University of Sydney, where he has been involved in the development of the world’s first coaching degree program from its inception to the present day. He is also currently the National Convenor of the Australian Psychological Society’s Interest Group in Coaching Psychology (IGCP) with over 650 members across Australia and internationally. As a practitioner, Michael works with senior leaders in a range of multinational and national organizations. Michael’s coaching practice and teaching emphasize the use of empirically validated techniques and draw on cognitive-behavioral, systemic, and solution-focused approaches. His areas of special interest include coaching in complex systems, communication and interpersonal skills, solution-focused approaches to goal achievement and problem solving, and working with challenging executives.

Elaine Cox leads the MA in Coaching and Mentoring Practice for the Westminster Institute of Education at Oxford Brookes University, and is also now developing a Professional Doctorate in Coaching and Mentoring for the University. She has a master’s degree in continuing education from the University of Warwick and undertook her PhD at Lancaster University exploring the development of mentors in the voluntary sector. In addition, Elaine is editor for the International Journal of Evidence-Based Coaching and Mentoring and is a member of the European Mentoring and Coaching Council’s Ethics and Standards Committee. In addition to her interests in adult learning and development, Elaine is a regular contributor to academic journals. She is currently researching the use of emotion in coaching and is involved in a collaborative project exploring the coaching interaction and how this engenders change.

Anthony M. Grant, PhD, is a coaching psychologist and the founder and director of the Coaching Psychology Unit at the School of Psychology at the University of Sydney. Anthony has pioneered the evidence-based approach to coaching. Anthony’s background is grounded in the realities of the commercial world. Having left school at the age of 15 with no qualifications, he completed his training as a carpenter and ran his own contracting business. Embarking on a second career, he made a successful transition into direct sales and marketing, before beginning tertiary studies in psychology as a mature student and commencing a third career in his 30s. He holds a BA(Hons) in Psychology from the University of Sydney and a Master of Arts in Behavioral Science and PhD from the Department of Psychology at Macquarie University. His PhD thesis is one of the few that explicitly examine the effectiveness of evidence-based coaching. In addition to his academic work, Anthony has many thousands of hours of coach training and coaching experience and works with leaders of national and international organizations as an executive coach. His coaching research and practice have frequently been reported in the national and international media. This is his fifth book on evidence-based approaches to coaching.

Carol Kauffman, PhD, ABPP, an assistant clinical professor at Harvard Medical School, department of psychiatry, runs seminars and offers supervision in positive psychology. She teaches coaching research at the Institute for Life Coach Training, is on the editorial board of the International Coaching Psychology Review, and is a reviewer for the Journal of Positive Psychology and Routledge Publishing. She holds a Diplomate in Clinical Psychology and is an examiner for the American Board of Professional Psychology. As a performance and personal coach, Dr. Kauffman loves working with people who want to be more effective at work, live their lives purposefully, and become closer with those they love. She specializes in those who have a book, artistic, or research project in their minds and hearts and need help getting it out the door and into the marketplace.

Travis Kemp, PhD, is managing director of The Teleran Group, a registered psychologist and secondary teacher, and a registered member of the Psychotherapists and Counsellors Federation of Australia. He is a founding national committee member of the Australian Psychological Society’s Interest Group in Coaching Psychology and is a member and past state chair of the APS College of Organisational Psychologists. He is a fellow of the Australian Human Resources Institute and Australian Institute of Management, a graduate member of the Australian Institute of Company Directors, and member of the Australian College of Educators. In addition to holding the position of adjunct research fellow with the International Graduate School of Business at the University of South Australia, he also holds an appointment as adjunct lecturer at the University of Sydney School of Psychology’s Coaching Psychology Unit.

David B. Peterson earned his PhD in counseling and industrial-organizational psychology from the University of Minnesota. He joined Personnel Decisions in 1985, became leader of PDI’s worldwide coaching practice in 1990, and was promoted to senior vice president in 1996. David has coached hundreds of senior executives from organizations such as Hewlett-Packard, Shell, Mayo Clinic, 3M, and Target. The models that David developed, such as the Development Pipeline and GAPS Grid, form the foundation of PDI’s coaching and leadership development services and products. With co-author Mary Dee Hicks, David has written two best-selling books—Leader as Coach: Strategies for Coaching and Developing Others and Development FIRST: Strategies for Self-Directed Learning. A pioneer in the field of executive coaching, David has been researching, writing, and training others on the topic for almost 20 years. He has been quoted in the Wall Street Journal, Fortune, Time, BusinessWeek, and USA Today.

Philippe Rosinski is an expert in executive coaching, team coaching, and global leadership development, sought after by leading international corporations. He is the author of Coaching Across Cultures (Nicholas Brealey Publishing/Intercultural Press, 2003) and his pioneering work in bringing the crucial intercultural dimension into the practice of coaching has won him worldwide acclaim. Philippe Rosinski is the first European to have been designated Master Certified Coach by the International Coach Federation. He is principal of Rosinski & Company, a global consulting firm that helps leaders, teams, and organizations unleash their human potential to achieve high performance together with high fulfillment. Previously, he was the Director of Custom Programs at the Center for Creative Leadership Europe. He received an electrical and mechanical engineering degree from the Ecole Polytechnique in Brussels, a master of science degree in electrical engineering from Stanford University, and the Cepac postgraduate business degree from the Solvay Business School in Brussels.

Dianne R. Stober, PhD, is on the faculty of the Organizational Management and Development master’s program at Fielding Graduate University. She also teaches in Fielding’s Evidence-Based Coaching Certificate Program. As a contributor to the development of coaching as a profession, she has presented and published her work in a variety of scholarly and professional venues such as the American Psychological Association, the International Coach Federation, the Professional Coach and Mentor Association, the Australian Evidence-Based Coaching Conference, and the International Journal of Coaching in Organizations. In addition, Dianne maintains an active coaching practice working with a diverse range of individuals and organizations. She has found coaching to be a fruitful application of her longstanding interests in leveraging people’s strengths, capitalizing on our many differences, and developing people’s inherent potentials. Dianne received her PhD in clinical psychology from Georgia State University, completed her internship at the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, and received a postdoctoral fellowship at Emory University.

Introduction

ANTHONY M. GRANT AND DIANNE R. STOBER

CHANGE IS A constant. So, too, is the search for better, more effective ways to create and sustain change. This handbook is about articulating theoretically grounded, evidence-based approaches to executive, workplace, and personal coaching. Our hope is that this book will further contribute to the maturation and evolution of the emerging discipline of professional coaching, through making explicit the wide range of theoretical perspectives that can form the foundations of an evidence-based approach.

One of the conflicts in the maturation of a profession of coaching has been the value of open discourse, which is essential for the building of bases of knowledge, compared to business models of intellectual property, which often restrict access to information. It is essential for the coaching community to find ways to balance these needs in a way that allows for models of coaching to be tested and knowledge to be developed and shared. This book seeks to support the move toward discourse in the public domain regarding different theoretical formulations and the evidence behind them as applied to coaching practice.

Coaching is still in the process of establishing its credibility as an effective means for change and growth. Linking coaching practice with existing, applicable bases of knowledge of science and practice is an important step in enhancing credibility and in shifting from focusing primarily on techniques and skills to a broader and deeper understanding of relevant knowledge in coach education.

Recognizing the importance of addressing these issues, an increasing number of coaches from a wide range of disciplines have developed coaching methodologies that are explicitly grounded in the broader academic knowledge base. Indeed, coaching has become an increasingly accepted cross-disciplinary methodology, and people from a wide variety of professional backgrounds are working as coaches. These backgrounds include the behavioral and social sciences, organizational change and development, psychoanalytical therapy, cognitive and behavioral psychology, adult education, as well as business and economic science. Each of these has its own theoretical frameworks and practices, and each has qualities and strengths useful in coaching. As these, and other, bodies of knowledge are brought to bear on coach education and practice, the credibility of coaching as an emerging profession versus a potential fad is enhanced.

Drawing on these considerations, this handbook presents a range of theoretical frameworks. Each chapter details a specific theoretical framework, and then discusses how coaching would be conducted from this framework, using two standard case studies as examples. Each chapter emphasizes different aspects of the coaching process. We designed this format in the hope that it will be helpful both to experienced professional coaches who are looking to enrich their own existing theoretical frameworks and practices and also to students of coaching who are in the process of identifying their preferred or personal framework for understanding and working with human behavior.

THE NATURE OF COACHING

Before discussing the range of theoretical approaches to coaching presented in this book, it may be useful to briefly discuss the nature of coaching, and then examine what constitutes an evidence-based approach.

The aim of executive or life coaching is sustained cognitive, emotional, and behavioral changes that facilitate goal attainment and performance enhancement, either in one’s work or in one’s personal life (Douglas & McCauley, 1999). In addition, executive or personal coaching is focused on nonclinical populations who do not have clinically significant mental health problems or diagnoses. There has been considerable media interest in coaching (Garman, Whiston, & Zlatoper, 2000), and coaching in the workplace dates back to at least Gorby (1937). However, there is still some lack of clarity as to what coaching actually is.

Definitions of the coaching process vary considerably in their degree of clarity and succinctness, and also the extent to which they emphasize teaching or direct instruction as opposed to the facilitation of self-directed learning. Emphasizing an instructional approach, Parsloe (1995, p. 18) proposes that coaching is “directly concerned with the immediate improvement of performance and development of skills by a form of tutoring or instruction.” Also emphasizing instruction, Druckman and Bjork (1991, p. 61) propose that:

Coaching consists of observing students and offering hints, feedback, reminders, [or] new tasks, or redirecting a student’s attention to a salient feature—all with the goal of making the student’s performance approximate the expert’s performance as closely as possible.

In contrast to the emphasis on imparting information through tutoring or instruction seen in Parsloe’s (1995) and Druckman and Bjork’s (1991) approaches, Whitmore (1992, p. 8) proposes that “coaching is unlocking a person’s potential to maximise their own performance. It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them.” The theme of facilitation rather than instruction is echoed by Hudson (1999), who defines the process of coaching as occurring when “a coach helps a client see options for becoming a more effective human being” (p. xix). Hudson (1999, p. 6) proposes that:

A coach is a person who facilitates experiential learning that results in future-oriented abilities. . . . [A coach] refers to a person who is a trusted role model, adviser, wise person, friend, mensch, steward, or guide—a person who works with emerging human and organizational forces to tap new energy and purpose, to shape new vision and plans, and to generate desired results. A coach is someone trained and devoted to guiding others into increased competence, commitment, and confidence.

Focusing on executive coaching, Kilburg (2000, p. 65) proposes that:

Executive coaching is defined as a helping relationship formed between a client who has managerial authority and responsibility in an organization and a consultant who uses a wide variety of behavioral techniques and methods to assist the client to achieve a mutually identified set of goals to improve his or her professional performance and personal satisfaction and consequently to improve the effectiveness of the client’s organization within a formally defined coaching agreement.

As can be seen, there has been considerable work done attempting to define coaching. Although each contributor to the debate offers different nuances, there are common core themes (Brennan and Prior, 2005).

These include a collaborative and egalitarian rather than authoritarian relationship between coach and coachee; a focus on constructing solutions and goal attainment processes, rather than solely analyzing problems; the assumption that clients do not have clinically significant mental health problems; an emphasis on collaborative goal setting; and the recognition that although coaches have expertise in facilitating learning through coaching, they do not necessarily need high levels of domain-specific expertise in the coachee’s chosen area of learning. Further, the coaching process is seen as being a systematic process, and is typically directed at fostering the ongoing self-directed learning and personal growth of the coachee.

Thus it is clear that coaching is more about asking the right questions than telling people what to do, and it is not necessarily concerned with subject-matter expertise or advice giving. Underpinning the coaching process are the principles guiding effective adult learning. These include the recognition that adult learners are autonomous, have a foundation of life experiences and knowledge from which they are able to generalize, have a readiness to learn and engage in reflective practice, and wish to be treated with respect (Dailey, 1984).

We also believe that professional coaching should be explicitly linked to the broader knowledge base, should be conducted in an informed-practitioner model, and should be evidence-based.

TOWARD AN INFORMED-PRACTITIONER MODEL OF PROFESSIONAL COACHING

The concept of an informed-practioner model of professional coaching draws on, and further develops, the reflective-practitioner and the scientist-practitioner models established in the behavioral and medical sciences. Within the reflective-practitioner and the scientist-practitioner frameworks, practitioners are trained to have a working understanding of research principles and methodologies. This understanding then enables them to apply informed critical thought to the evaluation of their practices. In addition, such informed practitioners can draw on relevant academic literature to design and implement evidence-based interventions with their own clients (Haring-Hidore & Vacc, 1988) and to evaluate client progress while adhering to ethical practice (Barnett, 1988).

Informed practioners are not expected to be significant producers of research (Parker & Detterman, 1988). Rather they are positioned as educated consumers of research who can utilize related research and critical thinking skills to improve their practices and intellectual understanding of coaching. While the scientist-practitioner model in the behavioral sciences has its critics (O’Gorman, 2001), it has nevertheless been central to the professionalization of the behavioral sciences (Shapiro, 2002).

Movement toward an informed-practitioner model requires that professional coach training programs explicitly address the theoretical and empirical foundations of coaching, provide training in sound research methodologies, develop basic statistical and data analysis skills, and foster informed critical thinking skills in student coaches. Such an approach forms the basis of an evidence-based coaching paradigm.

WHAT IS EVIDENCE-BASED COACHING?

The term evidence-based coaching was coined by Grant (2003) to distinguish between professional coaching that is explicitly grounded in the broader empirical and theoretical knowledge base and coaching that was developed from the “pop psychology” personal development genre.

Adapted from its use in medical and social services, evidence-based coaching means far more than simply producing evidence that a specific coaching intervention is effective or being able to demonstrate return on investment. The evidence-based approach is not merely about the use of double-blind, randomized controlled trials or the use of manualized interventions. It is a broader view based on the underlying assumption that translating research evidence into practice can optimize outcomes (Wampold & Bhati, 2004). How that is done is where the controversy begins.

Central to the original idea of evidence-based practice in the medical and social sciences is that research methodologies can be evaluated and classified into “good” and “bad” research. In medicine, and to a great extent in psychology, sitting at the top of the hierarchy, and the accepted gold standard, are meta-analyses—systematic reviews of a large number of randomized controlled trials (RCTs). At the next level are the RCTs themselves, which are studies where individuals have been randomly allocated to a treatment or a control group. Double-blind RCTs, where both the researcher and the participant are not informed as to which group they are in, clearly provide a useful methodology for the testing of medical pharmaceutical interventions.

On the next level in this hierarchy are controlled studies without randomization, which in turn sit above quasi-experimental studies, followed by nonexperimental studies (descriptive, correlational, or case studies), followed by expert opinions and clinical experience. Critics of evidence-based practice have argued that the gold standard drives toward an unrealistic perfectionism and cannot, in fact, deliver certainty (Nord, 2002). While this may be true, double-blind RCTs, despite their limitations, are often the most rigorous scientific approach to determine the effectiveness of an intervention.

However, the key issue here is that coaching engagements are not medical interventions that follow prescribed or manualized treatment regimes, and much coaching does not lend itself to evaluation within a medical model. Indeed, given the nonclinical, nonmedical context of coaching, the medical model may be an entirely inappropriate framework from which to understand, teach, and evaluate coaching—as has also been argued for psychotherapy (Wampold, 2001). However, adopting the view that applying evidence to practice allows for improved practice and understanding is a valuable aim in the development of coaching as a discipline. The different avenues for generating research evidence in coaching remain to be discussed.

Hence, we prefer to take a more sophisticated understanding of the term evidence-based and refer to the intelligent and conscientious use of best current knowledge integrated with practitioner expertise in making decisions about how to deliver coaching to individual coaching clients and in designing and teaching coach training programs (adapted from Sackett, Haynes, Guyatt, & Tugwell, 1996). This volume is primarily concerned with elucidating available knowledge.

Best current knowledge can be understood as up-to-date information from relevant, valid research, theory, and practice. Because there is at present a somewhat limited academic coach-specific literature, best current knowledge can often be found in the established literature in related fields of evidence, theory, and practice. Informed-practitioner coaches need to be able to draw on such existing knowledge, adapt and apply this knowledge, and in the light of their own reflective practice, develop grounded frameworks that further inform their work with their clients.

The strength of the informed-practitioner model lies not in developing scientifically tenacious prescriptive intervention models to be applied with unquestioning confidence. Rather, its strength is that it provides theoretical frameworks, information, critical thinking, and methodological rigor that the practitioner can use to navigate the ever-changing waters of the coaching intervention.

Evidence-based professional coaching has the very real potential to become a powerful methodology for individual, organizational, social, and systemic change. The use of theoretically based, empirically grounded coaching is increasing. Ten years ago there was very little coaching-related research or there were few theories for coaches to draw on. This paucity of previously developed interventions has had the benefit of forcing professional coaches to go back to basic principles and re-examine the wider body of academic knowledge in order to create coaching interventions that meet the real needs of coaching clients. This approach means that professional coaches are increasingly able to draw on and contribute to informed and intelligent coach-specific literature.

Coaching still has a long way to go. We argue that an evidence-based foundation for professional coaching that moves away from the prescriptive linear approach too often associated with the medical model, and toward contextually relevant coaching methodologies that incorporate both rigor and the lived experience of practitioners and clients, will result in a comprehensive, flexible, and strong model of coaching.

OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS

In the following chapters, readers will find a broad range of approaches in coaching. In Part I, contributors examine single theories that have direct application in coaching. In Chapter 1, Dianne Stober proposes that the humanistic perspective is an underlying philosophical foundation of coaching today and links humanistic concepts and evidence to coaching practice. David Peterson discusses the behavioral perspective’s contributions to coaching and provides a model for building clients’ capacities for effective behavior in Chapter 2. Next, in Chapter 3, Jennifer Garvey Berger outlines constructive-developmental theories in adult development, provides a model of different forms of understanding that affect how we view and interact with the world, and then goes on to discuss how coaches can work with people in these different forms. Jeffrey Auerbach, in Chapter 4, delineates the cognitive perspective as it applies to coaching and demonstrates its use in practice. And in Chapter 5, Seth Allcorn links psychoanalytic theory to organizational and executive behavior and discusses how coaches can effect change by understanding and working with these dynamics.

Part II showcases approaches that are either integrative or cross-disciplinary in nature. Starting us off in Chapter 6, Anthony Grant weaves together theory and evidence regarding goal setting, self-determination, and personality into an integrated goal-focused approach to coaching. Elaine Cox describes a number of important concepts from adult learning theories that undergird coaching approaches, and provides a model that capitalizes on these principles in Chapter 7. In Chapter 8, Carol Kauffman discusses evidence from positive psychology and relates a number of exercises and assessments that can be applied to coaching. In Chapter 9, Philippe Rosinski and Geoffrey Abbott lay out theory regarding cross-cultural issues and provide a model of applying this knowledge effectively in any coaching situation. In Chapter 10, Travis Kemp discusses the use of an experiential, psycho-educative approach to coaching and provides a number of tools and techniques for individual and group learning. Systems and complexity theories are related to coaching practice by Michael Cavanagh in Chapter 11. Finally, to bring things together in summary, Dianne Stober and Anthony Grant propose the utility of a contextual model of coaching that can link all of the approaches together in a model of the principles of coaching.

TWO CASE STUDIES

In addition to the evidence and theory provided in the chapters, each chapter also discusses that particular approach to the same two case studies. It is our hope that readers will gain a sense of not only what the various approaches entail, but also how they are applied. Readers will get an outlook on different angles of approach and at the same time will get a sense of where overlap and similarities exist among these various viewpoints. Descriptions of coaching from each perspective are contained at the end of each chapter.

The Case of Bob

Bob is a 58-year-old Caucasian man who is the CEO of a multinational corporation in industrial development, AMM, Inc. He has been the CEO for eight years and has overseen the corporation’s growth from a medium-sized organization to one that has rapidly expanded and acquired other companies. AMM has recently bought out one of its main competitors, XYZ, and Bob is faced with the challenge of merging XYZ into AMM. This acquisition is based in South Korea and the workforce is made up of a combination of European expatriate and South Korean personnel.

In terms of personal style, Bob can be extremely charming and is fun to be around. He is a fast thinker who likes to tell jokes and keep people entertained. He likes to have a high profile and enjoys being the center of attention. He values people who give him positive feedback. Although he enjoys social interacting, he has a tendency to talk more than he listens. Bob values success, both in his personal life and in his work, and although he talks a lot about the importance of social values and giving a hand to those “lower down the ladder” he really prizes winning and winners. In his personal life he enjoys socializing with successful people; he prefers to lead an interesting life and sees himself as someone who likes to play hard as well as work hard. He expects his family and friends to do the same.

Bob is good at showing concern for the problems of others, and will appear deeply interested and focused while he is talking to a person about some personal problem they may have. However, he is not good at following up on his initial comments, and will rarely refer back to an emotionally focused conversation or inquire about the other person’s well-being in later conversation with that person. In his personal life this has not been a problem, because his wife Carol enjoys social networking. However, in the workplace Bob is seen as good at talking the talk, but somewhat superficial and not really interested in the well-being of others. This obvious difference between his espoused interest in the well-being of others and his actual actions has contributed to a feeling in the workplace that Bob is rather superficial, and really cares only about results, not people.

He can also be rather volatile, and his tendency toward emotional displays when under pressure, combined with his perceived superficiality, has in the past undermined his credibility with his team. Furthermore, although energetic and adventurous, he tends to ignore his own mistakes (and justifies or rationalizes them), but is very quick to pick up on other people’s.

In terms of leadership and management style, Bob uses his considerable personal charisma in laying out a clear vision. He sees AMM as a corporation that leads the world in the development of industrial infrastructure, the design and construction of manufacturing plants and systems. With that, Bob has recognized that infrastructure needs to be customized for different environments, nations, and cultures but he often struggles with how to customize the human interactions needed to make that happen. He is very self-assured of his vision and can be very persuasive in laying out that vision for his board of directors and others. Bob has achieved his current position by persuading others that his way of doing things is right. When someone is not following his plan, Bob generally has seen them as “not getting it” and has often then sought to either get them on board or see to it that they do not have much effect on derailing his plan. For example, when Bob was hired as CEO by AMM, one of the vice presidents, Jerry, did not share Bob’s vision of how to integrate the management team from a corporation AMM had acquired. Bob had no compunction about covertly engineering Jerry’s transfer from the home office in Chicago to managing their small Southern U.S. office in Texas.

In terms of his background, Bob was raised in the Midwestern United States in an upper-middle-class family. He followed a fairly traditional path through university, an MBA program, and his first job was as a project manager in a large construction firm. Bob prides himself on his ability to win people over to his views and has been viewed by his superiors over the years as someone who can be “pushy” but “gets things done.” Initially, his job changes occurred through promotions, but after reaching a senior manager level, he was recruited by other corporations for his ability to make things happen and his desire for achievement. Bob has not generally developed strong friendships in his work life but rather tends to socialize with people who can also have utility in helping him accomplish projects he has in front of him.

Bob has been married to Carol for 32 years and their three children, Katherine, Thomas, and Jake, are all grown and on their own. Carol is very supportive of her husband and arranges many social functions for colleagues of Bob’s. She is active in a number of charitable organizations, which gives Bob a feeling of satisfaction that not only is he contributing to the growth and development of business, but through his family he also contributes to the community at large. Bob describes his marriage as a partnership where Carol’s activities support his career and he supports her civic endeavors as his time allows. Bob is looking forward to the birth of his first grandchild this next year and describes a sense of achievement and satisfaction in having raised his children to be productive, achieving adults. When asked about his connection with them, Bob describes family get-togethers and holidays as his main way to communicate, although Carol “does her job in keeping me informed about what everyone is up to.”

Bob met Carol through a mutual friend at the end of college. As they were dating, he found that not only was Carol an attractive and fun person but she was also someone who liked to get people together and helped him meet others and develop relationships. In describing Carol, he was fond of saying that she was the “glue” sticking people together and he was the “gloss” keeping others entertained. Toward the end of his MBA studies, he asked Carol to marry him and found himself looking forward to having her at his side as he set out to make a name for himself. As they had children and he began to move up the corporate ladder, Bob was proud that he had chosen a partner who kept his family life running smoothly, was loving, and also was someone he could bounce ideas off away from work. He liked to think that he was someone who contributed to Carol’s happiness, too.

Bob has been intrigued in the past few years by the notion of coaching as a way to leverage his own thoughts and goals more effectively. He has encouraged direct reports to use coaching in the past and has been impressed with how coaching has increased productivity for some of his executives. As he has contemplated using a coach himself, he has not seen a need for the “soft side” of coaching in terms of balancing his work life or developing his ability to relate to others. Rather his focus is on strategic and managerial issues and getting some help in negotiating a productive merger between AMM and XYZ.

Bob has also begun thinking about his eventual retirement in the next 10 years or so and has recognized having a strong desire to “leave the business running perfectly.” While this was not true earlier in his life, his focus at this point is not so much about money; it is more around ending his career just right. And this new acquisition feels like a potential obstacle to a perfect ending.

He presents for coaching with an expressed goal of getting the business running perfectly and leaving on a high note.

Summary of Bob’s Case

Bob is a reactive/remedial coaching client. He is a CEO in transition, and his organization is merging with an organization it bought out. His leadership style is highly autocratic with a top-down model of management. While he is self-assured and has a big vision for organization, he does not trust others to implement it with his individualistic view of the world. He is charismatic, but people do not stick with him over time. He tends toward an instrumental way of viewing and using human capital, with a high need for achievement and power. He is self-made, high in persistence, and has been around a long time.

The Case of Bonita

Bonita is a 38-year-old African-American woman who has recently been promoted to the position of vice president of human resources (HR) in a medium-sized Internet service provider company. Bonita is excited to take on this new leadership role, while at the same time she feels some apprehension and worry about her performance and abilities. Her immediate supervisor, Ken, a senior vice president of HR, has been in the company since its inception and has the reputation of being paternalistic and quick-tempered. Bonita has generally gotten along with Ken, albeit from a distance, in the past. However, since beginning her new position, Bonita has found herself at times chagrined by his way of speaking with her, as she feels that he talks down to her, but she has been unable to confront him.

In the past, Bonita has found conflict difficult. She would prefer to avoid unpleasant conversations and often deals with this by trying to influence the other person’s view of the situation. For example, when an employee, Rick, kept making sarcastic comments during team meetings, Bonita struggled with confronting him about his behavior. Instead she tried everything she could think of to convince him they were headed in the right direction. In her mind, she was “heading him off at the pass,” and she recognized that she was working very hard to get him on board. Her strategy was only somewhat effective. Other team members eventually called him on his rude comments.With her new position and directly reporting to Ken, Bonita is anxious about how to improve her skills and confidence regarding conflict.

In terms of personal style and communication, Bonita exhibits a preference for collaboration and is proactive in generating communication between herself and team members. She states that she “does her best thinking out loud” in team meetings. When undertaking a project, Bonita tends to seek out the opinions of colleagues as she formulates her plans. And before she moves ahead on a plan, she feels more confident in her ideas if she has included others in discussing them and knows she has a sense of how others will react. For example, in her previous position, she was the team leader for educating employees about the new benefits package, which was a major restructuring. While Bonita had a sense of what many of the concerns and issues might be regarding the change, she invited her team to brainstorm what the concerns would be rather than handing them a list and asking for responses to specific items. Bonita continued with this leadership style as they developed their program.

Her supervisor, Rita, whose position Bonita now holds, was known for picking apart new initiatives. Bonita’s team privately assumed that Rita would do the same to their work. Bonita had experienced Rita’s combativeness before, and moved to include Rita early on during Bonita’s weekly report meeting with her. By getting Rita’s input early in the process, Bonita buffered her team from Rita’s criticism, and Bonita felt that she was able to engage Rita positively. And Bonita’s team was pleasantly surprised to find Rita approving their proposed program with minor adjustments.

When Rita recently retired, there were several candidates within the company for her position. Bonita’s success with the implementation of the new employee benefits package and other projects had earned her the notice of the president of HR and the CEO, who both endorsed her promotion. Ken, however, had initially pushed for another HR manager, Bill, who had one year less experience than Bonita but was known for his take-charge, forge-ahead leadership style. When the president and CEO both put forward Bonita’s name, Ken quickly withdrew Bill’s name and Bonita was selected for promotion. While Ken had not actively opposed Bonita’s promotion, he had let it be known that “Bonita has some proving to do” in his eyes.

Bonita is married to Martin and has two school-age children, Nicole (12 years old) and Will (8 years old). Martin is an assistant district attorney. They live in a large city in the Southeastern United States with a number of extended family in the area. Bonita struggles at times with the number of hours required for her work and being involved with her children and husband. In her past position in the company she had a fair bit of flexibility, which allowed her to attend her children’s school functions. Bonita is concerned about how she will manage this in her new position.

Bonita was the first person in her family to graduate from college and, while she is very involved with her family of origin, she often feels somewhat like an outsider because of her different lifestyle and expectations of life. She was seen as the “smart one” of her family but also felt that she had to work extra hard to succeed. Growing up African-American in a large urban city in a working-class neighborhood, her early education was in an underprivileged school. As her abilities were noticed by her parents, her father took a second job so she could attend a better school. Bonita talks about this sacrifice as “both a blessing and a responsibility” for which she has always been grateful but for which she also has felt pressure to “make my parents proud.” Bonita’s family members often comment on her success in moving up in the company and into a white-collar world, which results in her feeling proud but also a little uncomfortable.

Bonita met Martin in college at a large public university. They dated through the last half of college and were married soon after graduation. Martin had been accepted to law school, and although Bonita had some initial interest in attending graduate school, she went to work while Martin began his studies in law. Bonita found that working in human resources met her desire to “work with people” and “use my smarts for solving problems.” While over the years she has toyed with the idea of returning for a master’s degree, she has not felt that lack of a graduate degree has hindered her career thus far.

Bonita and Martin live in a suburban neighborhood that is primarily white, although there are several other African-American and Asian families. This was a difficult decision for them, as they would have preferred in some ways to stay in a neighborhood with more African-Americans; however, they also felt it was very important to be in a neighborhood with high-achieving schools. They make a concerted effort to connect their children to their extended family and make other cultural traditions available to their children through activities such as involvement in the church in which Bonita grew up.

Martin and Bonita had their first child as Martin graduated from law school. Bonita took some maternity leave, but with Martin starting a clerkship with a State Supreme Court judge, they could not afford for Bonita to stay at home. Bonita states that she felt some ambivalence at the time, but with her mother able to care for the baby Nicole, she went back to work without a huge amount of distress. By the time their second child came along, Bonita was fully engaged in her career and, with the support from Martin and continued help from her mother and other extended family, was committed to continuing to work full-time. Bonita and Martin have felt that with both of them working, they are able to provide opportunities to their children that neither of them had growing up, and Bonita also likes the idea that her children, particularly Nicole, see Mommy as having a professional career path in addition to Daddy.

Regarding the juggle between raising young children and work, Bonita states she sometimes questions how well it all works. While she has a lot of trust in her mother’s handling of the children, she also wants to be there herself in many ways. Missing out on different milestones in her children’s development was hard when they were young, but once they entered school, “it became easier since things like the first day of school or graduating from elementary school are scheduled, not like that first step or first word.” Bonita has some worries about how this new position will work in trying to attend as many of the children’s functions as possible. She knows that stating clear boundaries with work has been hard at times, and as she is aware of needing to “prove myself” she expects this to be a challenge for her.

In terms of her present situation, the company has offered coaching to all new executives, and Bonita has stated that she would like to participate. Another senior vice president, Holly, is responsible for the executive coaching program. When she interviewed Bonita regarding coaching, Bonita was clearly eager to see what coaching could offer in helping her learn more about herself and how she might achieve success in her new position.

Bonita presents for coaching with an expressed goal of developing her leadership skills, dealing with conflict, and improving work-life balance.

Summary of Bonita’s Case

Bonita is a proactive/growth coaching client. She is a collaborative, inclusive person, who tends toward an underassertive and overaffiliative leadership style. She is also a relativity inexperienced leader who is in transition, having been recently promoted to executive level. This has presented challenges for her in balancing the demands of her work and personal life. She has a high need for achievement, is open-minded and curious, and is willing to try new ways of doing things. She is highly intuitive about other people’s thoughts and feelings, but far less insightful about her own. However, while she shies away from conflict and prefers to avoid confrontation, she does value learning as a way to self-development.

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PART I

Single-Theory Perspectives

CHAPTER 1

Coaching from the Humanistic Perspective

DIANNE R. STOBER