Evolution of Wireless Communication Ecosystems E-Book

Suat Secgin

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: IEEE ComSoc Pocket Guides to Communications Technologies
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 396

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

Evolution of Wireless Communication Ecosystems Understand a world transformed by wireless communication with this groundbreaking guide Since the advent of the internet, few technologies have proven more transformative than wireless communication. Never have we lived in a more comprehensively connected world, with the cloud and the coming sixth generation (6G) of wireless technology creating a vast and interconnected communications infrastructure. Global citizens of this newly interconnected reality are grappling like never before with its many challenges. Evolution of Wireless Communication Ecosystems provides readers with a history of wireless communication and a thorough overview of emerging frontiers. It traces wireless communication from the first generation through to the current fifth before surveying the current state of wireless technology and the ongoing research into 6G. The result is a book that understands wireless communication for the first time as an ecosystem, endlessly interconnected, growing, and boundlessly complex, but made intelligible by this highly readable introduction. Readers will also find: * Detailed explanations of the journey starting from 1G to 6G * Descriptions the infrastructure of 4G, 5G, and 6G systems, this all-connected communication ecosystem, the sub-components of this ecosystem, and the relationship among them * Depictions of events seen in the capillaries of the communication echo system that show switching techniques, modulation, and multiplexing techniques * Coverage of access techniques, protocols, the methods used in M2M and IoT connections at the endpoints, and security issues that show how they are an integral part of wireless communication infrastructure Evolution of Wireless Communication Ecosystems from 1G to 6G is an essential reference for wireless and telecommunications professionals, as well as researchers interested in 6G or other emerging wireless technologies.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication Page

About the Author

Preface

List of Abbreviations

1 Basіc Concepts

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Main Components of Communication Systems

1.3 Circuit, Packet, and Cell Switching

1.4 Duplexing in Communication

1.5 Historical Developments of Wireless Communication Systems

Reference

2 Modulation and Demodulation

2.1 Introduction

2.2 What Are Modulation and Demodulation?

2.3 Analog Modulation Methods

2.4 Digital Modulation Methods

References

3 Multiplexing Methods

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing

3.3 Time Division Multiplexing

3.4 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

3.5 Non‐Orthogonal Multiple Access

3.6 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

3.7 Code Division Multiplexing

3.8 Spatial Division Multiplexing

3.9 Orbital Angular Momentum Multiplexing

3.10 Polarization Division Multiplexing

References

4 Network Performance Metrics

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Spectral Efficiency

4.3 Important Network Performance Metrics

References

5 Seven Layers of ISO/OSI

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Application Layer

5.3 Presentation Layer

5.4 Session Layer

5.5 Transport Layer

5.6 Network Layer

5.7 Data Link Layer

5.8 Physical Layer

References

6 Cellular Communication and 1G Systems

6.1 Introduction

6.2 A Brief History of Wireless Communication

6.3 Cellular Communication

6.4 1G Systems

References

7 2G Systems

7.1 Introduction

7.2 1G and 2G Comparisons

7.3 2G Architecture

7.4 Detailed Infrastructure and 2.5G

References

8 3G Systems

8.1 Introduction

8.2 2G and 3G Comparison

8.3 3G Architecture

References

9 4G Systems

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Toward 4G

9.3 Services and Servers

9.4 Architectural Structure and Novel Concepts

9.5 Voice over LTE (VoLTE)

9.6 Mobile IP

9.7 Multiple Access Techniques

9.8 Multiple Input‐Multiple Output (MIMO) Antenna Systems and SDM Access

9.9 Voice over WiFi (VoWiFi)

References

10 5G Systems

10.1 Introduction

10.2 5G Cell Structure

10.3 Topology

10.4 Millimeter Wave

10.5 Network Slicing

10.6 Massive MIMO and Beamforming

10.7 Carrier Aggregation (CA) and Dual Connectivity (DC)

References

11 6G Systems

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Network

11.3 Terahertz Communication

11.4 Visible Light Communication

11.5 Satellite Integration

11.6 Cloud Radio Access Network

11.7 Holographic MIMO Surfaces

11.8 Massive Cell‐Free MIMO

11.9 Mobile Cloud Computing (MCC)–Mobile Edge Computing (MEC)

11.10 ML, AI, and Blockchain Usage in 6G

11.11 Quantum Computing in Future Wireless Networks

11.12 5G Concepts in 6G (eMBB, uRLLC, and mMTC)

11.13 6G Use Cases

11.14 Comparison of 5G and 6G Network Architectures

References

12 Internet of Things (IoT)

12.1 Introduction

12.2 IoT Vision

12.3 Architecture and Communication Model

References

13 Non‐IP‐Based WPAN Technologies

13.1 Introduction

13.2 802.15 Standards

13.3 Radio Frequency Identification

13.4 Near‐Field Communication

13.5 Infrared Data Association

13.6 Bluetooth

13.7 Zigbee

13.8 Z‐Wave

13.9 Power Line Communication

References

14 IP‐Based WPAN and WLAN

14.1 Introduction

14.2 HaLow WiFi (Low‐Power WiFi)

14.3 ISA 100.11a Wireless

14.4 Wireless Highway Addressable Remote Transducer Protocol (HART)

14.5 Wireless Networks for Industrial Automation‐Process Automation (WIA‐PA)

14.6 6LoWPAN

14.7 WPAN with IP Thread

References

15 Low‐Power Wide‐Area Networks

15.1 Introduction

15.2 General Architecture

15.3 EC‐GSM‐IoT

15.4 Random Phase Multiple Access

15.5 DASH7

15.6 Long‐Term Evolution for Machines

15.7 Narrowband IoT

15.8 Massive IoT

15.9 IoTivity

15.10 LoRa and LoRaWAN

15.11 Sigfox

References

16 IoT Edge to Cloud Protocols

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Message Queue Telemetry Transport Protocol

16.3 MQTT over WebSockets

16.4 MQTT for Sensor Networks

16.5 Constrained Application Protocol

16.6 Embedded Binary HTTP

16.7 Lean Transport Protocol

16.8 Advanced Message Queuing Protocol

16.9 Data Distribution Service

16.10 Simple Text‐Oriented Messaging Protocol

16.11 Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol

16.12 Lightweight M2M

16.13 Health Device Profile Protocol (Continua HDP)

16.14 Devices Profile for Web Services

16.15 Protocol Comparisons

References

17 Popular Operating Systems of IoT

17.1 Introduction

17.2 OpenWSN

17.3 TinyOS

17.4 FreeRTOS

17.5 TI‐RTOS

17.6 RIOT

17.7 Contiki OS

References

18 IoT Security

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Limitations in IoT End Devices

18.3 Security Requirements

18.4 Attack Types and Points

References

19 IoT Applications

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Tactile Internet

19.3 Waste Management

19.4 Healthcare

19.5 Smart Agriculture and Smart Water Supply

19.6 Web of Things (WoT)

References

Index

The ComSoc Guides to Communications Technologies

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Comparison of mMIMO, LOS MIMO, and OAM for fixed wireless links....

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Comparison of mMIMO, LOS MIMO, and OAM for fixed wireless link.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Comparison of GSM and UMTS.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 4G specifications.

Table 9.2 4G evolution from 1G to 4G.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 4G metrics of cells.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Comparison of 5G and 6G.

Table 11.2 6G potential and challenges in terms of frequencies above 100 GH...

Table 11.3 6G potential and challenges in terms of network architecture.

Table 11.4 MCC vs. MEC.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Comparison of IoT connection technologies [10].

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 ISA‐100 on ISO/OSI.

Table 14.2 Comparison of industrial WSN standards.

Table 14.3 Comparison of narrow‐band IoT standards.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Comparison between LPWAN technologies.

Table 15.2 Comparison of EC‐GSM, Sigfox, and LoRa.

Table 15.3 LTE Cat.M1 and LTE Cat. NB.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Comparison of IoT protocols.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Block schema of a communication system.

Figure 1.2 Circuit switching.

Figure 1.3 Packet switching.

Figure 1.4 Cell switching.

Figure 1.5 Duplexing methods. (a) Simplex; (b) full‐duplex; (c) half‐duplex....

Figure 1.6 Evolution of wireless communication systems.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Modulation process.

Figure 2.2 Demodulation process.

Figure 2.3 Amplitude modulation.

Figure 2.4 Frequency modulation (FM).

Figure 2.5 Phase modulation.

Figure 2.6 Amplitude shift keying (ASK).

Figure 2.7 Frequency shift keying (FSK).

Figure 2.8 Phase shift keying (PSK).

Figure 2.9 In‐phase signal and quadrature signal component.

Figure 2.10 QAM constellation diagram.

Figure 2.11 8‐QAM signal.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Multiplexing‐demultiplexing.

Figure 3.2 Multiple accessing methods.

Figure 3.3 Frequency division multiplexing.

Figure 3.4 FDM mux‐demux.

Figure 3.5 TDM.

Figure 3.6 TDM mux‐demux.

Figure 3.7 FDM and OFDM.

Figure 3.8 NOMA with two users.

Figure 3.9 WDM.

Figure 3.10 CDM.

Figure 3.11 CDM mux‐demux.

Figure 3.12 SDM.

Figure 3.13 Block diagram of OAM.

Figure 3.14 (a) Generation of OAM modes using UCA; (b) separation of OAM mod...

Figure 3.15 Polarization types.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Spectral efficiency vs. SNR.

Figure 4.2 LTE distance dependent spectrum efficiency.

Figure 4.3 Latency and throughput.

Figure 4.4 Four types of delay.

Figure 4.5 Jitter.

Figure 4.6 SNR and SINR.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 OSI layers.

Figure 5.2 Data flow of the OSI model.

Figure 5.3 Application layer services.

Figure 5.4 IP routing.

Figure 5.5 MAC address communication.

Figure 5.6 IP vs. MAC addresses.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Cellular wireless communication system.

Figure 6.2 Cellular frequency reuse.

Figure 6.3 Development of communication systems.

Figure 6.4 1G communication.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Digital communication.

Figure 7.2 2G network architecture.

Figure 7.3 GSM infrastructure.

Figure 7.4 Evolution of GPRS network.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Evolution from 1G to 4G.

Figure 8.2 UMTS conceptual architecture.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 3GPP version road map.

Figure 9.2 4G spectrum.

Figure 9.3 Evolution from voice to networked society.

Figure 9.4 3G core and 4G core.

Figure 9.5 Core evolution from 2G to 4G.

Figure 9.6 4G core network.

Figure 9.7 IMS for converging networks.

Figure 9.8 IMS layered structure.

Figure 9.9 IMS in practice.

Figure 9.10 VoLTE architecture.

Figure 9.11 VoLTE call.

Figure 9.12 Mobile IP topology.

Figure 9.13 How mobile IP works.

Figure 9.14 OFDMA conceptual schema.

Figure 9.15 Channel‐dependent timing in time and frequency domains.

Figure 9.16 OFDMA and SC‐FDMA.

Figure 9.17 MIMO performance.

Figure 9.18 Communication of single antenna devices with the MIMO base stati...

Figure 9.19 MIMO structure.

Figure 9.20 VoWiFi infrastructure.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Evolution to 5G.

Figure 10.2 5G flower.

Figure 10.3 IMT‐2020 use cases.

Figure 10.4 5G network capacity [4].

Figure 10.5 5G ecosystem.

Figure 10.6 5G cell structure.

Figure 10.7 5G cell structure (different view).

Figure 10.8 5G hybrid network.

Figure 10.9 5G access network.

Figure 10.10 5G layered structure.

Figure 10.11 5G ecosystem.

Figure 10.12 mmWave spectrum.

Figure 10.13 mmWave applications.

Figure 10.14 Residential and indoor 5G layering.

Figure 10.15 Forms of the device‐to‐device communication.

Figure 10.16 Dense small‐cell mmWave.

Figure 10.17 One million IoT devices/km

2

.

Figure 10.18 Dual connectivity.

Figure 10.19 Massive MIMO with beamforming.

Figure 10.20 A holistic view of 5G subcomponents.

Figure 10.21 Network slicing.

Figure 10.22 Mobile edge computing (MEC) layered network slices.

Figure 10.23 Massive MIMO and beamforming.

Figure 10.24 MIMO vs. massive MIMO.

Figure 10.25 LTE and 5G NR carrier aggregation.

Figure 10.26 CA example.

Figure 10.27 Carrier aggregation and dual connectivity.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Evolution to 6G.

Figure 11.2 6G ecosystem.

Figure 11.3 5G vs. 6G infographic.

Figure 11.4 6G vision.

Figure 11.5 6G taxonomy.

Figure 11.6 Four‐layer 6G architecture.

Figure 11.7 Frequency spectrum.

Figure 11.8 Optical communication diagram.

Figure 11.9 OWC for mobile backhaul.

Figure 11.10 LiFi.

Figure 11.11 The architecture of a typical optical network.

Figure 11.12 Satellite‐integrated network.

Figure 11.13 6G cloud RAN concept.

Figure 11.14 D‐RAN concept.

Figure 11.15 C‐RAN architecture.

Figure 11.16 C‐RAN detailed architecture.

Figure 11.17 RIS: (a) A 48‐element reflector array‐based RIS. (b) A four‐ele...

Figure 11.18 Outdoor HMIMOS use cases.

Figure 11.19 Indoor HMIMOS use case.

Figure 11.20 LoS RIS operation.

Figure 11.21 BS and user equipment (UE) structure.

Figure 11.22 Traditional cell‐free mMIMO infrastructure.

Figure 11.23 Scalable cell‐free mMIMO system.

Figure 11.24 MCC and MEC architecture.

Figure 11.25 MEC application.

Figure 11.26 Mobile cloud computing.

Figure 11.27 Edge computing paradigm.

Figure 11.28 Cloud hierarchy.

Figure 11.29 IoT cloud structure.

Figure 11.30 Multilayer wireless communication network.

Figure 11.31 AI‐enabled 6G functions.

Figure 11.32 Machine learning (ML) in communication.

Figure 11.33 Classical bit and a quantum bit (qubit).

Figure 11.34 Quantum capable access network.

Figure 11.35 Quantum‐enabled core network.

Figure 11.36 Qualitative comparison of 5G–6G systems.

Figure 11.37 6G use cases.

Figure 11.38 From 1G to 6G.

Figure 11.39 General architecture of mixed reality system.

Figure 11.40 6G connection in depopulated areas.

Figure 11.41 Integration of terrestrial and nonterrestrial networks.

Figure 11.42 RF/optical/acoustic hybrid underwater wireless communication sy...

Figure 11.43 6G business ecosystem.

Figure 11.44 Holographic communication system architecture.

Figure 11.45 Comparison of 5G and 6G architectures.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Number of devices connected to the IoT system by year.

Figure 12.2 Layered IoT architecture.

Figure 12.3 Three expectations of IoE/IoT.

Figure 12.4 M2M, IoT, and IoE.

Figure 12.5 Four‐layered IoT structure.

Figure 12.6 IoT conceptual architecture.

Figure 12.7 IoT gateway.

Figure 12.8 IoT world forum reference model.

Figure 12.9 Level 2 and level 3 interaction.

Figure 12.10 IoT reference model level 4.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Device‐to‐device communication model.

Figure 13.2 Device‐to‐cloud communication model.

Figure 13.3 Device‐to‐gateway communication model.

Figure 13.4 Back‐end data sharing model.

Figure 13.5 802.15 protocols.

Figure 13.6 RFID system architecture.

Figure 13.7 RFID structure.

Figure 13.8 NFC‐enabled smartphone structure.

Figure 13.9 The evolution of Bluetooth.

Figure 13.10 ZigBee system architecture.

Figure 13.11 ZigBee network.

Figure 13.12 ZigBee network topologies.

Figure 13.13 Z‐Wave architecture.

Figure 13.14 Z‐Wave topology.

Figure 13.15 PLC application.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 WiFi HaLow.

Figure 14.2 IEEE 802.11ah network model.

Figure 14.3 ISA 100 wireless network architecture.

Figure 14.4 Classification of IWSNs.

Figure 14.5 WirelessHART network structure (single backbone‐multiple access ...

Figure 14.6 The standard topology of WIA‐PA IWSNs.

Figure 14.7 Integration of industrial WSN.

Figure 14.8 6LoWPAN architecture.

Figure 14.9 6LoWPAN stack.

Figure 14.10 General architecture of IP thread.

Figure 14.11 Parent‐child structure.

Figure 14.12 End device modes.

Figure 14.13 Partitioning.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Wireless communication technologies (based on distance).

Figure 15.2 LPWAN general architecture.

Figure 15.3 RPMA machine network.

Figure 15.4 DASH7 topology.

Figure 15.5 LTE‐M architecture for M2M communication.

Figure 15.6 Telegram splitting.

Figure 15.7 IoTivity structure.

Figure 15.8 IoTivity device stack and modules.

Figure 15.9 LoRaWAN architecture.

Figure 15.10 LoRa protocol stack.

Figure 15.11 Sigfox protocol stack.

Figure 15.12 Sigfox architecture.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 IoT protocols and applications.

Figure 16.2 MOM system architecture.

Figure 16.3 RESTful architecture.

Figure 16.4 Publish–subscriber model.

Figure 16.5 MQTT example.

Figure 16.6 MQTT over WebSockets.

Figure 16.7 MQTT‐SN architecture.

Figure 16.8 CoAP architecture.

Figure 16.9 CoAP proxy.

Figure 16.10 Overview of simple object access protocol.

Figure 16.11 AMQP architecture.

Figure 16.12 Data distribution service.

Figure 16.13 DDS architecture.

Figure 16.14 STOMP protocol architecture.

Figure 16.15 XMPP architecture.

Figure 16.16 LwM2M architecture.

Figure 16.17 HDP structure.

Figure 16.18 Original DPWS.

Figure 16.19 Proxy‐extended DPWS.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Open WSN protocol stack and architecture.

Figure 17.2 Tiny OS architecture.

Figure 17.3 FreeRTOS.

Figure 17.4 TI‐RTOS architecture.

Figure 17.5 RIOT OS.

Figure 17.6 Contiki communication components.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 IoT hierarchy.

Figure 18.2 IoT security requirements.

Figure 18.3 Security attacks in IoT.

Figure 18.4 Side channel attack.

Figure 18.5 Traffic analysis attack.

Figure 18.6 Hello flood attack.

Figure 18.7 Sinkhole attack.

Figure 18.8 Wormhole attack.

Figure 18.9 Sybil attack with multiple ID.

Figure 18.10 Replay attack.

Figure 18.11 DDoS attack.

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Tactile Internet operation.

Figure 19.2 Waste management.

Figure 19.3 E‐Health.

Figure 19.4 Smart agriculture application.

Figure 19.5 Irrigation system.

Figure 19.6 Smart farming dash/control board example.

Figure 19.7 WoT architecture.

Guide

Cover Page

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication Page

About the Author

Preface

List of Abbreviations

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Index

The ComSoc Guides to Communications Technologies

Wiley End User License Agreement

Pages

ii

iii

iv

v

xv

xvii

xix

xx

xxi

xxii

xxiii

xxiv

xxv

xxvi

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

256

257

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

265

266

267

268

269

270

271

272

273

274

275

277

278

279

280

281

282

283

284

285

286

287

288

289

290

291

292

293

294

295

296

297

298

299

301

302

303

304

305

306

307

308

309

311

312

313

314

315

316

317

318

319

IEEE Press445 Hoes LanePiscataway, NJ 08854

IEEE Press Editorial BoardSarah Spurgeon, Editor in Chief

Jón Atli Benediktsson  

Behzad Razavi  

Jeffrey Reed  

Anjan Bose  

Jim Lyke  

Diomidis Spinellis  

James Duncan  

Hai Li  

Adam Drobot  

Amin Moeness  

Brian Johnson  

Tom Robertazzi  

Desineni Subbaram Naidu  

Ahmet Murat Tekalp  

Evolution of Wireless Communication Ecosystems

Dr. Suat Seçgin

Copyright © 2023 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762‐2974, outside the United States at (317) 572‐3993 or fax (317) 572‐4002.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data applied for:Hardback ISBN: 9781394182312

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Dr Pixel/Getty Images

“I dedicate this book to my mother Bedriye Seçgin, to whom I owe everything.”

About the Author

Dr. Suat Seçgin has worked in the telecommunication sector for nearly 30 years in access systems, core networks, IT, and customer management. After completing his Electrical and Electronics Engineering undergraduate education, Dr. Seçgin received his master's degree in Computer Engineering on mobile networks and data access strategies. Subsequently, he earned his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering in data science and decision support systems.

He has publications in peer‐reviewed and indexed journals on customer analytics in the telecommunications industry, and this is his second book on telecommunication systems.

Preface

Since Alexander Graham Bell's first “hello” (1876), communication systems have witnessed revolutionary developments. These communication systems, which used to work entirely in circuit‐switching and wired transmission environments, are now turning into wireless systems, especially in access techniques, apart from the main backbone. Initially, copper wire circuits were used in communication, while fiber optic cables began in the 1990s. Today, fiber services are put into use in the home. In parallel with these developments in wired communication systems, wireless communication systems continue to develop rapidly. With the developments in multiplexing and modulation techniques, the bandwidth provided to each user is progressing at an increasing speed.

With the introduction of the Internet into our lives in the 1990s, Information Technologies and Communication Technologies began to converge. After this point, we started talking about Information Communication Technologies. Today, we live in scenarios where everything is connected to the vast Internet cloud with 4G, 5G, and 6G wireless communication systems. However, it is still in the fictional stage. Communication systems, previously used as discrete structures, are almost becoming living organisms thanks to this substantial interconnected communication infrastructure. It would be much more appropriate to call this cyber organism structure “Wireless Communication Ecosystem,” which extends from wireless sensor networks operating at the most extreme points to the edges. This is a gigantic ecosystem that extends from big data, artificial intelligence, blockchain, and machine learning to quantum communication on the one hand. The book is designed to explain the main elements of this ecosystem. If we liken this ecosystem to a human body, each body organ is introduced in the book.

Before going into the details of these systems, modulation and multiplexing techniques are also explained to understand the communication generations and to visualize the big picture in our minds. In addition to increasing the efficiency of the frequency spectrum, users were introduced to high‐frequency and high‐bandwidth by using multiplexing techniques together. Systems that used to work with classical circuit switching have evolved into packet switching‐based systems that provide flexible and scalable solutions.

With the convergence of communication and information systems, information and communications technology (ICT) systems were developed that radically changed our daily lives and created super‐intelligent societies. The support of software systems has led to paradigm shifts in network metrics such as management, security, configuration, scaling, resilience, and more.

Starting with 1G systems, we will talk about communication systems at terahertz levels that have developed due to spectrum‐efficient modulation techniques and advances in electronic circuits. In addition, users can receive services at high bandwidths using three‐dimensional multiplexing techniques.

Wireless communication systems, which continue to progress without slowing down, have evolved into the fifth‐generation communication systems as of the 2020s. Communication speeds up to 20 GHz with 5G, and thanks to these speeds, the concepts of ultrareliable low‐latency communication (uRLLC), enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), and massive machine‐type communication (mMTC) entered our lives. The transition occurred from the Internet of Things (IoT) to the Internet of Everything (IoE). Communication systems, applications, and services have become more intelligent using topics such as artificial intelligence, blockchain, and big data in the software field. Smart homes, smart cities, innovative health systems, and autonomous vehicles are now inseparable parts of our lives.

In the years when the book was written (2021/2022), 5G applications entered our lives, and the sixth‐generation communication systems, which will be put into use starting from the 2030s, became talked about and fictionalized. Along with 6G, concepts such as 3D networks, intelligent networks, quantum communication, blockchain technologies, deep learning, and programmable surfaces are designed together with communication infrastructures.

The book’s primary purpose is to describe the big picture of wireless communication generations and applications running on this communication medium. The book describes the infrastructure of 4G, 5G, and 6G systems, this all‐connected communication ecosystem, the subcomponents of this ecosystem, and the relationship among them.

Since IoT systems are an integral part of wireless communication infrastructure in parallel with 4G, 5G, and 6G systems, access techniques, protocols, and security issues for these systems are also explained in detail in our book. In addition to these access techniques, the methods used in M2M and IoT connections at the endpoints are given. Security is also a significant challenge in this ecosystem where everything is connected with everything. Vital security breaches, especially for terminals/users at the endpoint, are also described in the book.

In the first part, the basic concepts of communication systems are explained. In the following, the events seen in the capillaries of the communication echo system are described by explaining the switching techniques, modulation, and multiplexing techniques. Thus, it is aimed at understanding the applications running at higher levels. With this aspect, the book has been designed to guide the reader who wants to advance in each subject. The book, which has a pervasive literature review for each section, is also an essential resource for researchers.

Dr. Suat Seçgin

Electrical & Electronics Engineer (BSc)

Computer Engineer (MSc & PhD)

List of Abbreviations

3GPP

Third‐Generation Partnership Project

6LoWPAN

IPv6 over low‐power WPANs

A‐CSCF

Access Session Border Controller

ADSL

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

AM

Amplitude Modulation

AMPS

Advanced Mobile Phone System

AMQP

Advanced Message Queuing Protocol

ANN

Artificial Neural Network

ASK

Amplitude Shift Keying

ATM

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

AuC

Authentication Center

BBU

Baseband Unit

BER

Bit Error Rate

BGP

Border Gateway Protocol

BICN

Bearer‐Independent Core Network

BSC

Base Station Controller

BSS

Base Station Subsystem

BTS

Base Transceiver Station

CA

Carrier Aggregation

CDM

Code Division Multiplexing

CDMA

Code Division Multiple Access

CDR

Call Detail Record

CINR

Carrier to Interference + Noise Ratio

CIR

Channel Impulse Responses

CNN

Convolutional Neural Network

CoAP

Constrained Application Protocol

CPC

Continuous Packet Connectivity

C‐RAN

Cloud/Centralized Radio Access Network

CSCP

Call Session Control Function

DAS

Distributed Antenna System

DC

Dual Connectivity

DDoS

Distributed Denial of Service

DDS

Data Distribution Service

DNS

Domain Name System

DPWS

Devices Profile for Web Services

D‐RAN

Distributed Radio Access Network

DSCP

Differentiated Service Code Point

DTLS

Datagram Transport Layer Security

EDGE

Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution

EIR

Equipment Identity Register

eMBB

Enhanced Mobile Broadband

EPC

Evolved Packet Core

EV‐DO

Evolution‐Data Optimized

FDD

Frequency Division Duplexing

FDM

Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDMA

Frequency Division Multiple Access

FM

Frequency Modulation

FSK

Frequency Shift Keying

FTAM

File Transfer, Access, and Management

FTP

File Transfer Protocol

GAN

Generative Adversarial Network

GEO

Geosynchronous Equatorial Orbit

GERAN

GSM Edge Radio Access Network

GGSN

Gateway GPRS Support Node

GMSC

Gateway Mobile Switching Center

GPOS

General Purpose Operating System

GPRS

General Packet Radio Service

GSM

Global System for Mobile Communication

HART

Wireless Highway Addressable Remote Transducer Protocol (HART)

HLR

Home Location Register

HMIMOS

Holographic MIMO Surfaces

HSDPA

High‐Speed Downlink Packet Access

HSPA

High‐Speed Packet Access

HSUPA

High‐Speed Uplink Packet Access

IFFT

Inverse Fast Fourier Transformation

IMEI

International Mobile Equipment Identity Number

IMS

IP Multimedia Subsystem

IMSI

International Mobile Subscriber Identity Number

IM‐SSF

IP Multimedia Services Switching Function

IMT‐2000

International Mobile Telecommunication Standard‐2000

IN

Intelligent Network

IP

Internet Protocol

IrDA

Infrared Data Association

ISDN

Integrated Service Digital Network

ISI

Intersymbol Interference

ISM

Industrial, Scientific, and Medical

ISO

International Organization for Standardization

ITU

International Telecommunication Union

IWSN

Industrial Wireless Sensor Network

LEO

Low Earth Orbit

LiFi

Light Fidelity

LLC

Logical Link Control

LOS

Line of Sight

LPWAN

Low‐Power Wide‐Area Networks

LTE

Long‐Term Evolution

LTE‐M

Long‐Term Evolution for Machines

LTP

Lean Transport Protocol

M2M

Machine to Machine

MAC

Media Access Control

MAEC

Multi‐Access Edge Computing

MCC

Mobile Cloud Computing

MCS

Mobile Switching Center

MEC

Mobile Edge Computing

MEO

Medium Earth Orbit

MGW

Media Gateway

MIMO

Multiple Input Multiple Output

MIOT

Massive IoT

MLP

Multilayer Perceptrons

MME

Mobile Management Entity

MMS

Multimedia Messaging Service

mMTC

Massive Machine‐Type Communication

mmWave

Milimeter Wave

MOM

Message‐Oriented Middleware

MQTT

Message Queue Telemetry Transport Protocol

MSISDN

Mobile Subscriber Integrated Services Digital Network Number

NAMPS

Narrowband Advanced Mobile Phone

NB‐IoT

Narrowband IoT

NFC

Near Field Communication

NFV

Network Function Virtualization

NGN

Next‐Generation Networks

NMT

Nordic Mobile Telephone

NOMA

Non‐Orthogonal Multiple Access

NSS

Network Subsystem

OAMM

Orbital Angular Momentum Multiplexing

OFDM

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

OSA‐GW

Open Service Access Gateway

OSI

Open System Interconnection

OTT

Over the Top

OWC

Optical Wireless Communication

PAN

Personal Area Network

PAPR

Peak to Average Power Ratio

PCRF

Policy and Charging Rule Functions

P‐CSCF

Proxy Call Session Control Function

PCU

Packet Control Unit

PDM

Polarization Division Multiplexing

PDN

Public Data Network

PDU

Protocol Data Unit

PER

Packet Error Rate

PGW

PDN Gateway

PLC

Power Line Communication

PLMN

Public Land Mobile Network

PM

Phase Modulation

POTS

Plain Old Telephone System

PSK

Phase Shift Keying

PSTN

Public Switched Telephone Network

QAM

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

qDC

Quantum‐assisted Data Center

qEdge

Quantum‐assisted Edge Network

QKD

Quantum Key Distribution

QML

Quantum Machine Learning

QoE

Quality of Experience

QoS

Quality of Service

qRAN

Quantum‐assisted RAN

qSIN

Quantum Space Information Network

qWAI

Quantum‐assisted Wireless Artificial Intelligence

RAN

Radio Access Network

RAT

Radio Access Technology

REST

Representational State Transfer

RF

Radio Frequency

RFID

Radio Frequency Identification

RIS

Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces

RNC

Radio Network Controller

RNN

Recurrent Neural Networks

RPMA

Random Phase Multiple Access

RRH

Remote Radio Head

RRU

Remote Radio Unit

RTOS

Real‐Time Operating System

RTP

Real‐Time Transport Protocol

SCE

Service Creation Environment

SCP

Service Control Point

SC‐PTM

Single Cell‐Point to Multipoint

SDM

Spatial Division Multiplexing

SDN

Software Defined Network

SE

Spectral Efficiency

SGSN

Serving GPRS Support Node

S‐GW

Serving Gateway

SIC

Successive Interference Cancellation

SIM

Subscriber Identity Module

SINR

Signal Interference + Noise Ratio

SIP

Session Initiation Protocol

SLA

Service‐Level Agreement

SMS

Short Message Service

SMTP

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SNR

Signal to Noise Ratio

SOAP

Simple Object Access Protocol

SON

Self‐Organizing Network

SS7

Signaling System Number 7

STOMP

Simple Text‐Oriented Messaging Protocol

TACS

Total Access Communication System

TAS

Telephony Application Server

TCP

Transmission Control Protocol

TDD

Time Division Duplexing

TDM

Time Division Multiplexing

TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access

TFTP

Trivial File Transfer Protocol

TSCH

Time Slotted Channel Hopping

UCA

Uniform Circular Array

UCDC

Unconventional Data Communication

UMTS

Universal Mobile Telecommunication Standard

uRLLC

Ultra‐Reliable Low Latency Communication

UTRAN

UMTS Radio Access Network

VLC

Visible Light Communication

VLR

Visitor Location Register

VoLTE

Voice over LTE

VoWiFi

Voice over WiFi

VPN

Virtual Private Network

WAP

Wireless Application Protocol

WCDMA

Wideband Code Division Multiple Access

WDM

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

WIA‐PA

Wireless Network for Industrial Automation‐Process Automation

WiMAX

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access

WPAN

Wireless Personal Area Network

WSDL

Web Service Description Language

WSN

Wireless Sensor Network

WWAN

Wireless Wide Area Network

XMPP

Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol

1Basіc Concepts

1.1 Introduction

The input of a communication system is a sound, image, or text file to be transmitted to the other end. The output is naturally this original information signal, which goes through many processes (modulation, coding, multiplexing, etc.) until it reaches the end. This section explains the layers through which the information passes from where it enters the system to where it leaves.

1.2 Main Components of Communication Systems

The main components of an end‐to‐end communication system are the transmitter, transmission medium, and receiver (Figure 1.1). Any factor that negatively affects the operation of the system is called noise.

Information source:

The first step in sending a message is to convert it into an electronic form suitable for transmission. For voice messages, a microphone is used to convert the sound into an electronic audio signal. For TV, the camera converts the light information in the scene into a video signal. In computer systems, the message is typed on the keyboard and converted into binary codes that can be stored in memory or transmitted in serial. Transducers convert physical properties (temperature, pressure, light intensity, etc.) into electrical signals.

Transmitter:

The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and circuits designed to convert the electrical signal into a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium. Transmitters consist of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned circuits and filters, modulators, mixers, frequency synthesizers, and other circuits. The original signal is usually modulated with a higher frequency carrier sine wave produced by the transmitter and amplified by power amplifiers. Thus, the information signal is rendered transmittable in the transmission medium.

Figure 1.1 Block schema of a communication system.

Communication channel:

The communication channel is the medium in which the electronic signal is sent from one place to another. Many media types are used in communication systems, including wire conductors, fiber optic cable, and free space. Of these, electrical conductors can be a pair of wires that carry an audio signal from the microphone to the headphone. It could be a coaxial cable similar to that used to have signals. Or it could be a twisted‐pair cable used in a local area network (LAN). The communication medium may also be a fiber optic cable or “light pipe” that carries the message on a light wave. These are used today to carry out long‐distance calls and all Internet communications. The information is converted into a digital form that will be used to turn a laser diode on and off at high speeds. Alternatively, audio or video analog signals can be used to vary the amplitude of the light. When space is media, the resulting system is known as radio. Radio, also known as wireless, is the general term applied to any form of wireless communication from one point to another. Radio makes use of the electromagnetic spectrum. Information signals are converted into electric and magnetic fields that propagate almost instantly in space over long distances.

Receiver:

The receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the message transmitted through the channel and converts it back into a form that can be understood. Receivers include amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector that retrieves the original information signal from the modulated carrier. The output is the initial signal that is then read or displayed. It can be an audio signal sent to a speaker, a video signal fed to an LCD screen for display, or binary data received by a computer and then printed or displayed on a video monitor.

Transceiver:

Most electronic communications are two‐way. Therefore, both parties must have a transmitter and a receiver. As a result, most communications equipment contains both sending and receiving circuits. These units are often called transceivers. All transmitter and receiver circuits are packaged in a single enclosure and often share some common circuitry, such as the power supply. Telephones, walkie‐talkies, mobile phones, and computer modems are examples of transceivers.

Attenuation:

Regardless of the transmission medium, signal attenuation or degradation is inevitable. The attenuation is proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver. Media is also frequency selective because a particular medium acts as a low‐pass filter for a transmitted signal. Thus, digital pulses will be distorted, and the signal amplitude will significantly reduce over long distances. Therefore, a significant amount of signal amplification is required at both the transmitter and receiver for successful transmission. Any medium also slows signal propagation to a slower‐than‐light speed.

Noise:

Noise is mentioned here because it is one of the most important problems of all electronic communication. Its effect is experienced in the receiving part of any communication system. Therefore, we consider noise in

Chapter 9

as a more appropriate time. While some noise can be filtered out, the general way to minimize noise is to use components that contribute less noise and lower their temperature. The measure of noise is usually expressed in terms of the signal‐to‐noise ratio (SNR), which is the signal power divided by the noise power and can be expressed numerically or in decibels (dB). A very high SNR is preferred for the best performance.

1.3 Circuit, Packet, and Cell Switching

A circuit, packet, or cell switching technique is used on the communication line established to communicate two terminals at two opposite endpoints.

1.3.1 Circuit Switching

Circuit switching is the first method used in communication systems. When you somehow pull a cable (or establish a wireless link) between the two opposite ends that will communicate, we establish a circuit between the two terminals. A one‐to‐one connection between the terminals in the matrix structure and connected to the switching center (switchboard) with a circuit is established between the terminals that require connection by the switching center. Thus, a circuit is established (switched) that can only be used by those two terminals at the communication time. Since packet‐switched communication is widely used in today’s communication, virtual circuits specific to end terminals can be established by defining virtual paths on packet‐based circuits (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 Circuit switching.

In circuit switching, a link is established between both terminals, which is used only by these terminals. As long as the link connection is used, other terminals cannot use this line. As we mentioned earlier, only two terminals can use the virtual circuits established on the packet‐switched circuits (for example, an IP network). A virtual private network (VPN) can be given as an application example. Unlike packet‐switched circuits, the capacities of unused circuits cannot be transferred to currently used circuits. In this sense, circuit switching is insufficient for the efficient use of transmission lines.

1.3.2 Packet Switching

We have mentioned that in the circuit switching technique, a “dedicated” circuit is installed on the terminals at the opposite ends, which is used only by these two terminals at the time of communication. The circuit switching technique is insufficient due to limited bandwidths and increasing communication speed needs. Even if the connected terminals do not exchange information over the circuit, other terminals cannot use this circuit. The packet switching technique divides the data to be transmitted into packets. Each of these packets contains the address of the sender (IP) and the receiver’s addresses. These packets are left to the transmission medium and delivered to their destination via packet switching devices (switch, router, etc.). Thus, a transmission medium can be used by hundreds of terminals (millions if we consider the Internet environment) instead of being divided into only two terminals (Figure 1.3).

We can compare the packet switching circuit to highways where hundreds of vehicles (packages) are present simultaneously. Each vehicle proceeds on the same road (backbone) and reaches its destination by entering secondary roads when necessary. The critical limitation is the slowdowns due to increased vehicle (package) traffic. In this case, traffic engineering methods come into play and make essential optimizations on the network to prevent jams.

Figure 1.3 Packet switching.

1.3.3 Cell Switching

We can describe cell‐switched systems as a mixture of the circuit and packet‐switched systems. What is decisive here is that the packet lengths are divided into tiny packets of 53 bytes in size. A circuit is then virtually allocated between opposing terminals (physically on a single line). These small packets are exchanged extremely quickly over these dedicated virtual circuits (Figure 1.4). Virtual circuits not transmitting packets for a certain period are closed and re‐established when necessary.

Figure 1.4 Cell switching.

1.4 Duplexing in Communication

In communication systems, information can be exchanged in three different ways between two mutual communication terminals. In simplex communication (Figure 1.5a), the transmitter is broadcasting continuously. Classical radio broadcasting can be given as an example of this type of communication.

On the other hand, simultaneous telephone conversations are a good example of full‐duplex communication (Figure 1.5b). In this type of communication, the terminals perform both the receiving and transmitting functions at the same time.

Finally, the type of communication in which one of the terminals acts as a receiver and the other as a transmitter at a given time interval is called half‐duplex communication (Figure 1.5c). While one terminal transmits information, the other is in a listening state, and these roles change according to the need during the conversation. Conversations made from police radio devices can be given as an example of this type of communication.

In wireless communication systems, one channel should be reserved for upload/transmit and one for download (receive) for the terminal in connection with the base station. Two doubling techniques create this simultaneous transmission environment: frequency division duplexing (FDD) and time division duplexing (TDM). In the FDD mechanism, two‐way communication is carried out by defining different frequency ranges (carriers) for each of the transmit/receive channels. In the TDM mechanism, two‐way communication is provided by sending at a given moment of t1 and receiving at a consecutive moment of t2 [1].

Figure 1.5 Duplexing methods. (a) Simplex; (b) full‐duplex; (c) half‐duplex.

1.5 Historical Developments of Wireless Communication Systems

Starting with 1G systems (1980), we will talk about communication systems at tera hertz levels with spectrum efficient modulation techniques and advances in electronic circuits. Additionally, users can receive services at high bandwidths using three‐dimensional multiplexing techniques.

Wireless mobile communication systems, which started with only voice calls (1G) in the 1980s, were introduced into our lives with the 2G short message service (SMS) in the 1990s. In both generations, communication was carried out using circuit switching techniques. On the other hand, the third‐generation (3G) systems have been a turning point. With this generation, packet‐switched (data) services have been used in the wireless communication ecosystem. With 3G, multimedia content started to be used among users in the 2000s. With 4G, communication was carried out entirely with packet switching; thus, users could operate 24/7 Internet access. Although machine‐to‐machine communication exists, we have now met the Internet of things (IoT) concept with 4G (Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6 Evolution of wireless communication systems.

Wireless communication systems, which continue to progress without slowing down, have evolved into the fifth‐generation communication systems as of the 2020s. Communication speeds up to 20 GHz with 5G, and thanks to these speeds, the concepts of ultra‐reliable low latency communication (uRLLC), enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), and massive machine type communication (mMTC) entered our lives. The transition phase from the IoT to the Internet of everything occurred at this stage. Communication systems, applications, and services have become much more intelligent using topics such as artificial intelligence, blockchain, and big data in the software field. Smart homes, smart cities, intelligent health systems, and autonomous vehicles are now inseparable parts of our lives.

In the years when the book was written (2021/2022), 5G applications entered our lives, and the sixth‐generation communication systems, which will be put into use starting from the 2030s, became talked about and fictionalized. Concepts such as 6G and 3D networks, intelligent networks, quantum communication, blockchain technologies, deep learning, and programmable surfaces are designed together with communication infrastructures.

With the wireless communication systems enabling high‐speed connection anytime and anywhere, the concept of IoT has started to take more place in our lives.

Reference

1

Frenzel, L.E. (2016).

Principles of Electronic Communication Systems

. New York: McGraw‐Hill Education.

2Modulation and Demodulation

2.1 Introduction

Before explaining the communication generations in the book, it is helpful to mention the concepts that will form the basis of communication. When the reader has an idea about modulation and demodulation, the view of the systems that will be explained in steps will become more meaningful. Without modulation and demodulation techniques, there would be no telecommunication systems. In this regard, the reader should have a good understanding of these concepts before moving on to more advanced topics.

2.2 What Are Modulation and Demodulation?

Before moving on to the details of modulation techniques, let us try to explain the subject with an analogy. Imagine you have a piece of paper with information on it. We aim to transmit this information over a long distance (for example, to a friend 100 m away). If we try to throw the information sheet to our friend by arm strength, the paper will not exceed a few meters. But if we wrap (modulate) this paper in a small piece of rock (carrier), we can easily send the data to our friend. Our friend, who receives the data wrapped in the rock, will be able to read the information we send by scraping the paper from the stone (demodulation) (Figure 2.1).