Facing Hydrometeorological Extreme Events E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Hydrometeorological Extreme Events
- Sprache: Englisch
Provides an understanding of the relationship between social-ecological systems and multilevel governance so that readers can properly deal with hydrometeorological extreme events and hazards Based on field investigations from EU research projects, this book is the first to devote itself to scientific and policy-related knowledge concerning climate change-induced extreme events. It depicts national and international strategies, as well as tools used to improve multilevel governance for the management of hydrometeorological risks. It also demonstrates how these strategies play out over different scales of the decision-making processes. Facing Hydrometeorological Extreme Events: A Governance Issue offers comprehensive coverage of such events as floods, droughts, coastal storms, and wind storms. It showcases real-life success stories of multilevel governance and highlights the individuals involved and the resources mobilized in the decision-making processes. The book starts by presenting a synthesis of hydrometeorological extreme events and their impacts on society. It then demonstrates how societies are organizing themselves to face these extreme events, focusing on the strategies of integration of risk management in governance and public policy. In addition, it includes the results of several EU-funded projects such as CLIMB, STARFLOOD, and INTERREG IVB project DROP. * The first book dedicated to hydrometeorological extreme events governance based on field investigations from EU research projects * Offers a "multi-hazards" approach--mixing policy, governance, and field investigations' main outputs * Features the results of EU-funded projects addressing hydrometeorological extreme events * Part of the Hydrometeorological Extreme Events series Facing Hydrometeorological Extreme Events is an ideal book for upper-graduate students, postgraduates, researchers, scientists, and policy-makers working in the field.
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Table of Contents
Cover
List of Contributors
Editors
The Series Editor
Series Preface
Part I: Introduction
1 Governance Challenges Facing Hydrometeorological Extreme Events
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Facing hydrometeorological extreme events
1.3 Floods
1.4 Drought
1.5 Coastal storms
1.6 Governance issues related to hydrometeorological extreme events
References
2 Overview of the Content of the Book
2.1 Floods
2.2 Droughts
2.3 Coastal storms
Part II: Floods
II.1: Actors Involved in Flood Risk Management
3 European Actors Facing Floods Risks
3.1 European actors in the field of civil security: A competence which develops within a strict framework of cooperation between the Member States
3.2 European actors in the field of the environment: Powers that are paradoxically limited
3.3 European actors in the field of agriculture: Could there be specific powers to deal with floods?
3.4 Conclusion
References
4 Multi‐actor, Multilevel Assessment of Social Capacity for Community Engagement in Flood Risk Preparedness: Results of Implementation in Five European Cases
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Social capacity building framework for community engagement
4.3 The capacity assessment tool
4.4 Indicators and case findings
4.5 Conclusions
References
II.2: Strategies, Instruments, and Resources Used to Face Floods
5 Flood Risks Perceptions and Goals/Ambitions
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The problem stream: Perceptions on increased flood risks
5.3 The policy stream: Perceptions on the solutions needed to deal with increased flood risks
5.4 The political stream: Willingness to take action
5.5 International policies
5.6 European directives and policy documents
5.7 Experiences with flood risk management in other countries
5.8 Research on impacts and adaptation
5.9 Economic costs (of inaction)
5.10 Facilitating factors
5.11 Factors contributing to agenda‐setting
5.12 Conclusions
References
6 Instruments for Strategies to Face Floods through Prevention, Mitigation, and Preparation in Europe: The Age of Alignment
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Conceptual framework
6.3 Comparison. Similarities and differences in flood instruments' implementation in Europe
6.4 Discussion. Political effects, power relations, and governance choices in flood management: What do flood instruments teach?
6.5 Conclusion
References
II.3: Lessons from Cases of Flood Governance
7 A House of Cards: The Challenge of Establishing Societal Resilience to Flooding Through Multi‐Layered Governance in England
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Deciphering multi‐layered governance
7.3 Methodology
7.4 Flood‐risk governance and implications for societal resilience
7.5 Reflections on the ‘house of cards’ of flood risk governance
References
8 Understanding Dutch Flood‐Risk Management: Principles and Pitfalls
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Historical background
8.3 The concept of public interest
8.4 Solidarity and subsidiarity
8.5 Resilience
8.6 Challenges and pitfalls
8.7 Conclusion and recommendations
References
9 Flood Governance in France: From Hegemony to Diversity in the French Flood‐Risk Management Actors' Network
9.1 Flood‐risk management governance: A stakeholders' network still dominated by central government and municipalities
9.2 Inter‐municipalities as new players within the French FRM governance
9.3 Where are citizens in FRM?
9.4 Conclusion
References
10 Flood‐Risk Governance in Belgium: Towards a Resilient, Efficient, and Legitimate Arrangement?
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Evaluation framework
10.3 Methods
10.4 Flood risk governance in Belgium
10.5 Comparing intra‐state developments
10.6 Evaluating resilience, efficiency, and legitimacy
10.7 Conclusion
References
Part III: Droughts
III.1: Actors Involved in Drought Risk Management
11 European Actors and Institutions Involved in Water Scarcity and Drought Policy
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Actors in the European Union related to WS&D policy
11.3 Roles and powers of European actors and institutions involved in WS&D policy
11.4 Mapping European actors and institutions involved in WS&D policy
11.5 Discussion
11.6 Conclusion
References
12 National and Local Actors of Drought Governance in Europe: A Comparative Review of Six Cases from North‐West Europe
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Methodology
12.3 Assessment of the national and local actors of drought governance
12.4 Conclusions and recommendations
References
III.2: Strategies, Instruments, and Resources Used to Face Droughts
13 Awareness of Drought Impacts in Europe: The Cause or the Consequence of the Level of Goal Ambitions?
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Drought governance analysis based on two methodological approaches
13.3 Case studies in NWE
13.4 Case studies in the Mediterranean region
13.5 Drought perceptions and goal ambitions in NWE
13.6 Drought perceptions and goal ambitions in the Mediterranean region
13.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
14 Strategies and Instruments to Face Drought and Water Scarcity
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Reactive measures
14.3 Preventive measures
14.4 Adaptive measures
14.5 Supportive measures
14.6 Discussion and overview
References
III.3: Lessons from Cases of Droughts Governance
15 Multilevel Governance for Drought Management in Flanders: Using a Centralized and Data Driven Approach
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Water management in Flanders
15.3 Past and future drought events
15.4 Governance dimensions for Flemish drought management
15.5 Summary and recommendations
References
16 Drought Governance in the Eifel‐Rur Region: The Interplay of Fixed Frameworks and Strong Working Relationships
16.1 Introduction
16.2 The water resources system in the Eifel‐Rur region
16.3 Beyond the water board: The role of other governance levels in Eifel‐Rur's water management
16.4 The drought perspective on Eifel‐Rur's water governance
16.5 Conclusions: Factors for current and future success
References
17 Adaptation of Water Management to Face Drought and Water Scarcity: Lessons Learned from Two Italian Case Studies
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Water management in Italy and the autonomous regime
17.3 The Rio Mannu catchment
17.4 The Noce catchment
17.5 Comparative analysis and discussion
17.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
18 Power Asymmetries, Migrant Agricultural Labour, and Adaptation Governance in Turkey: A Political Ecology of Double Exposures
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Double Exposures and political ecology of vulnerability
18.3 Case study and methods
18.4 A political ecology of Double Exposure in Kapı village
18.5 Discussion
18.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
19 Drought Governance in Catalonia: Lessons Learnt?
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Drought management in Spain
19.3 Drought management in Catalonia
19.4 Drought crisis in Catalonia 2007–2008
19.5 Drought planning in Catalonia after the crisis
19.6 Deliberative public participation in drought management: Need, obligation, and opportunity
19.7 Conclusions
References
20 What Could Change Drought Governance in Europe?: A Comparative Analysis between Two Case Studies in France and the UK
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Vilaine catchment and Arzal dam
20.3 Somerset Levels and moors
20.4 Methodology
20.5 Results and discussion
20.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Part IV: Coastal and Wind Storms
IV.1: Actors Involved in Coastal Risks Prevention and Management
21 Sustainable Communities and Multilevel Governance in the Age of Coastal Storms
21.1 Introduction: Addressing a social‐ecological system
21.2 Harmonizing coastal management, disaster risk reduction, and climate change adaptation goals through meaningful public participation
21.3 As a response, are national climate change strategies efficient enough?
21.4 Key principles and responses for building sustainable, hazard‐resilient communities
21.5 Conclusion: ‘Hazard‐resilient’ communities vs. ‘waves of adversity’
References
IV.2: Strategies, Instruments, and Resources Used to Face Coastal Risks Prevention
22 European Challenges to Coastal Management from Storm Surges: Problem‐Structuring Framework and Actors Implicated in Responses
22.1 Storm surge threats in European coasts
22.2 European governance
22.3 Discussion and conclusions
22.4 Conclusions
References
23 Perceptions of Extreme Coastal Events: The Case of the French Atlantic and Mediterranean Coasts
23.1 Contemporary society is increasingly unaware of risks related to the sea
23.2 Multiple factors behind the gradual dwindling of the ‘culture of coastal risks’
23.3 What recommendations for public policy emerge from this research into the perceptions and representations of risks?
23.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
IV.3: Lessons from Cases of Coastal Risks Governance
24 After Xynthia on the Atlantic Coast of France: Preventive Adaptation Methods
24.1 Introduction
24.2 A normal storm in terms of natural hazard but a major coastal flood due to the concomitance of the meteorological and marine agents
24.3 A tragic human and expensive material toll due to the addition of natural factors and management issues
24.4 Post‐Xynthia policy: A new strategy for coastal management in France
24.5 Life‐saving maps: New geographical tools for a better coastal management
24.6 Discussion about these different methods
24.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
25 Coastal Flooding and Storm Surges: How to Improve the Operational Response of the Risk Management Authorities: An Example of the CRISSIS Research Program on the French Coast of Languedoc
25.1 Introduction
25.2 The coastal flood hazard and its likely evolution
25.3 Vulnerability of the stakes
25.4 Social representations and perceptions of the coastal flooding risk
25.5 Crisis management
25.6 Conclusion
References
26 Lessons Learnt from Coastal Risks Governance on Reunion Island, Indian Ocean, France
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Context of the study
26.3 Impacts of TC Bejisa and post‐cyclone stakeholders' responses
26.4 Key findings and challenges for adaptation to climate change
26.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
27 Lessons from Cases of Coastal Risks Governance in the United Kingdom
27.1 Introduction: Windstorms and their impacts in the UK
27.2 Events that have shaped governance of natural disasters in the UK
27.3 New developments in the warning environment
27.4 How the warning systems work now
27.5 Current and future issues
References
Part V: Conclusions, Perspectives
28 Hydrometeorological Extreme Events’ Effects on Populations: A Cognitive Insight on Post‐Traumatic Growth, Resilience Processes and Mental Well‐Being
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Resilient ecological systems for a psychological concept
28.3 Psychosocial factors and post‐traumatic growth
28.4 Building resilience to mitigate social vulnerability
28.5 Post‐traumatic growth: Training for preventive psychological strategies
28.6 Modern initiatives to coordinate a global governance
28.7 The EU coordination to build up integrated resilient governance to decrease impacts on health and wellbeing due to hydrometeorological extreme events
28.8 Elements of conclusion
References
29 Overview of Multilevel Governance Strategies for Hydrometeorological Extreme Events
29.1 Governance specificities depending on hydrometeorological extreme events
29.2 Actor systems facing hydrometeorological extreme events
29.3 Perception and strategies
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Use Likert scale below to quantify indicators. When implemented, th...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Flood risk management strategies: definitions from Hegger et al. (2...
Table 6.2 Typology of policy instruments.
Table 6.3 Prevention strategy instruments.
Table 6.4 Mitigation strategy instruments.
Table 6.5 Preparation strategy instruments.
Table 6.6 Defence strategy instruments.
Table 6.7 Recovery strategy instruments.
Table 6.8 Classification of instruments per strategy.
Table 6.9 Instrumentation pattern in England.
Table 6.10 Instrumentation pattern in the Netherlands.
Table 6.11 Instrumentation pattern in France.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Benchmarks for determining the extent to which flood risk governanc...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Watercourse managers for different watercourse categories.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Non‐comprehensive overview of European Union Institutions and rela...
Table 11.2 Roles and powers of European actors and institutions involved inwa...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Overview of the six cases included in the review.
Table 12.2 Assessment of the ‘actors and networks’ dimension in the six cases...
Table 12.3 Recommendations regarding the national and local actors.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Matrix form of the governance assessment tool.
Table 13.2 Main characteristics of the five case studies.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Drought management instruments overview.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Level of government and position as regards the Ebro transfer.
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Comparative analysis of five national climate change strategies.
Table 21.2 Comparative analysis of two national climate change strategies wit...
Table 21.3 Definition of coastal partnerships.
Table 21.4 Some examples of recovery focus areas.
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Significant European storm surges over the last century and manage...
Table 22.2 Actors at the national, regional, and global levels for coastal ri...
Table 22.3 The 10‐tenets framework with examples of management responses rela...
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Resident and visiting populations relatively unaware of risks related...
Table 23.2 Distribution of the surveys in Leucate according to living area and r...
Chapter 25
Table 25.1 Criteria and indicators of human and material vulnerabilities.
Chapter 26
Table 26.1 Impacts of TC Bejisa on beach‐dune systems along the Saint‐Paul co...
Table 26.2 Destructive impacts of TC Bejisa on human assets (Duvat et al. 201...
Table 26.3 Impacts of TC Bejisa on coastal protection structures and post‐cyc...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Percentage distribution for relevant weather‐related losses in Eu...
Figure 1.2 Percentage distribution for relevant weather‐related loss events ...
Figure 1.3 Percentage distribution for relevant weather‐related loss events ...
Figure 1.4 Framework for risk governance adapted from the International Risk...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Key drivers and key facilitating factors for political commitment...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Belgium and its regions.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Institutional mapping of water scarcity and drought (WS&D) manag...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Location of the six case studies in North West Europe.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Location of the case studies in Northwestern Europe.
Figure 13.2 Location of the case studies in the Mediterranean region.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Overview of the four river basins in Flanders and location of th...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1
Wasserverband Eifel‐Rur
(Eifel‐Rur Water board, WVER) reg...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 The Rio Mannu catchment (Rio di San Sperate) in Sardinia.
Figure 17.2 The Flumendosa‐Campidano‐Cixerri system. ).
Figure 17.3 Rio Noce catchment, watercourse, and reservoirs.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Map of Seyhan river basin.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Hydrological areas in Catalonia, Ter‐Llobregat‐Besòs system, and...
Figure 19.2 Chronological milestones of drought crisis in Catalonia 2007–200...
Figure 19.3 Measures contemplated in the Special Drought Plan (SDP) of the i...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Location of the Vilaine catchment, the Arzal dam, and the zone o...
Figure 20.2 Location of the Somerset Levels and Moors and hydrological catch...
Figure 20.3 Process model with the actor characteristics used in contextual ...
Figure 20.4 Contextual interaction theory in the Vilaine catchment during in...
Figure 20.5 Contextual interaction theory in the Vilaine catchment with clim...
Figure 20.6 Contextual interaction theory in Somerset before 2014 floods.
Figure 20.7 Contextual interaction theory in Somerset after 2014 floods.
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Hybrid governance arrangements.
Figure 21.2 The four orders of coastal governance outcomes.
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 DPSIR framework.
Figure 22.2 DAPSI(W)R(M) framework Elliott et al. (2017).
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Location of scientific studies conducted in mainland France into t...
Figure 23.2 The town of Leucate and its resort areas on the Languedoc coast in...
Figure 23.3 Perceptions of the sea and the risk of coastal flooding in Leucate...
Figure 23.4 Monument commemorating the February 1953 storm in Zeeland, clearly...
Figure 23.5 Trees pained blue in La Rochelle to demonstrate the water level re...
Figure 23.6 During a storm in the 2010s, the seafront houses in the Eden resid...
Figure 23.7 Comparison between perception of the flood risk at Leucate‐Plage a...
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 Impact of Storm Xynthia on the French Atlantic coast, between th...
Figure 24.2 Criteria to define the ‘black zone’ where houses were destroyed ...
Figure 24.3 RPP coastal flooding adoptions from 1995 to 2012.
Figure 24.4 Number of buildings in Noirmoutier Island for the four municipal...
Figure 24.5 Number of buildings in the municipality of L'Epine on Noirmoutie...
Figure 24.6 Map of vulnerable buildings in the municipality of L'Epine on No...
Figure 24.7 The VIE index methodology (Creach et al. 2015b).
Figure 24.8 VIE index results for Noirmoutier Island with a Xynthia scenario...
Figure 24.9 Mapping of the VIE index on L'Epine using the Xynthia event leve...
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Location of study area.
Figure 25.2 Chained modelling method with downscaling approach.
Figure 25.3 Flooded area in Leucate Plage associated to the crisis exercise ...
Figure 25.4 Feedback methodology.
Figure 25.5 Conventional crisis unit organizational framework. Situation uni...
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 Location map and sketch map showing the main coastal morphologic...
Figure 26.2 Detailed map of the study area. This figure shows (i) the limits...
Figure 26.3 Tropical cyclone tracks near Reunion Island (1948–2014)
Figure 26.4 Morphological impacts of TC Bejisa in the northern part of Saint...
Figure 26.5 Morphological impacts of TC Bejisa in the central part of Boucan...
Figure 26.6 Flooding of the Saint‐Gilles marina during TC Bejisa.
Figure 26.7 Timelines of the responses by public authorities and coastal res...
Figure 26.8 Strategies deployed by the coastal residents of Saint‐Paul munic...
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1 The surface pressure pattern at the time of the 1953 storm surge...
Figure 27.2 Surface pressure pattern at the time of the peak damage over sou...
Figure 27.3 Highest wind gust speeds recorded across England on the night of...
Guide
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Table of Contents
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Other Hydrometeorological Extreme Events Titles
Hydrometeorological Hazards: Interfacing Science and PolicyEdited by Philippe Quevauviller
Coastal Storms: Processes and ImpactsEdited by Paolo Ciavola and Giovanni Coco
Drought: Science and PolicyEdited by Ana Iglesias, Dionysis Assimacopoulos, and Henny A.J. Van Lanen
Forthcoming Titles:
Flash Floods Early Warning Systems: Policy and PracticeEdited by Daniel Sempere‐Torres
Facing Hydrometeorological Extreme Events
A Governance Issue
Edited by
Isabelle La Jeunesse
University of ToursDepartment of GeographyLaboratory CNRS 7324 CiteresMaison des Sciences de l'Homme33, allée Ferdinand de LessepsB. P. 6044937204 Tours cedex 3France
Corinne Larrue
Université Paris‐Est CréteilEcole d’Urbanisme de Paris Lab’urbaBâtiment Bienvenüe – A32214‐20 boulevard NewtonCité Descartes – Champs‐sur‐Marne77454 Marne‐la‐Vallée Cedex 2France
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: La Jeunesse, Isabelle, editor. | Larrue, Corinne, editor.Title: Facing hydrometeorological extreme events : a governance issue / [edited by] Isabelle La Jeunesse, Corinne Larrue.Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2019. | Series: Hydrometeorological hazards : interfacing science and policy | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2019017936 (print) | LCCN 2019980282 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119383543 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781119383468 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119383550 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Hydrometeorology–Government policy. | Hydrological forecasting. | Flood control. | Drought management.Classification: LCC GB2803.2 .F34 2019 (print) | LCC GB2803.2 (ebook) | DDC 363.34/92–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019017936LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019980282
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List of Contributors
Meghan AlexanderSchool of Earth & Ocean Sciences, Cardiff University, Wales, United Kingdom
Brice AnselmeInstitut de Géographie, Laboratory CNRS 8586 PRODIG, Université Paris 1 Panthéon‐Sorbonne, Paris, France
Alba BallesterAutonomous University of Barcelona‐Institute of Government and Public Policies, Barcelona, Spain
Suzanne BoyesInstitute of Estuarine and Coastal Studies, University of Hull, United Kingdom
Hans BressersDepartment of Governance and Technology for Sustainability, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
Nanny BressersFormer Project Leader of the European DROP Project at the Water Authority of Vechtstromen, now a Consultant at Vindsubsidies. Uthrecht, the Netherlands
Alison BrowneDepartment of Geography, Sustainable Consumption Institute, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
Elie Chevillot‐MiotLaboratory CNRS 6554 LETG‐Nantes, University of Nantes, Nantes, France
Claudia CirelliLaboratory CNRS 7324 Citeres, University of Tours, Tours, France
Ann CrabbéUniversity of Antwerp, Faculty of Social Sciences, Centre for Research on Environmental and Social Change, Antwerp, Belgium
Axel CreachLaboratory CNRS 8185 ENeC, Paris Sorbonne University, Paris, France
Paul DurandLaboratory of physical geography CNRS 8591 LGP, Université Paris 1 Panthéon‐Sorbonne, Paris, France
Virginie K.E. DuvatLaboratory CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle University, La Rochelle, France
Michael ElliottInstitute of Estuarine and Coastal Studies, University of Hull, United Kingdom
Marie FournierLaboratoire Géomatique et Foncier (GeF) – Équipe ERADIF (Aménagement, Droit immobilier, Foncier), École Supérieure des Géomètres et Topographes (CNAM), Le Mans, France
Mauro GalluccioExternal Speaker to the European Commission, DG COMM, Brussels, BelgiumEANAM – European Association for Negotiation and Mediation, Brussels, Belgium
Lydie Goeldner‐GianellaLaboratory of physical geography CNRS 8591 LGP, Université Paris 1 Panthéon‐Sorbonne, Paris, France
Brian GoldingMet Office, Exeter, United Kingdom
Mathilde GralepoisLaboratory CNRS 7324 Citeres, University of Tours, Tours, France
Yves HenocqueMaritime Policy and Governance, French Research Institute for the Development of the Sea, IFREMER, Paris, France
Giorgos KallisInstitut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals (ICTA), Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona and Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
Stefan KuksDepartment of governance and technology for sustainability, CSTM, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands and Vechstromen Water Authority, The Netherlands
Abel La CalleAutonomous University of Barcelona, Institute of Government and Public Policy, Barcelona, Spain
Isabelle La JeunesseLaboratory CNRS 7324 Citeres, University of Tours, Tours, France
Ruta LandgrebeEcologic Institute, Berlin, Germany
Corinne LarrueLab’Urba, Ecole d'Urbanisme de Paris, Université Paris Est Créteil, Marne‐La‐Vallée, France
Esmeralda LongépéeLaboratory 228 Espace‐DEV, University of Mayotte, Mayotte, France
Alexandre K. MagnanInstitute for Sustainable Development and International Relations, Sciences Po, Paris, France
Hannelore MeesDepartment of sociology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
Denis MercierLaboratory CNRS 8185 ENeC, Paris Sorbonne University, Paris, France
Virginia MurrayPublic Health England, London, United Kingdom
Alexandre Nicolae‐LermaBRGM Nouvelle‐Aquitaine, French Geological Survey, Pessac, France
Lila Oriard ColinLab’Urba, Institut d’Urbanisme de Paris, Université Paris Est Créteil, Marne‐La‐Vallée, France
Gül ÖzerolDepartment of Governance and Technology for Sustainability, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
Sophie PardoEconomics and management laboratory LEMNA, University of Nantes, Nantes, France
Sally PriestFlood Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex University, London, United Kingdom
Thomas SchellenbergerEuropean Center for Research on the Law of Collective Accidents and Disasters (CERDACC), IUT de Colmar, Université de Haut‐Alsace, Colmar, France
Ulf SteinEcologic Institute, Berlin, Germany
Jenny TröltzschEcologic Institute, Berlin, Germany
Ethemcan TurhanLaboratory of Environmental Humanities, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Rodrigo VidaurreEcologic Institute, Berlin, Germany
Thomas WaitePublic Health England, London, United Kingdom
Mark WieringRadboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Christos ZografosEnvironmental science and technology Institute ICTA, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Editors
Isabelle La Jeunesse is Lecturer Habilitated to direct research in Environmental Geography at the University of Tours and in the laboratory CNRS Citeres. She defended a thesis carried out at Ifremer on the anthropization of the phosphorus geochemical cycle and its implications for the eutrophication management of the Thau coastal lagoon. Since then, she has focused her research on the impact of human activities on water and the needs of integrated management of this resource at the catchment scale. Her participation in European research programmes has fuelled the necessarily interdisciplinary vision of water management from environmental sciences to social sciences in the context of existing pressures, including climate change and hydrometeorological extreme events.
Corinne Larrue (1957) is Professor of urban and environmental planning at the University of Paris Est Créteil since 2013, and previously was Professor at University of Tours for 20 years. Within the University she has been (2014–2018) co‐director of the Paris School of Planning, one of the most important institutes for urban planning in France and is currently member of the Lab’urba research center.
Her major field of research, teaching, and expertise is policy analysis with emphasis on environmental and regional policies. She has coordinated and participated in several comparative research projects within the European Union Framework Programmes, dealing with implementation of environmental policy issues. She has published numerous academic papers and books devoted to environmental policy analysis and on public policy management.
The Series Editor
Philippe Quevauviller began his research activities in 1983 at the University of Bordeaux I, France, studying lake geochemistry. Between 1984 and 1987 he was Associate Researcher at the Portuguese Environment State Secretary where he performed a multidisciplinary study (sedimentology, geomorphology, and geochemistry) of the coastal environment of the Galé coastline and of the Sado Estuary, which was the topic of his PhD degree in Oceanography gained in 1987 (at the University of Bordeaux I).
In 1988, he became Associate Researcher in the framework of a contract between the University of Bordeaux I and the Dutch Ministry for Public Works (Rijskwaterstaat), in which he investigated organotin contamination levels of Dutch coastal environments and waterways. From this research work, he gained another PhD in chemistry at the University of Bordeaux I in 1990. From 1989 to 2002, he worked at the European Commission (DG Research) in Brussels where he managed various Research and Technological Development (RTD) projects in the field of quality assurance, analytical method development and pre‐normative research for environmental analyses in the framework of the Standards, Measurements and Testing Programme. In 1999, he obtained an HDR (Diplôme d'Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches) in chemistry at the University of Pau, France, from a study of the quality assurance of chemical species' determination in the environment.
In 2002, he left the research world to move to the policy sector at the EC Environment Directorate‐General where he developed a new EU Directive on groundwater protection against pollution and chaired European science‐policy expert groups on groundwater and chemical monitoring in support of the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive. He moved back to the ECDGResearch in 2008, where he acted as research Programme Officer and managed research projects on climate change impacts on the aquatic environment and on hydrometeorological hazards, whilst ensuring strong links with policy networks. In April 2013 he moved to another area of work, namely Security Research, at the EC DG Enterprise and Industry where he is research Programming and Policy Officer in the fields of Crisis Management and CBRN.
Besides his EC career, Philippe Quevauviller has remained active in academic and scientific developments. He is Associate Professor at the Free University of Brussels and promoter of Master theses in an international Master on Water Engineering (IUPWARE programme), which is under this function that he is acting as Series Editor of the Hydrometeorological Extreme Events Series for Wiley. He also teaches integrated water management issues and their links to EU water science and policies to Master students of the EurAquae programme at the Polytech'Nice (France).
Philippe Quevauviller has published (as author and coauthor) more than 220 scientific and policy publications in the international literature, 54 book chapters, 80 reports and 6 books and has acted as an editor and co‐editor for 26 special issues of scientific journals and 15 books. He also coordinated a book series for Wiley on Water Quality Measurements which resulted in 10 books published between 2000 and 2011.
Series Preface
The rising frequency and severity of hydrometeorological extreme events have been reported in many studies and surveys, including the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report. This report and other sources highlight the increasing probability that these events are partly driven by climate change, whilst other causes are linked to the increased exposure and vulnerability of societies in exposed areas (which are not only due to climate change but also to mismanagement of risks and ‘lost memories’ about them). Efforts are ongoing to enhance today's forecasting, prediction, and early warning capabilities in order to improve the assessment of vulnerability and risks and to develop adequate prevention, mitigation, and preparedness measures.
This book series, titled ‘Hydrometeorological Extreme Events’, has the ambition to gather available knowledge in this area, taking stock of research and policy developments at an international level. Whilst individual publications exist on specific hazards, the proposed series is the first of its kind to propose an enlarged coverage of various extreme events that are generally studied by different (not necessarily interconnected) research teams.
The series comprises several volumes dealing with the various aspects of hydrometeorological extreme events, primarily discussing science–policy interfacing issues, and developing specific discussions about floods, coastal storms (including storm surges), droughts, resilience and adaptation, and governance. Whilst the books examine the crisis management cycle as a whole, the focus of the discussions is generally oriented towards the knowledge base of the different events, prevention and preparedness, and improved early warning and prediction systems.
The involvement of internationally renowned scientists (from different horizons and disciplines) behind the knowledge base of hydrometeorological events makes this series unique in this respect. The overall series will provide a multidisciplinary description of various scientific and policy features concerning hydrometeorological extreme events, as written by authors from different countries, making it a truly international book series.
Following a first volume introducing the series and a second volume on coastal storms, the ‘drought’ volume was the third book of this series. This book, focusing on governance and climate and health aspects, was written by renowned experts in the field, covering various horizons and (policy and scientific) views. The forthcoming volume of the series will focus on floods.
Philippe Quevauviller
Series Editor
Part IIntroduction
1Governance Challenges Facing Hydrometeorological Extreme Events
Isabelle La Jeunesse1 and Corinne Larrue2
1 Laboratory CNRS 7324 Citeres, University of Tours, Tours, France
2 Lab’Urba, Ecole d'Urbanisme de Paris, Université Paris Est Créteil, Marne‐La‐Vallée, France
After the preamble on the complementarity of the six volumes of the series on hydrometeorological extreme events edited by Philippe Quevauviller, this chapter aims to provide the readers with two main reading grids. First, it proposes some definitions of the hydrometeorological extreme events considered in this book. Second, it refers to the concept of adaptive governance to introduce the framework proposed for the governance analysis of the three hydrometeorological extreme events considered in this book, namely floods, droughts, and coastal storms.
1.1 Introduction
Introducing this book on the governance of hydrometeorological extreme events necessitates, first of all, defining what is meant by hydrometeorological extreme events for societies and what they are forecast to be in the context of climate change. Then we will introduce the governance issue related to hydrometeorological events in order to frame the specific situations set out throughout this book, which sketch the specific geographical and political contexts within which these governance issues take place.
1.2 Facing hydrometeorological extreme events
Hydrometeorological variability is inherent to terrestrial climate. Hydrometeorological extreme events are part of this variability. Societies are thus naturally exposed to hydrometeorological extreme events and have, through history, developed different strategies to manage their vulnerabilities. Each year, millions of people are affected by hydrometeorological extreme events all over the world, including Europe, with an observed and reported increase in severity and frequency (Harding et al. 2015). The total amount of floods and economic losses associated with these events have increased over the past decades (Bates et al. 2008; Kundzewicz et al. 2014), as confirmed by the NatCat SERVICE1 – a database on natural disasters managed by the Munich Re reinsurance agency (Figure 1.1). Overall losses have been assessed to represent more than USD 500 billion.
Figure 1.1 Percentage distribution for relevant weather‐related losses in Europe over the 1980–2017 period © Munich Re reinsurance database.
In 2012, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) produced a Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation. This report is commonly referred to as the SREX report. Its main objective is to prevent hydrometeorological extreme events by exploring the physical and social dimensions of weather‐ and climate‐related disasters. Thus, hydrometeorological extreme events must be considered in the context of global warming and its impacts.
According to the IPCC report on extreme events, climate extremes (extreme weather or climate event) means the occurrence of a value of a weather or climate variable above (or below) a threshold value near the upper (or lower) ends of the range of values observed for the variable (IPCC 2012). To simplify, both extreme weather events and extreme climate events are referred to collectively as ‘climate extremes’ (IPCC 2012). These include any rare, intense, and severe extreme events (Beniston et al. 2007).
All these extreme events – floods, droughts, and coastal storms – originate from climate‐system extremes such as persistent anticyclonic conditions or strong gradients in atmospheric pressure and temperature. Thus, if the climate changes, as a consequence, extreme events can also change. Scenarios proposed by the IPCC report on extreme events predict an increase in these events, both in frequency and intensity.
These extreme events are expected to have major impacts throughout Europe, including on water management. However, as regards the impacts on societies, it is always necessary to set these events in a historical context. As shown through the work of climate historians, history testifies to series of extreme events having taken place in Europe between the sixteenth and twentieth centuries (Garnier 2015). The impacts of past extreme events on societies (Le Roy Ladurie, Rousseau, and Vasak 2011) give important information on what current governance could consider in its risk‐assessment process. The Sendai framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, which was established by the UN General Assembly in March 2015 (as a follow up to the Hyogo framework), aimed at increasing the preparedness for climate change impacts through a framework supporting the ‘substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries’ (Sendai Framework 2015). In order to achieve this overall outcome by 2030, the Sendai working groups focused on the following goals: ‘Prevent new and reduce existing disaster risks through the implementation of integrated and inclusive economic, structural, legal, social, health, cultural, educational, environmental, technological, political and institutional measures that prevent and reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability to disaster, increase preparedness for response and recovery, and thus strengthen resilience’. These efforts are expected to: (i) generate the information base for the development of Sendai Framework implementation strategies, (ii) facilitate the development of risk‐informed policies and decision‐making processes, and (iii) guide the allocation of appropriate resources.2 This must be based on efficient governance for integrated risk management.
This being said, as an introduction to this book on the governance of hydrometeorological extreme events, it seems necessary to provide an overview of the main characteristics of the hydrometeorological extreme events presented and the main impacts and adaptation strategies proposed at European level. Since the main hydrometeorological extreme events occurring in Europe are floods, droughts, and coastal storms, this book focuses on these three types of extreme event.
1.3 Floods
In Europe, flooding is probably the leading natural hazard. Flood lists are mentioned in several webpages and commonly engraved on the piers of river bridges. The European Environment Agency provides a datasheet containing information on past floods in Europe since 1980,3 based on the reporting of European Union (EU) Member States for the EU Floods Directive (2007/60/EC), along with information provided by relevant national authorities and global databases on natural hazards. The summer of 2016 was the scene of major floods throughout Europe, where Germany and France, along with Austria, Belgium, Romania, Moldova, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom were highly impacted.
1.3.1 Definition and characteristics
In English, the word flood describes both the natural variability of a river with a maximum flow during the wet period, and the inundation phenomenon due to the river coming out of its bed and filling the floodplains. Thus, a flooding event, as an extreme hydrometeorological event, is a situation in which water temporarily covers land not frequently flooded.
Flood can be described by hydrological characteristics such as:
Flood intensity
, which is characterized by inundation depth and volume;
Flood frequency
, which represents the number of times an area is inundated during a particular time interval; and
Flood duration
, which is the length of time during which a particular area is inundated.
These hydrological characteristics of floods are used to study the series of historical data and to forecast flooding events. Also, in flood management, hydrological characteristics are linked with their consequences both on natural systems and human societies so as to prevent flood damage and design alert systems. Following this, floods can be described according to flow speed, the physical characteristics of the catchment area, and the main causes of flooding. We can distinguish:
Riverine flooding
– the slow increase of the height of the water in the riverbed due to an unusual rainfall event, in spring with snowmelt or in summer if glaciers melt. It occurs in river floodplains in areas with low topographic elevation when the upstream basin experiences heavy rainfalls. With large rivers, the flow speed and rising speed processes are relatively slow. This type of flood can be due to an obstruction in the flow path. These types of floods last the longest amongst flooding events.
Mudflow
– any type of flooding that engages high quantities of sediments. Flash floods due to heavy rainfalls in upper parts of catchments usually mobilize a large quantity of mud. However, mudflow usually concerns steeper watersheds with poor soils highly sensitive to erosion. The impacts are comparable to snow avalanches.
Coastal flooding
– flooding due to particular concomitant physical conditions where the river is in flood and the pressure on the sea does not enable the water to flow into the sea. This usually occurs close to the mouth of the river and the delta area. However, this type of flooding can be induced by storm surges, which are described later.
Urban flooding
or
urban drainage flooding
– is specific as the cause is usually aggravated by a lack of drainage and infiltration in partially impervious urban areas and all these areas are highly vulnerable. This occurs when the drainage infrastructure becomes blocked or overwhelmed due to high‐intensity rainfall. Thus, this type of flooding impacts areas close to drainage channels and house basements.
Flash flooding
– a localized flood where water flows in at great speed. The flow speed of the water is mainly determined by the slope of the terrain rained on. The steeper the slope, the faster the water flows. This usually concerns mountain and hilly areas, as well as highly impervious catchments after heavy and localized rainfall. The warning time is very short, less than one hour for some hydro systems. Flash floods can also be induced by structure failures, such as for instance, when a dike or a dam breaks and a large amount of water is released suddenly. The water speed at the breach is similar to the speed of a flash flood, but sometimes involves much larger volumes.
Pluvial flooding or water logging
– due to an accumulation of water exceeding saturation conditions and forming a layer – on agricultural fields and streets alike – provoking significant and unusual runoff. These events are due to excessive rainfall. This issue concerns both urban and agricultural land.
With all this, the height of surface waters, which leads to flooding when a defined threshold is exceeded, can be exacerbated by different natural and anthropogenic factors. Most of the time, floods are caused by an unusual duration of rainfall. However, in some conditions, torrential rains or storms cause flooding. In the summer season, in hydro systems linked to mountain areas, a high average temperature can also result in increased snowmelt with, hence, a high discharge downstream.
Land use and land cover in watersheds are also highly implicated in the variability of the hydrological responses of the catchment to rainfall. The proportion of forest areas in the upper parts of the catchment decreases the runoff generated by heavy rainfalls in these upper parts. Downstream, wetlands buffer the volumes of water and thus have a significant impact on flow peaks. Moreover, depending on how natural meanders have been managed throughout the river's history, the linearity of the river is highly efficient in decreasing flow speed in the riverbed. Last but not least, the proportion of impermeable areas versus soil infiltration capacity has an impact on the height of water runoff and flow peak volumes.
1.3.2 Impacts and adaptation
Both during and after floods, any kind of economic activity may be impacted due to disruptions or possible damage to infrastructure and transportation networks. In many cases, residents of flooded houses are invited to move. It is also well‐known that floods have a significant psychological impact, since when someone's house or work place is flooded they can lose everything. However, the impact is considered only if it is negative for the environment and/or human activities. And it all depends on where and when the flooding took place. For instance, flooding has higher impact in cities than in wetlands and is more or less significant in agricultural areas depending on the time of the year and stage of crop growth.
To reduce the impact of flooding, the management options vary from environmental actions to flood defence infrastructures. These may include, for example building a storm basin, restoring river banks, dredging rivers, rehabilitating drained or inefficient wetland areas, and increasing the surface of forests in the upper parts of the catchment. The hydrological modelling facilities are used by national/regional/local communities to assess the effects of either option (e.g. river flow, volume stored in storm basins, and inundated areas).
To prevent flood damage, and in particular to avoid loss of life, authorities need to anticipate and communicate to citizens and economic agents at different decisional levels on the state of the flooding event. In fact, whilst the water level slowly rises in large rivers, officials can first inform citizens as well as decide to evacuate people before the river overflows. However, the area that is flooded can be huge and require local communities, included isolated ones, to be highly organized. Many prevention systems exist, depending on national incentives and local community investment. At the European level, the European Flood Awareness System (EFAS)4 – developed in the context of several European research projects, is now a single operational European monitoring and forecasting system for floods across Europe. It provides complementary information to the National and Regional Hydrological Services and to the European Response and Coordination Centre operating within the European Commission's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department.
1.4 Drought
1.4.1 Definition and characteristics
Drought refers to a period of abnormally dry weather long enough to cause serious hydrological imbalance (IPCC 2012). Considering this, any region of the globe can suffer from drought. However, drought is a relative term and therefore needs to be clarified. In this book, ‘drought’, as a hydrometeorological extreme event, refers to the impact of an exceptional lack of rainfall. In contrast to aridity, which is a permanent feature of the climate and is restricted to low rainfall areas, drought is a temporary water shortage condition compared to the average situation. It is usually the consequence of a natural reduction in the amount of rainfall received over an extended period of time, which can be caused or aggravated by other climatic factors, such as high temperatures, high winds, or low relative humidity. Based on this, and depending on the main causes or impacts, some definitions of droughts have been proposed. These are usually grouped into five types (Wilhite and Glantz 1985):
Meteorological drought
, which is mainly due to a long period of no or very low rainfall;
Hydrological drought
, which is characterized by below average river flows;
Agricultural drought
, which refers to a soil moisture deficit affecting crops;
Mega drought
, which is a persistent and extended drought that lasts for a much longer period than normal; and
Socioeconomic drought
has also been considered in order to name droughts induced by human factors, causing, for instance, excessive demands on a supply‐demand system. These occur when the demand for water exceeds the supply (Wilhite and Glantz
1985
).
The last type of drought makes it possible to distinguish between drought (and drought impacts) and water scarcity. Thus, water scarcity and drought (WS&D) are two interrelated but distinct concepts. Water scarcity may result from a range of phenomena, which may either be produced by natural causes – such as drought, or can also be induced by human activities alone, or, as is usually the case, may result from the interaction of both (Pereira, Cordery, and Lacovides 2002). This explains why the relevant policy at European level is called ‘water scarcity and drought policies’.
1.4.2 Impacts and adaptation
Over the past four centuries, Europe has been affected by severe droughts (Garnier 2015). No later than 1921, a severe drought occurred with rainfalls 40% lower than usual, from England to Italy. It affected a large part of Europe and even provoked a famine in Eastern Europe. Later on, the 1976 drought was especially severe in the Northern half of France and affected other parts of North‐western Europe (Le Roy Ladurie et al. 2011).
Since then, both policy literature and the popular press have pointed out in the 1990s the potential water wars that reduced water availability, resulting from climate‐induced changes, could generate in parallel with demographic growth. Indeed, water scarcity is often cited as a cause of water conflicts, which in turn can threaten water security, enabling us to draw a link between droughts and water security in Europe (Liberatore 2013).
We can already note that the number of people and areas in Europe affected by drought and water scarcity has increased by 20% between 1976 and 2006 (European Commission [EC] 2007). The total cost of these 30 years of drought amounts to € 100 billion (EC 2007). This makes it crucial to deal with drought and water scarcity now, and increase drought resilience before the problem grows even larger. In its 2007 Communication Report, the EC clearly stated that devising effective drought risk management strategies must be regarded as an EU priority.
Out of all hydrometeorological extreme events, drought is undoubtedly the most complex as both its causes and impacts are not very well known or understood, nor are they described and modelled. This partly explains why overall losses are usually more significant than insured losses for climatological events whereas for hydrological events (floods) these losses are very similar, as shown by the extractions of Munich Re’s reinsurance database. This can be demonstrated by the two graphs presenting natural disaster losses for Europe in 2016 and 2017. In 2016 there were major floods, mainly in France, Germany, and the Netherlands (Figure 1.2). In 2017, Europe was more affected by freezing events and droughts, where mainly Spain, Italy, and Serbia were affected by dry conditions and heatwaves with low water levels in rivers and reservoirs, which affected crops, fruits, vineyards, and pasture land (Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.2 Percentage distribution for relevant weather‐related loss events in Europe in 2016.
Figure 1.3 Percentage distribution for relevant weather‐related loss events in Europe in 2017.
In fact, although a lack of rainfall is a frequent phenomenon from a climatic point of view, drought and its socio‐economic impacts depend not only on the severity and the spatial extent of the rainfall deficit, but also on several factors such as the state of the environment, as well as social and economic vulnerabilities. Some authors have pointed out that inadequate land use practices, unsustainable management of water resources, and inadequate risk management are key factors in explaining the drought impacts (Vogt and Somma 2000).
The impacts on socio‐economic activities are mainly due to losses in agricultural production, which mostly concerns wheat in Europe as it is a non‐irrigated crop covering a large amount of agricultural areas. Affected non‐irrigated crops are considered as really representative of the production impacted by rainfall deficits. However, irrigated crops are also impacted, yet it is more difficult to establish a cause–consequence relation. Drought impacts are also related to reductions in hydropower energy production and environmental degradation. Last but not least, droughts generally provoke public water supply cuts, both because of a degradation of water quality and the quantity of water available. As regards security, another major consequence of droughts is dryness and possible fire outbreaks, as well as the management of heatwave effects, which usually induce an increased water consumption.
From an historical perspective, in the first volume of this series, E. Garnier proposed an interesting drought severity index adapted to available European information from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries (Garnier 2015). This index is proposed to be compared to the physical drought classification mentioned above. An index scale between −1 and 5 is given according to the information available in archives. The −1 index is proposed to be used to characterize an event kept in the chronological reconstruction that has insufficient qualitative and quantitative information. Index 1 is mainly dedicated to an absence of rainfall, and thus mainly applies to meteorological droughts as per the physical definition provided earlier, with lots of evidence of the issue in historical texts and materialized by several rogations (in the Christian Church this is a solemn supplication consisting of the litany of the Saints chanted for requiring rainfall). Index 2 can be used for the observation of local low‐water in rivers, with notified effects on vegetation. As far as this index concerns the vegetation, it can be compared to agricultural droughts. Index 4 expresses severe low‐water marks associated with impossible navigation in rivers, wheat mill lay‐offs, search for new springs, forest fire outbreaks, as well as cattle deaths. This level corresponds to a severe hydrological drought. The last index, no. 5, is proposed for exceptional droughts, also referred to as mega droughts, without any possible supply, shortages, sanitary problems, and very high wheat prices, along with several forest fires.
Above all, droughts are expected to increase in the future as a result of climate change. Amongst the impacts is an increase in the frequency and severity of drought periods and water scarcity (EC 2012). In 2007, 11% of the European population and 17% of the European territory were affected by drought (EC 2007).
In this century, despite an increased awareness of drought hazards at European level through the work on the common implementation strategy groups of the water framework directive (WFD) dedicated to drought for instance, the tools, instruments, and management strategies for capitalizing data, risk assessment, forecasting, monitoring, and adapting to potential droughts are not clearly defined. After one of the most widespread droughts affecting over 100 million people in 2003 – one‐third of the EU territory, the cost of which was assessed at € 8.7 billion at EU level, the EU Council of Ministers asked the EC to address the challenges of WS&Ds in the EU. This led to the communication of several measures to integrate WS&Ds in river basin management plans in 2007. These were summarized in seven policy options5:
Putting the right price tag on water;
Allocating water and water‐related funding more efficiently;
Improving drought risk management;
Considering additional water supply infrastructures;
Fostering water efficient technologies and practises;
Fostering the emergence of a water‐saving culture in Europe; and
Improving knowledge and data collection.
A final report on the Review of the European WS&D Policy was completed in November 2012. This report responds to the 2007 Council request to review by 2012 whether the policy on WS&Ds has achieved its objectives of reducing water scarcity and vulnerability to droughts. It also looks into whether actions taken in the implementation of the WFD6 helped address WS&D. This report is part of the ‘Blue Print for Safeguarding European Waters’ adopted by the European Commission on 14 November 2012.
