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- Herausgeber: WS
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
The Final Theory Of Everything (FTOE) reveals for the first time a new ‘theory of everything’ to explain how all aspects of the universe are linked together, and why the universe is the way it is.
The holy grail of cosmologists has been to find a master theory that provides a singular, all-encompassing, coherent theoretical framework of physics that fully explains and links together all aspects of the universe. This book reveals precisely that: a grand unification theory that brings together the four forces of nature (gravity, electromagnetism, weak and strong forces) into one single force.
Along the way, many spurious concepts and misconceptions about the Universe are busted wide open, made possible by the Final Theory Of Everything. For example, the book reveals why dark energy and dark matter are non-existent and unnecessary in the universe. Other mysteries are resolved such as what keeps galaxies together, what’s at the bottom of black holes, and exactly what causes gravity.
A special section on the true nature of light reveals how it will be possible one day to put virtual video cameras on the surfaces of planets and stars. This will give us instant movie-like videos of far away planets and stars with no time delays. A technology that is destined to revolutionise mankind's exploration of the cosmos and the hunt for extraterrestrial life.
This book is written for a general audience and for scientists & physicists - for anybody wanting to know more about our astonishing Universe and the world we inhabit.
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Contents
Copyright
Preface
Introduction
The Nature of Time
The Calculation of time
The formula for time
The formula for distance
The formula for speed
The Now Theory
Part one: only moving things
Part two: only the now
Spacetime
Time Dilation
Experimental Storage Ring vis-a vis time dilation
Global Positioning System vis-a vis time dilation
Clock comparison vis-a-vis time dilation
Muons vis-a-vis time dilation
Speed of light vis-a-vis time dilation
Relative movement vis-a-vis time dilation
The Majesty of Light
The Big Misunderstanding of Light
The Virtual Video Camera
Attenuation of light
The Information Carrier
The Camera
Cosmic Lensing
The doppler effect
Faster than light
The Fundamental Forces of the Universe
The Strong and Weak forces
The Accelerating Expansion of the Universe
What causes cosmic expansion?
Current Theories of Gravity
The SMC model
The MOND model
The M-theory model
The General Theory of Relativity model
False equivalence principle
Dark Energy
Gravitational Waves
Gravitational constant
The Fifth Fundamental Force
Standing Man Analogy
The underlying nature of gravity
The Coalescing Force
Gravity Mantle
Orbits
Quantum Gravity
String Theory
Subatomic Entanglement
Black Holes
Dark matter
Electromagnetism in subatomic particles
The Mathematics of the FTOE
The mathematics of cosmological expansion
The mathematics of the AE force
The mathematics of the Gauss Law of Gravity
The mathematics of gravity according to general relativity
The mathematics of the Final Theory Of Everything
FTOE (Final Theory of Everything)
The FTOE fifth fundamental force
What keeps galaxies together?
Gravity mantle connectivity
The Myth of Dark Matter
Unravelling Relativity
Gravitational waves
Gravitational tides
Perihelion precession of Mercury
Space navigation
Testing General Relativity
Testing Special Relativity
Types of light speed (summary)
Is special relativity used in daily life?
The Accordion Universe Theory
What came before the Big Bang?
Message From Author
Final Theory of Light
Author Bio
*
Copyright
Copyright © 2024 Russell Eaton
All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any form whatsoever without
permission except in the case of brief quotations in articles or reviews.
This is an ebook edition.
Title: Final Theory of Light
Subtitle: The Astonishing Universe
Author: Russell Eaton
Publisher: DeliveredOnline.com
ISBN – Paperback: 978-1-903339-76-3
ISBN – Ebook: 978-1-903339-73-2
This revised ebook edition: April 2024
For any queries please contact the publisher:
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.deliveredonline.com
Preface
Introduction
This book reveals for the first time a new ‘theory of everything’ to explain how all aspects of the Universe are linked together, and why the Universe is the way it is.
The holy grail of cosmologists has been to find a master theory that provides a singular, all-encompassing, coherent theoretical framework of physics that fully explains and links together all aspects of the Universe.
So finding a theory of everything is one of the major unsolved problems in physics today. For the past two centuries cosmologists have been trying to find a common ground between the gravity we are familiar with and the gravity of subatomic particles. Now at last, that common ground can be revealed.
Some of the biggest unsolved mysteries in cosmology are now solved in this Final Theory Of Everything:
* Why dark energy and dark matter are non-existent and unnecessary in the Universe.
* Why there is no arrow of time.
* What keeps galaxies together.
* The ultimate fate of the Universe, and what happened before the Big Bang.
* The fictitious wave/particle duality of light.
* What happens inside a black hole.
* What lies beyond the standard model in cosmology.
* The fundamental nature of gravity that is common to big things and subatomic particles.
* A fifth fundamental force of nature that brings together the four known forces.
These and other mysteries of the Universe are unravelled, and the astonishing Universe that we inhabit is revealed for what it really is.
For example, ever since Isaac Newton published his Law of Gravitation in 1687 scientists have been trying to understand the underlying nature of gravity, but to date without success. We can measure gravity and feel it in our everyday lives, but what actually causes objects to gravitate towards each other? Newton could not explain it. Einstein tried to explain gravity by saying that when objects are close enough their mass disturbs an all-pervading ether, and that this disturbance makes such objects fall towards each other - but contemporary science dismisses the existence of an all-pervading ether. These pages reveal the actual underlying nature of gravity for both big objects and subatomic particles.
You now have the key to understanding the Universe like never before. A prediction is made that will revolutionise the exploration of the cosmos by revealing how we can put virtual video cameras on planets and stars however far away they may be (and instantly see the full video results).
This book is written for a general audience, for students, and in particular for astrophysicists and cosmologists who will gain new invaluable insights into the nature of our Universe. Be prepared for a shocking and exuberant rollercoaster ride through the Universe that busts many myths that we take for granted.
*
The Nature of Time
This section shows that time is nothing more than the measurement of movement. That there is no absolute phenomenon that is keeping time for the Universe.
When we use the word 'time' in our everyday lives, we are simply referring to movement (i.e. motion). To be more precise, time is the measurement of movement from A to B in relation to the movement of planet Earth (or some other frame of reference). Here are some examples:
- An hour of time is the measurement of movement of planet Earth moving on its axis one twenty-fourth of a complete rotation.
- A year of time is the measurement of movement of planet Earth moving around the sun to complete one full elliptical trip.
- A second of time as measured by an atomic clock is the measurement of the oscillating movement of an atom, and scientists have agreed that 9,192,631,770 such oscillations of movement equate to one second.
- A minute of time as shown on your mobile phone is the measurement of movement of one second, multiplied by 60. Normally, mobile phones receive their time from atomic clocks that make up the world-wide GPS system.
- A half hour of time as measured by a sun-dial clock is the measurement of movement of the sun's shadow travelling a certain distance around the face of a sun-dial located on Earth.
Note that these examples describe a measurement of movement, let’s say from A to B for simplicity. The key difference between ‘distance’ and ‘time’ is that distance is a measurement of movement, but only from A to B. Whereas time is a measurement of movement from A to B, but in relation to a given yardstick (to a given frame of reference with uniform periodicity). We humans have mostly decided to make that yardstick the movement of Earth.
To be more precise, time is just a concept; it is not a real thing nor an absolute phenomenon or manifestation. Put another way, time is a measurement of movement compared to another yardstick of movement, such as the movement of Earth. But that yardstick, i.e. frame of reference, can be something else if we so chose. For example it can be the movement of some other celestial body instead of planet Earth going around the Sun, or it can be the oscillations of an atom.
Another way to think of time is that it is a change of movement. We humans measure such a change of movement with the help of celestial bodies and atomic oscillations because they give us changes of movement with reliable periodicity.
In today’s world we need very accurate clocks for navigation, GPS and so on. So scientists have agreed to measure time in terms of radiation emitted from atoms (i.e. oscillations) of the element cesium under specified conditions.
So as mentioned, atomic clocks use a yardstick of movement to measure time. That yardstick (frame of reference) is the movement of certain celestial bodies. When the oscillations of an atom in such a clock are measured, the measurement of the movement starts at point A (the beginning of oscillation number 1) and finishes at point B (the end of oscillation number 9,192,631,770). That measurement of movements from A to B is then equated to a given movement of a celestial periodicity that equates to a second.
The following image shows how atomic oscillations (cycles) are measured per second in atomic clocks:
The word 'time' then is a human shorthand for describing 'the measurement of movement from A to B in relation to Earth’s movement (or star/atomic movement)’. A bit of a mouthful, so for convenience we just say ‘time’.
There is no absolute phenomenon in the Universe that is responsible for the existence of time. There is no 'arrow of time'. The past and the future don’t exist in any real sense, only the ‘now’ exists. There is no mysterious force or manifestation out there somewhere that is keeping time for the whole Universe.
We humans only know of three spatial dimensions in the Universe: length, width and depth. There may be more dimensions yet to be discovered, but time is certainly not a fourth dimension.
What about the ravages of time? Isn't time responsible for the degradation of our body as we grow older? If time does not make us grow old, then what does? The answer is movement.
Every part of our body is moving continually, non-stop. The molecules, atoms and subatomic particles that make up the human body never stop moving. In our daily lives we move about, eat different things and do different things. This changes the movement of some of the particles that make up our body. It is these minute changes in the movement of atoms, molecules, etc. inside our bodies that lead to ageing, degradation, illness, growth, good health, well-being, and so on. The so-called 'ravages of time' are entirely caused by this internal body movement and external events affecting such internal movements.
In passing it should be noted that the atoms in our body (and in fact atoms anywhere) never age in the sense of gradual degradation. There is no clock inside an atom telling it that it is now a minute older. Atoms do not experience time as an absolute phenomenon, but they do experience movement. Events can change the movement of atomic particles and in so doing the atom can disintegrate or change into something else. In this sense it can be said that atoms can decay through ‘random’ changes of movement, but not as a result of the atom becoming old or changing through time.
To clarify further, the movement (and changes in movement) in the human body cause all the changes that we experience, such as growing old, becoming weak or strong, ill or healthy, and so on. These physical changes in movement also affect human emotions; the way we feel, think and live from day to day.
When we say that a person has grown old in the last 5 years, what we are really saying is that a person has grown old during the last 5 rotations of planet Earth around the sun, and that during those 5 rotations, the person’s body suffered (or enjoyed) many internal changes in particle movements.
We should realise that everything in the Universe is constantly on the move. Nothing is ever still. Everything in the Universe is continually moving in one way or another. A rock in the middle of the desert moves along with Earth’s movements, and the atoms that make up the rock are moving continually. We humans measure certain movements, such as the movement of planet Earth around the Sun (or the movement of stars in relation to Earth), and we call such measurements 'time'.
The take home message: Time is not an absolute phenomenon or some kind of independent agent that is keeping time for the Universe. Time is a shorthand way of referring to the measurement of movement in relation to a given event of periodicity such as the movement of Earth or the oscillating movement of an atom.
*
The Calculation of time
This section shows the real nature of time when it comes to the mathematics of time. If you are not mathematically inclined, feel free to skip this section or just skim through it.
The formula for time
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines ‘time’ as ‘the measurable period during which an action, process, or condition exists or continues’.
In the context of mathematics, to calculate time let’s take the example of a car that moves one mile, from A to B. Here we are measuring a movement of one mile. If such a movement or motion takes two minutes, we say that the car takes two minutes of time to move one mile.
But it is equally valid to say “The Earth moved 33.33 miles on its axis as the car moved one mile. And 33.33 miles of the planet’s rotation is what we humans refer to as two minutes.”Note: The Earth rotates at about 1000 miles per hour on its axis. We call the 1000 miles of rotating movement ‘one hour’. So 33.33 miles of rotation equates to two minutes. In our example then, the car moved one mile and during that journey planet Earth moved 33.33 miles. The two minutes of car journey ‘time’ is simply a shorthand reference to the ‘33.33 miles of Earth’s rotation’.
The formula for distance
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines ‘distance’ as ‘an extent of space’.
Distance is the measurement of movement of an object without any regard to direction. Thus distance can be measured along a curved or straight line. We said before that time is the measurement of movement from A to B in relation to Earth’s movement. So to clarify:
Note: in this book we mostly use the word ‘movement’ rather than ‘motion’ but they both mean the same thing.
The formula for speed
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines ‘speed’ as: “The rate (magnitude) of motion”.
Mere movement is simply a change in position of an object caused by a force acting on the object. Speed is the actual measurement of a movement. Put simply, movement is a change in position. Speed is a measurement of that change in position. So now we can summarise the three elements of the formula for time:
We need to be careful to not confuse time with speed. Time is just a word that refers to gauging the movement of, say, planet Earth. Speed is a word that refers to a movement that is measured with such time, i.e. that is gauged with the movement of atomic oscillations or the movement of Earth.
Or instead of saying you travelled for 33.33 miles of Earth-rotational-movement, you could say you travelled for X number of atomic oscillations (9,192,631,770 oscillations multiplied by 120 seconds). This of course is totally impractical, so for convenience and simplicity, we just use the word time and refer to ‘two minutes’.
The time conundrum
In physics and cosmology there are many examples of equations that incorporate ‘t’ (time) in their calculations, such as the following:
In saying that ‘time does not exist’ a conundrum that arises goes like this: If time does not exist as an absolute phenomenon, what about the many equations that incorporate ‘t’ (time) in their calculations? If ‘t’ is omitted from such equations (by virtue of not existing), that would render the equations meaningless. That is the conundrum.
The answer to the time conundrum
The conundrum is resolved quite simply: In saying that time ‘does not exist’ what we are really saying is that time or ‘t’ is nothing more than a measurement of movement. So all the equations involving ‘t’ remain mathematically valid, and ‘t’ for time can continue to be used without hindrance. If we take the above-mentioned example, we see that ‘t’ is calculated as 11,460 years of time. This is the same as referring to a measurement of movement of Earth going round the Sun 11,460 times.
Put another way, the fossil has aged while Earth went around the Sun 11,460 times. Time as an absolute independent agent does not exist. But of course movement exists, and in our example, while the fossil lay in the ground during Earth’s journey around the Sun 11,460 times, the movement of atoms in and around the fossil caused it to age.
Here is another example (from the many) of an equation incorporating ‘t’ as time:
This formula shows how to calculate exponential growth rates. For example, a scientist is studying the growth of a new species of bacteria. He wants to know how long it takes for the bacteria to grow to, say, a population of 500. Using the formula he works out that ‘t’ is equal to 10 hours. This means that the bacteria multiplied to a quantity of 500 during a time of 10 hours. Since the Earth moves 1,000 miles on its axis in one hour, instead of saying ‘the bacteria multiplied to 500 in 10 hours’ we could say ‘the bacteria multiplied to 500 while the Earth moved 10,000 miles on its axis’.
And here is a third example of using ‘t’ for time in equations:
This is an equation for calculating the age of the Universe. It shows that ‘t’ is equal to 13.4 billion light years of time. In other words it took light from the Big Bang 13.4 billion years to reach Earth. This is the same as saying that while light travelled from the Big Bang to Earth, the planet Earth travelled around the Sun 13.4 billion times. But of course the Earth and Sun did not exist for most of light’s journey from the Big Bang to Earth. It is simply that the 13.4 billion years of light-travel-time represents the equivalent of 13.4 billion journeys of the Earth around the Sun.
So yes, we can absolutely continue to use ‘t’ for time in mathematics in the same way that we have always done so. We simply regard ‘t’ or ‘time’ as a convenient shorthand for referring to a measurement of movement instead of a measurement of time as an absolute phenomenon.
In physics, time is defined by its measurement using a clock. And whatever type of clock may be used for such measurement, the clock will be measuring movement, whether it be a sun-dial clock, an atomic clock, or the moving hands of a grandfather clock.
The take home message: time is nothing more than the measurement of movement in relation to the periodicity of an event such as the periodicity of Earth’s movement or the periodicity of atomic oscillations. There is no past or future, there is no arrow of time, only the now exists.
*
The Now Theory
In what follows ‘The Now Theory’ is revealed for the first time as a part of the jigsaw puzzle that makes up the Final Theory of Everything. There are two parts to The Now Theory. Part one is titled ‘only moving things’. Part two is titled ‘only the now’.
Part one: only moving things
We have said that there is no arrow of time going through the Universe, and the Universe is not endowed with some kind of universal time-keeping phenomenon.
The Universe does not age, evolve or change over time. Rather, the Universe ages, evolves and changes as a result of movement only. Everything that exists takes the form of ‘moving things’. This is so without exception. For example, radiation, light, sound and human thoughts are all examples of moving things. When you think of something, you trigger certain neurons and molecules in the brain to form a thought. So a thought is a movement of neurons, molecules and chemical reactions.
Emotions are other examples of moving things. If you feel an emotion such as love, anger, tiredness, exuberance and so on, such emotions emanate from things moving inside the body. Physical things such as chemical reactions, electrical pulses, brain neurons and other moving things cause feelings and emotions.
Even concepts and memories are physical moving things. A concept or a memory is a thought or idea. And whatever you think of (call it concept, idea, imagination, creativity, memory, etc) it emanates from (it is based on) moving things inside the body. The whole Universe without exception consists of just moving things, nothing else. In this book you will discover a new theory of gravity for everything, from the big to the smallest subatomic particles. As you will discover, such gravity is caused entirely by movement.
As we have said, time is simply movement. To gauge a specific amount of time you do it by comparing a given movement (such as your daily commute to work) against an agreed event of periodicity such as the periodicity of Earth’s movement on its axis and going around the sun. You time your daily commute as 50 minutes, and of course the 50 minutes is another way of saying the Earth rotated on its axis 1,385 kilometres relative to the Sun. So time is nothing more than a moving thing, albeit in relation to an event of periodicity. And of course the periodicity-event itself is a moving thing.
There is nothing in the Universe that is not moving. All of existence is entirely made of moving things, and only moving things. When new atoms or elements are created or changed it is simply part of the universal dance of moving things.
It is speculated that we live in a null-energy Universe (also known as a zero-energy Universe) as some scientists have declared. A null energy Universe proposes that the total amount of energy in the Universe is exactly zero: its amount of positive energy in the form of matter & energy is exactly cancelled out by its negative energy in the form of gravity. Some of the reasons for this speculation are as follows:
1. It allows for the creation of a Universe from nothing, without needing to posit a violation of energy conservation.
2. It fits in with the FTOE (Final Theory Of Everything) as postulated in this book. As mentioned, everything that exists is always moving as a result of cosmic expansion. This movement creates gravity and kinetic energy. This kinetic energy from gravity can be thought of as negative energy. And this negative energy is what balances out the positive energy so as to give us a null-energy Universe.
3. When the big bang occurred, two possible scenarios arise: a null-energy Universe or a Universe that would have X amount of energy ‘from the word go’. How was the particular X amount of energy determined? Would it have been possible to ‘put’ all the energy that we see in the Universe today into the very first moment of the Big Bang?
4. It obviates the need for the existence of dark energy because a null-energy Universe has the required balance of energy to resolve the issues proclaimed by those who seek the existence of dark energy. Equally, no dark energy is required because cosmic expansion is fuelled by a null-energy Universe rather than by some theoretical, unproven, undetectable energy called ‘dark energy’.
Part two: only the now
Going on from the theory that the entire Universe is made of moving things (and nothing else), how does this fit in with the concept of time? We have said that time is nothing more than the measurement of movement from A to B in relation to some other movement of periodicity. Examples of movements of periodicity include the movement of Earth around the Sun, the oscillations of an atom, the regular movement of a given celestial body, and so on.
So for example a day of time is the measurement of movement of 40,000 km (Earth going around once on its axis). When this movement is related to the periodicity of Earth revolving on its axis, we call one such revolving movement a day of time.
So time is just a shorthand way of referring to moving things. But what about the past and the future? We know “the past existed” otherwise the present wouldn’t exist. And we know “the future will exist” because we see ourselves moving into the future all the time as we get on with our lives and age.
But in the aforementioned, the reality is that the past never existed, and the future will never exist, but we use phrases like ‘the past’ and ‘the future’ colloquially in everyday language.
To clarify further, right now the past and the future do not exist. We only live in the present - only the now. We live in a continuous procession of now-moments. So right now everything is real and the Universe is real and it fully exists. And the Universe exists entirely as moving things.
When it is said that the past does not exist right now, it means there is no past. When our parents lived in the past, they in fact lived only in the now, just as you and I are doing so right now. So right now the past does not exist at all, and there has never been a moment when it has been possible to say that the past exists.
When we look at old buildings and historical monuments we are not looking at the past, we are looking at their present state. The same goes for fossils and anything else that points to a past existence. The past did indeed exist but only as NOW moments. History is full of clues about the past, but such clues only point to now moments, not to any kind of existential past at all, only the now.
The same goes for the future. Right now the future does not exist and it will never exist. There will never be a moment when we can say that right now the future exists, or that right now I am in the future.
We can of course affect or change the future. For example, I may decide to do something different tomorrow compared to my usual routine. This will affect what happens in my future-of-tomorrow compared to what would have happened if I had not done something different. Human endeavours such as creativity, progress, inventions and so on are all based on some kind of planning and changing of future outcomes. But we can never exist in what we call ‘the future’. We can only ever exist in the now.
As an example, let’s suppose I plan to have a party on my next birthday, so I make plans accordingly. I can only ever make those plans in the now. So I live in a continuous procession of now-moments in which those birthday plans exist. As the day of my birthday party approaches, those plans will come to fruition because I have changed things in the now (and in the now only).
Semantically we may say that the future is real. A man with terminal cancer may say that he will die within a year. A farmer may say that he will reap the harvest next Summer. A housewife may say that tomorrow she will cook a special thanksgiving dinner. All these things come to bear. But the fact that we do things that turn out to be so in the future is an illusion. When we do things that turn out to be so in the future, in reality we do things that turn out to be so in the now. We can never be in the future. We can only exist in the now, and the same goes for an alien living on a planet on the other side of the Universe. You and the alien exist in the same ‘now’ of the Universe. And what does that ‘now’ consist of? The mentioned ‘now’ consists entirely of moving things, nothing else.
When we look at ancient star light that has taken many light years to reach Earth it is said colloquially that we are looking into the past. If the light took 100 years of travel time to reach Earth, we are looking at the starlight as it was 100 years ago. This does not mean that we are in reality looking at the past or into the past. It means we are looking at the streams of starlight as they are today. The same goes for cosmological photographs of galaxies, star formations and the like.
All such photos are not photos of the past, they are photos of light or infrared rays as they are today at the moment they reach our eyes or the telescope/camera. We can never see the past because the past does not exist. All we can see is the now. When we look at photos of the past, we are in fact looking at photographs (whether on paper or digital) as they are today, regardless of what the images may represent.
The past and future are illusions or mental constructs. Only the now exists. But of course illusions and constructs do exist as moving things inside our brain in the way that thoughts exist. But what the illusions and thoughts actually represent do not exist if they are just in the mind.
Right now the whole Universe exists and we are a part of it. And everything that exists without exception is entirely made of moving things and nothing else. Right now no past or future exists. Semantically we may say the past existed by looking at history, but that does not mean the past exists now in any real sense. Only the present exists. Old books, historical monuments, ancient tree-rings all exist, but they exist as they are today and they serve as clues to the past. Equally we can speculate about how the future will be, but any such future will never exist as a ‘future’, it will only ever exist in the now.
For the sake of completeness we briefly discuss a phenomenon known as ‘entropy as an arrow of time’. This refers to an abstract concept that views time as an absolute phenomenon that only ‘moves forward’ from the past, into the present, and then into the future. Hence, it is colloquially referred to as the arrow of time.
The way this arrow of time affects the real world is referred to as a thermodynamic arrow of time. Thermodynamics is a branch of physics which deals with order & disorder, energy and the work of a system. So the thermodynamic arrow of time is defined as a one-way direction of time in which entropy (disorder) tends to increase with time.
The reasoning is that entropy (disorder) increases in the Universe with the passage of time. This disorder has made it possible for galaxies, planets and life itself to exist. Such entropy requires the passage of time to flow from the past to the present and into the future. But it does not follow that a thermodynamic arrow of time as an absolute phenomenon is required for this to happen. Even though the past and future don’t exist, and we only live in the now, this in no way invalidates the concept of increased entropy with time.
As the past and the future do not exist except as concepts, there can never be some kind of absolute thermodynamic arrow of time. But of course, we can talk about an arrow of time colloquially when referring to the past, present and future.
The take home message: Everything in the Universe that exists takes the form of moving things, nothing else exists. We can only live in the now. The past and the future don't exist, only the now exists in the form of moving things. If we say ‘we only live in the now’, this means ‘we only live as moving things’.
*
Spacetime
In this section it is shown that spacetime, as defined by Einsteinian relativity, is spurious and non-existent.
In the special theory of relativity, Albert Einstein said that time is relative, that the rate at which time passes depends on your frame of reference. In other words, the amount of time that transpires depends on the movement or non-movement of the observer. The word ‘observer’ is used as a frame of reference from which a set of objects or events are being measured or compared against.
To clarify further, Einsteinian relativity is not saying that the act of observing an object move has an effect on the time experienced by said object. It is clearly postulated that time passes differently for each observer (each frame of reference, each object) depending on their location and how fast they are moving or not moving. This is disingenuous to say the least. Let’s break this down into the following two points.
1. ‘Time passes differently for each observer (each frame of reference)’: If we take time to be a measurement of movement from A to B in relation to, say, the movement of Earth, then clearly (and contrary to relativity) time passes exactly the same for everybody (and for every frame of reference), given the same way of measuring time for everybody.
2. ‘Time passes differently depending on the observer’s location and how fast they are moving or not moving’: If we accept the Einsteinian concept of time as an absolute phenomenon, then the inevitable conclusion is that every object in the Universe, every living being, every planet, every grain of sand, is enjoying its own unique timeline. Why? Because everything in the Universe is always moving, and relativity stipulates that the movement of an object in itself slows down time or affects the time experienced by that object.
The special theory of relativity says or implies that movement of any sort, fast or slow, affects the time of that moving object. Given that everything in the Universe is continually moving (nothing is stationary or ‘at rest’), then everything must be enjoying a slowing down of time in its own unique way.
A stone in the middle of the Sahara Desert is moving along with Earth's movement, so time is slowing down for that stone by the fact that it is moving, and any comparison to another frame of reference is irrelevant.
According to relativity, if you were to put a clock on top of said stone, it would show a different time to the clock that you carry, assuming the time-keeping of the clocks could be measured accurately, i.e. relativity postulates that the rock would show its own unique time and you would show your own different time, regardless of whether you are observing or not observing the rock, and regardless of your distance from the rock.
So the special theory of relativity says that in our daily lives real time differences exist between individuals (frames of reference) but are too small to be noticeable, i.e. too small to be measured with current technology. But at very high speeds, time is said to slow down noticeably. In relativity there is no universal time that follows some kind of timekeeping that is the same for everybody.
To illustrate this, the famous 'twin paradox' thought experiment has been postulated in various versions. We imagine two twins, twin A and twin B. Twin A travels around the solar system at nearly the speed of light. Meanwhile twin B sits at home watching TV most of the time. Having travelled extensively at nearly the speed of light for, say, about a week, twin A then goes home and greets his twin brother B.
In this scenario, the special theory of relativity says that when the twins meet again, twin A will have aged less than twin B by virtue of travelling very fast compared to couch-potato twin B who hardly moved. Put another way, time is said to have slowed down for twin A compared to twin B.
Is this so? Einsteinian relativity says the answer is YES, twin A aged less. If you accept the nature of time as described in this book, the answer is NO, time did not slow down for twin A because time is not some kind of ‘independent’ absolute phenomenon that exists and that can slow down in some manner. As mentioned, time is merely a human shorthand for referring to the measurement of movement from A to B with regard to a given yardstick, such as the movement of Earth.
Granted, it is possible that by travelling at very high speeds the human body may experience some biological changes caused by the high speed itself, but this has nothing to do with ‘time slowing down’ or making a person younger than his peers on Earth.
To finish with the twin paradox experiment, there is no paradox. Both twins aged at the same rate, albeit that twin A might have been affected biologically (in a good or bad way) by travelling at such high speeds.
To reiterate this important point, time is just a concept, a word invented by humans to describe a given measurement of movement (such as an hour) in relation to Earth's daily dance or in relation to the movement of stars. Time is not something real that is out there somewhere waiting for humans to find and understand.
When Einstein was thinking about these things he desperately needed to understand and explain the nature of gravity. It is well documented that in 1912 Einstein was actively seeking a theory in which ‘gravitation’ as he called it could be explained as a geometric phenomenon so he looked around for help. At the urging of Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began exploring the use of general covariance (which is essentially the use of curvature tensors) to create a gravitational theory.
This eventually led to the well-known ‘general theory of relativity’ based on proposing a so-called 'curvature of space'. This theory says that gravity is not an invisible force that attracts objects to one another. Rather, that gravity is a curving or warping of space. The more massive an object, the more it warps curved space around itself.
Note: Many scientific papers have been published on the subject of ‘general covariance’, and today general covariance is widely regarded as being vacuous in the context of physics. Put simply, the poor scientific view of general covariance puts doubt on the veracity of general relativity, but Einsteinian relativity continues to be accepted in the scientific community in the absence of a credible alternative.
To make his theory of gravity work Einstein had to add a fourth dimension to his equations which he called ‘time’. So you have the three spatial dimensions of space that we are all familiar with plus a fourth dimension of time that nobody truly understands. This allowed Einstein to postulate that gravity is caused by a curvature of space in time - that space and time (called spacetime) curves space in a way that causes gravity. By doing this he was able to make his equations work mathematically.
According to Einstein, spacetime is like a stage that remains in place whether actors are treading its boards or not. Even if there were no stars or planets dancing around, spacetime would still be there. So for Einstein, spacetime was a real thing – without spacetime, space curvature and gravity would not exist.
At this point you may be shouting: “But what about Einstein’s field equations proving the existence of gravity as a result of the curvature of space?”. Later, in the section ‘The AE Force and Gravity’ we discuss why Einstein's Field Equations are not reliable.
Consider the following. Einstein was very clear in postulating that as an object moves, the movement itself curves space around such an object resulting in gravity. For this to work there had to be some kind of physical interaction between the object and the curved space around it. Without some kind of physical interaction the space around the moving object would not curve because such space would not detect the presence of the moving object.
Einstein reasoned that if an all-pervading ether (sometimes spelt aether) existed it would provide an interaction between a moving mass and the space around it, thus making it possible for space to be triggered into being curved.
Einstein thought long and hard about his ether conundrum, and after much ambivalence stated that “we may say that according to the general theory of relativity space is endowed with physical qualities; in this sense, therefore, there exists an ether. According to the general theory of relativity, space without ether is unthinkable ....”.
So having previously denied the existence of an ether for many years, Einstein changed his mind, and postulated the existence of an ether. This allowed him to publish his general theory of relativity.
But modern-day physics has never detected the existence of an ether, and most scientists dismiss the idea of an ether, putting further doubt on spacetime and the curvature of space.
Some physicists consider that spacetime is merely a mathematical concept (not an absolute phenomenon as defined by Einstein) that is used to calculate the ‘curvature of space’ as proposed by relativity.
Here is a description of spacetime curvature, whether it be real or a mere mathematical concept:
“The curvature of spacetime influences the motion of massive bodies within it; in turn, as massive bodies move in spacetime, the curvature changes and the geometry of spacetime is in constant evolution. Gravity then provides a description of the dynamic interaction between matter and spacetime”. Source: European Space Agency. Note: the curvature of space is said to make objects go towards each other (the ‘force’ of gravity).
If you search internet for a description of spacetime you get a variety of answers:
* Spacetime is a graphical illustration of the properties of space and time in the special theory of relativity.
* Spacetime is any mathematical model which fuses the three dimensions of space and the one dimension of time into a single four-dimensional manifold.
* Spacetime is a mathematical model that joins space and time into a single idea called a continuum. This four-dimensional continuum is known as Minkowski space.
* Spacetime explains the curvature of space, and this curvature of space is responsible for gravity.
Einstein’s equations are said to show how spacetime makes space curve, thus causing gravity. So spacetime is said to explain this curvature of space. For example, if an asteroid or satellite comes too close to Earth it will fall into a so-called curvature of space that exists around Earth, and this curvature will make the asteroid or satellite fall towards Earth. The curvature of space caused by spacetime is often illustrated as a grid on a ‘trampoline’:
As mentioned, this concept of space curvature as postulated in the general theory of relativity can only ‘work’ mathematically if a fourth dimension called ‘time’ is added to the equations. This mysterious phenomenon called ‘time’ has never been shown to exist, and to this day cannot be explained at a fundamental level (because it is simply not possible to understand). Whether spacetime is a mathematical concept or a real thing becomes irrelevant because if time does not exist as an absolute ‘independent’ phenomenon, then spacetime cannot exist in the absence of this phenomenon.
Here's a quote from Sir Karl Popper, one of the 20th century's most influential philosophers of science:
"A time dimension would make motion impossible. Nothing can move in spacetime for this reason. Spacetime is a non-existent block Universe, an abstract mathematical construct. We live in the continually changing present always, the Now. And no, we are not moving in time from the past toward the future either".
It is increasingly being accepted by scientists in today’s world that spacetime is not real in the same way that an atom is real. There's nothing you can do to ‘detect’ spacetime directly, they say.
Where many scientists go wrong is to go on to say that although spacetime may not be real, spacetime acts to curve space in a very real way, and it predicts things such as gravity, time dilation and the bending of light. This book explains why this is not so and provides a new theory of gravity that serves equally well for stars and galaxies as for the quantum world of subatomic particles. But first we will look at time dilation and then the Majesty of Light.
