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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Developments in Forensic Science
- Sprache: Englisch
A comprehensive review of the latest fingerprint development and imaging techniques With contributions from leading experts in the field, Fingerprint Development Techniques offers a comprehensive review of the key techniques used in the development and imaging of fingerprints. It includes a review of the properties of fingerprints, the surfaces that fingerprints are deposited on, and the interactions that can occur between fingerprints, surfaces and environments. Comprehensive in scope, the text explores the history of each process, the theory behind the way fingerprints are either developed or imaged, and information about the role of each of the chemical constituents in recommended formulations. The authors explain the methodology employed for carrying out comparisons of effectiveness of various development techniques that clearly demonstrate how to select the most effective approaches. The text also explores how techniques can be used in sequence and with techniques for recovering other forms of forensic evidence. In addition, the book offers a guide for the selection of fingerprint development techniques and includes information on the influence of surface contamination and exposure conditions. This important resource: * Provides clear methodologies for conducting comparisons of fingerprint development technique effectiveness * Contains in-depth assessment of fingerprint constituents and how they are utilized by development and imaging processes * Includes background information on fingerprint chemistry * Offers a comprehensive history, the theory, and the applications for a broader range of processes, including the roles of each constituent in reagent formulations Fingerprint Development Techniques offers a comprehensive guide to fingerprint development and imaging, building on much of the previously unpublished research of the Home Office Centre for Applied Science and Technology.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Series Preface
Acknowledgements
1 Introduction
References
2 Formation of fingermarks
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Initial contact
2.3 Interaction outcomes
2.4 The finger
2.5 The surface
2.6 Removal of the finger from the surface
2.7 Summary of the initial contact
References
3 Composition and properties of fingermarks
3.1 Chemical composition of fingermarks
3.2 Biological properties of fingermarks
3.3 Physical properties of fingermarks
References
4 Ageing of fingermarks
4.1 The ‘triangle of interaction’
4.2 The fingermark
4.3 The surface
4.4 The environment
4.5 Interactions
4.6 Time
References
5 Initial examination and the selection of fingermark enhancement processes
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Processing options
5.3 Process selection
5.4 The processing environment
References
6 Optical detection and enhancement techniques
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Current operational use
6.3 Visual examination
6.4 Fluorescence examination
6.5 Ultraviolet reflection
6.6 Infrared reflection
6.7 Colour filtration and monochromatic illumination
6.8 Multispectral imaging
References
Further reading
7 Vapour phase techniques
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Current operational use
7.3 Superglue/cyanoacrylate fuming
7.4 Vacuum metal deposition
7.5 Iodine fuming
7.6 Radioactive sulphur dioxide
7.7 Other fuming techniques
References
Further reading
8 Solid phase selective deposition techniques
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Current operational use
8.3 Powders
8.4 ESDA
8.5 Nanoparticle powders
References
9 Amino acid reagents
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Current operational use
9.3 Ninhydrin
9.4 1,8‐Diazafluoren‐9‐one
9.5 1,2‐Indandione
9.6 Ninhydrin analogues
9.7 Fluorescamine
9.8
o
‐Phthalaldehyde
9.9 Genipin
9.10 Lawsone
9.11 Alloxan
9.12 4‐Chloro‐7‐nitrobenzofuran chloride
9.13 Dansyl chloride
9.14 Dimethylaminocinnemaldehyde and dimethylaminobenzaldehyde
References
Further reading
10 Reagents for other eccrine constituents
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Current operational use
10.3 4‐Dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde
10.4 Silver nitrate
References
Further reading
11 Lipid reagents
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Current operational use
11.3 Solvent Black 3 (Sudan Black)
11.4 Basic Violet 3 (Gentian Violet, Crystal Violet)
11.5 Oil Red O (Solvent Red 27)
11.6 Iodine solution
11.7 Ruthenium tetroxide
11.8 Osmium tetroxide
11.9 Europium chelate
11.10 Natural Yellow 3 (curcumin)
11.11 Nile Red and Nile Blue A
11.12 Basic Violet 2
11.13 Rubeanic acid–copper acetate
11.14 Phosphomolybdic acid
References
Further reading
12 Liquid phase selective deposition techniques
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Current operational use
12.3 Small particle reagent
12.4 Powder suspensions
12.5 Physical developer
12.6 Multi‐metal deposition
References
Further reading
13 Enhancement processes for marks in blood
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Current operational use
13.3 Protein stains
13.4 Peroxidase reagents
References
Further reading
14 Electrical and electrochemical processes
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Current operational use
14.3 Etching
14.4 Corrosion visualisation
14.5 Electrodeposition
References
Further reading
15 Miscellaneous processes: lifting and specialist imaging
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Current operational use
15.3 Lifting
15.4 Scanning electron microscopy
15.5 X‐ray fluorescence (and X‐ray imaging)
15.6 Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS)
15.7 Matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionisation mass spectrometry (MALDI‐MS)
15.8 Attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR‐FTIR)
References
Further reading
16 Evaluation and comparison of fingermark enhancement processes
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Technology Readiness Level 3: Proof of concept
16.3 Technology Readiness Level 4: Process optimisation
16.4 Technology Readiness Level 5: Laboratory trials
16.5 Technology Readiness Level 6: Pseudo‐operational trials
16.6 Technology Readiness Level 7: Operational trials
16.7 Technology Readiness Level 8: Standard operating procedures
16.8 Technology Readiness Level 9: Ongoing monitoring
References
17 Sequential processing and impact on other forensic evidence
17.1 Sequential processing of fingermarks
17.2 Test methodologies for developing processing sequences
17.3 Integrated sequential forensic processing
References
18 Interpreting the results of fingermark enhancement
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Location of the mark
18.3 Type of substrate
18.4 Constituents of the mark
18.5 Enhancement process
18.6 The environment
18.7 Image processing
18.8 Image capture
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 03
Table 3.1 Summary of latent fingermark residue sources.
Table 3.2 Summary of eccrine sweat composition.
Table 3.3 A summary of the composition of sebaceous secretions.
Table 3.4 Approximate composition of sebum and surface epidermal lipids (Downing and Strauss, 1974).
Table 3.5 Examples of exogenous contaminants that can contribute to latent fingermark residue and affect its properties or provide intelligence information.
Table 3.6 Factors that may affect latent fingermark composition.
Chapter 04
Table 4.1 Melting points of typical constituents of sebaceous sweat.
Table 4.2 Solubilities in water of typical constituents of eccrine sweat.
Chapter 05
Table 5.1 Some commonly used fingermark enhancement processes and the types of mark they can be used to enhance.
Chapter 06
Table 6.1 Summary of the mode of operation and principal applications of optical processes.
Table 6.2 An overview of the types of light source used for location of untreated marks during initial fluorescence examination.
Table 6.3 An overview of the types of light source used for enhancement of marks developed using other processes using fluorescence examination.
Chapter 07
Table 7.1 Overview of vapour phase process and the mechanisms by which fingermarks are revealed.
Chapter 09
Table 9.1 Amino acid reagents categorised by the type of reaction product formed with amino acids.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Variants of powder suspension in operational use and their principal applications.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Summary of the constituents of blood.
Table 13.2 Summary of blood enhancement processes, confirmatory tests and their relative specificities to blood.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Summary of the principal features of some of the specialist processes proposed for imaging and analysis of fingermarks.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Technology Readiness Levels as applied to fingermark research.
Table 16.2 Numerical grading scheme used for assessment of developed marks.
Table 16.3 Comparative grading scheme used for assessment of developed marks.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 A sequential processing route for porous surfaces.
Table 17.2 A modified sequential processing route for porous surfaces showing other processes (in italics) that could potentially be added.
Table 17.3 A sequential processing route for non‐porous surfaces.
Table 17.4 The number of fingermarks developed on a mixture of 75 fraudulently passed cheques using the processes for porous surfaces in sequence in a pseudo‐operational trial.
Table 17.5 Some of the broader forensic applications of different types of light source.
Table 17.6 Potential impacts of fingermark recovery processes on DNA recovery.
Table 17.7 Potential impacts of DNA recovery processes on fingermark recovery.
Table 17.8 Potential impacts of fingermark recovery processes on digital evidence recovery.
Table 17.9 Potential impacts of fingermark recovery processes on footwear mark recovery.
Table 17.10 Potential impacts of footwear mark recovery processes on fingermark recovery.
Table 17.11 Potential impacts of document examination processes on fingermark recovery.
Table 17.12 Potential impacts of fingermark enhancement processes on document examination.
Table 17.13 Potential impacts of fingermark enhancement processes on fibre analysis.
Table 17.14 Potential impacts of fingermark enhancement processes on ballistic analysis.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 01
Figure 1.1 A contact (grab) mark on a black cotton shirt developed using vacuum metal deposition.
Figure 1.2 The orientation of fingermarks on a glass bottle originating from different actions. (a) Bottle being held to drink from. (b) Fingermarks developed using aluminium powder after drinking. (c) Bottle being held as if to strike. (d) Fingermarks developed using aluminium powder after use as a weapon.
Figure 1.3 A white gelatin lift taken from the back of the hand taken after firing a gun and enhanced using a chemical selectively targeting traces of lead.
Figure 1.4 A sequence of fingermarks developed using aluminium powder showing evidence of slippage on the surface.
Figure 1.5 A sequence of fingermarks developed using aluminium powder showing evidence of multiple contacts on the surface.
Figure 1.6 Examples of the principal types of fingerprint pattern. (a) The whorl. (b) The loop. (c) The arch.
Figure 1.7 An area of a fingerprint showing a number of second‐level details.
Figure 1.8 A fingermark enhanced using white powder suspension showing level 3 details (in this case pores, illustrated using circles) in the ridges.
Figure 1.9 An example of a glove mark left by a knitted woollen glove and enhanced with aluminium powder.
Figure 1.10 Skin cells present within ridges of a mark on an adhesive surface. (a) Low magnification and (b) high magnification.
Figure 1.11 MALDI MS images of a condom lubricant‐contaminated fingermark. The mark was subjected to gelatin primary lift for analysis via ATR‐FTIR. Subsequently a secondary lift of the mark residue was analysed by MALDI MSI enabling imaging of PEG (one of the polymers in the condom lubricant, represented here by the 28‐mer) and of endogenous compounds. Here images of 13‐aminotridecanoic acid (m/z 230.2) and oleic acid (m/z 283.2) are reported. The mass image of the three total ion currents yielded the complete ridge pattern of the mark (TIC).
Chapter 02
Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram showing the deposition of a positive mark.
Figure 2.2 A patent mark deposited with mud on white‐painted chipboard.
Figure 2.3 Schematic diagram showing the formation of a negative mark.
Figure 2.4 Example of a negative mark left by contact with a dusty surface and enhanced with oblique lighting.
Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram showing the formation of an impression in a soft surface.
Figure 2.6 Example of an impression left by contact with a soft surface (chocolate) and enhanced with oblique lighting.
Figure 2.7 Schematic illustration of a cross section of skin on the fingertip.
Figure 2.8 Schematic illustrations of the cross section through a finger, showing some of the features of significance for fingermark formation. (a) Refers to a cross section perpendicular to the finger and (b) refers to a cross section parallel to the direction of the finger.
Figure 2.9 The effect of increasing applied force on the contact area of a fingertip with a surface. Inked fingers applied to a ceramic tile. (a) Low force (<1 N). (b) Medium force (1–5 N). (c) High force (>5 N).
Figure 2.10 The effect of increasing applied force on the contact area of ridges with a surface. Schematic illustrations of ridges and corresponding images of inked fingers applied to a ceramic tile. (a) Low force (<1 N). (b) Medium force (1–5 N). (c) High force (>5 N).
Figure 2.11 High magnification (~×250) images of a fingertip with different types of contaminant present. (a) A clean finger. (b) Beads of eccrine sweat. (c) Solid dust particles. (d) Blood. (e) Food residues (flavoured potato crisps). (f) Butter.
Figure 2.12 A thumb contaminated with butter applied to a ceramic tile with high force and enhanced using Solvent Black 3. (a) Showing the concentration of butter around the periphery of the mark. (b) Higher magnification image showing higher concentration of butter forced into the furrows.
Figure 2.13 (a) A generic stress–strain curve and (b) curves typical of different generic types of material (not to scale).
Figure 2.14 Schematic diagram illustrating stress in the context of fingermark deposition.
Figure 2.15 Schematic diagram illustrating strain in the context of fingermark deposition.
Figure 2.16 A rubber surface undergoing extensive deformation.
Figure 2.17 Schematic diagram showing the deposition of a partial fingermark on a smooth, curved surface where only a small portion of the finger makes contact with the surface.
Figure 2.18 Schematic diagram showing the deposition of a fingermark on a highly textured surface where the finger only makes contact with the uppermost surface features.
Figure 2.19 (a) A highly textured surface under oblique lighting. (b) An inked print deposited on the textured surface with a low (<1 N) applied force and lifted using a white gelatin lifter. (c) An inked print deposited using a high (>5 N) force and lifted in the same way.
Figure 2.20 High magnification (~×250) images of contaminated surfaces. (a) Dust. (b) Grease.
Figure 2.21 The type of fingermark formed by rapid lifting of a finger covered in eccrine sweat.
Figure 2.22 The type of fingermark formed by slow lifting of a finger covered in sebaceous sweat.
Chapter 03
Figure 3.1 A high magnification interference micrograph of a fingermark ridge showing heterogeneous distribution of constituents.
Figure 3.2 The surface of a fingertip, showing beads of eccrine sweat forming at the pores along fingerprint ridges.
Figure 3.3 High magnification (~×250) images of the surface of the skin, showing sebum being formed on the surface. (a) Hair follicles at the hairline on the forehead and (b) the side of the nose.
Figure 3.4 Fingertips viewed under long‐wave ultraviolet radiation, showing distribution of a fluorescent contaminant arising from peeling an orange.
Figure 3.5 Schematic diagram of a fingermark on a gelatin lift being analysed by ATR‐FTIR.
Figure 3.6 Schematic diagram of the MALDI process as used to obtain compositional information about a fingermark.
Figure 3.7 Schematic diagram showing secondary ions ejected from surface layers of a fingermark by action of primary beam.
Figure 3.8 Growth of bacterial colonies from a fingermark deposited on agar gel.
Figure 3.9 Optical micrograph showing the growth of a bacterial colony within the ridges of a deposited fingermark (Thomas, 1974).
Figure 3.10 A cross section across a typical droplet of finger deposit and its temporal variation (Thomas and Reynoldson, 1975b).
Figure 3.11 Refractive index distribution of fingermark deposits of less than a day old for
λ
= 551 nm (Thomas and Reynoldson, 1975b).
Chapter 04
Figure 4.1 A schematic representation of the concept of the ‘triangle of interaction’.
Figure 4.2 Microstructure of an unglazed terracotta surface, ~×250.
Figure 4.3 The microstructure of expanded polystyrene, showing gaps between the compressed beads that may allow liquid to penetrate, ~×250.
Figure 4.4 The microstructure of cardboard: (a) normal to surface showing random distribution of fibres, (b) cross section showing the porous, layered structure, ~×250.
Figure 4.5 The microstructure of wood: (a) normal to surface showing directional fibres, (b) cross section showing the porosity associated with the vessels, ~×250.
Figure 4.6 Examples of microstructures of two different types of fabric: (a) a section of a linen shirt, (b) a satin weave garment made of polyester fibres, ~×250.
Figure 4.7 Microstructure of the surface of a leather wallet, ~×250.
Figure 4.8 Schematic diagram showing some of the environments that fingermarks and substrates may be exposed to.
Figure 4.9 Schematic diagrams showing the changes in a fingermark deposited on a non‐porous surface at different times after deposition: (a) immediately after deposition, (b) days after deposition and (c) weeks after deposition.
Figure 4.10 A high magnification interference micrograph of salt crystals (small cross‐shaped features) formed within a fingermark ridge on drying.
Figure 4.11 Schematic diagrams showing the changes in a fingermark deposited on a porous surface at different times after deposition: (a) immediately after deposition, (b) hours after deposition and (c) weeks after deposition.
Figure 4.12 A micrograph of a cross section through a mark developed on card using 1,2‐indandione, showing the depth of penetration of the amino acids into the card (positions of ridges shown by arrows).
Figure 4.13 A fingermark on lined notebook paper enhanced using DMAC: (a) under white light, showing the distribution of the magenta reaction product formed with urea and (b) under fluorescence examination, showing the distribution of the fluorescent reaction product formed with amino acids. The urea has migrated to a greater extent and therefore the enhanced mark targeting this constituent is more diffused.
Figure 4.14 Schematic diagrams showing the changes in a fingermark deposited on a metal surface at different times after deposition: (a) immediately after deposition and (b) weeks after deposition.
Figure 4.15 A fingermark revealed by the corrosion products formed between the constituents of the fingermark and a molybdenum metal foil sheet.
Chapter 05
Figure 5.1 Examples of information that can be obtained during the initial examination of a surface: (a) evidence of water damage on paper and (b) grease contamination on an aerosol can.
Figure 5.2 A summary of various enhancement processes and their relative effectiveness on marks of different types.
Figure 5.3 A rough brick surface that appears too textured to retain fingermark ridge detail.
Figure 5.4 Polymer window of an envelope showing shrinkage and distortion caused by excessive heating.
Figure 5.5 Schematic diagrams and photographs of fingerprint enhancement on textured surfaces: (a) aluminium powder, (b) black magnetic powder and (c) cyanoacrylate fuming.
Figure 5.6 Fingermarks in the blood enhanced on a brass surface using (a) Leuco Crystal Violet and (b) Acid Black 1, showing the degradation to the ridge detail caused by the reaction between hydrogen peroxide and the brass.
Chapter 06
Figure 6.1 Schematic diagram of the interactions between electromagnetic radiation and a surface.
Figure 6.2 Schematic diagrams illustrating examples of specular, scattering and diffuse reflection.
Figure 6.3 Schematic diagrams showing how colour results from the reflection and absorption of different wavelengths of light.
Figure 6.4 Schematic diagram of oblique lighting used to reveal negative marks in dust.
Figure 6.5 Schematic diagram of oblique lighting used to reveal impressions in the substrate.
Figure 6.6 Schematic diagram of specular lighting.
Figure 6.7 Schematic diagram of diffuse lighting used to reveal marks in absorbing contaminant on a reflective surface.
Figure 6.8 Schematic diagram of dark‐field reflected lighting used to reveal reflective marks on a transparent substrate.
Figure 6.9 Schematic diagram of bright‐field transmitted lighting used to reveal opaque marks on a transparent substrate.
Figure 6.10 Schematic diagram of dark‐field transmitted lighting used to reveal marks on a transparent substrate.
Figure 6.11 Schematic diagram of cross‐polarised lighting used to reveal marks on a reflective substrate.
Figure 6.12 Different types of marks that may be detected by visual examination: (a) mark in wet paint detected using oblique lighting, (b) mark in grease on a metal tin detected using specular lighting, (c) marks in butter on a white saucer detected using diffuse lighting and (d) latent marks detected on a CD case using dark‐field transmitted lighting.
Figure 6.13 Schematic diagram showing the mechanism by which fluorescence occurs.
Figure 6.14 Representation of excitation/emission spectra of a chemical with corresponding transitions between excited and ground states.
Figure 6.15 Schematic diagram illustrating the viewing of fluorescence from fingermark ridges containing a fluorescent species.
Figure 6.16 Schematic diagram illustrating the viewing of fluorescence for fingermark ridges containing an absorbing species against a fluorescing background.
Figure 6.17 Images showing marks deposited on a coloured background and developed using ninhydrin, (a) viewed under white light and (b) fluorescence examination under green light, viewing the absorbing marks and fluorescing background through an orange filter.
Figure 6.18 Output spectra for three types of light source used to produce green light illumination, a green laser with output at 532 nm, a green LED and a white high intensity arc lamp with a green excitation filter combination.
Figure 6.19 Excitation and emission spectra for a theoretical fluorescent substance.
Figure 6.20 An excitation spectrum for a theoretical fluorescent substance and output spectra from three different LED light sources.
Figure 6.21 An illustration of the relative levels of fluorescence obtained by using light sources with output wavelengths corresponding to light sources 1, 2 and 3 in Figure 6.20.
Figure 6.22 An emission spectrum for a theoretical fluorescent substance and the transmission spectrum for a generic long‐pass filter.
Figure 6.23 An output spectrum for a green LED light source and transmission spectra from three different long‐pass filters.
Figure 6.24 An illustration of the relative levels of light leakage obtained by using long‐pass filters with transmission spectra corresponding to filters 1, 2 and 3 in Figure 6.23.
Figure 6.25 Emission and excitation spectra for Basic Yellow 40, with the output spectrum of a blue/violet light source and the transmission spectrum of a yellow viewing filter overlaid.
Figure 6.26 Emission and excitation spectra for DFO, with the output spectrum of a green light source and the transmission spectrum of an orange viewing filter overlaid.
Figure 6.27 Emission and excitation spectra for DFO and for a yellow paper substrate.
Figure 6.28 A fingermark developed using DFO on a yellow paper substrate, illuminated using (a) a green light source and viewed through an orange filter and (b) a yellow light source and viewed through a red filter.
Figure 6.29 Latent fingermarks detected on glossy paper by short‐wave UV reflection: (a) appearance under visible light, (b) appearance under reflected UVC radiation.
Figure 6.30 Schematic diagram showing how longer wavelength radiation is unaffected by the presence of the fingermark on the surface, whereas UV radiation of similar wavelength to the fingermark topography is scattered strongly.
Figure 6.31 Untreated fingermarks on a CD case: (a) viewed under white light and (b) viewed under reflected UV radiation.
Figure 6.32 Schematic diagram showing how surfaces that can appear coloured under white light may appear uniform when viewed using infrared reflection.
Figure 6.33 Images of fingerprint developed using physical developer on a patterned background: (a) imaged under tungsten illumination and (b) imaged under tungsten illumination using an infrared long‐pass filter (Schott glass RG830).
Figure 6.34 The concept of the colour wheel, used as the basis of colour filtration and monochromatic illumination.
Figure 6.35 A schematic diagram showing how colour filtration can be used to increase the contrast of coloured ridges against a light background, by selecting a filter of complementary colour to the fingermark ridges.
Figure 6.36 A schematic diagram showing how colour filtration can be used to increase the contrast of white ridges against a coloured background, by selecting a filter of complementary colour to the background.
Figure 6.37 A schematic diagram showing how colour filtration can be used to suppress the interfering effect of coloured, patterned backgrounds, by selecting a coloured filter to match the coloured background.
Figure 6.38 Schematic diagram illustrating how monochromatic illumination is produced from a linear filter – slit combination and a high intensity light source.
Figure 6.39 Ninhydrin mark developed on a purple patterned background viewed: (a) with white light illumination, (b) with green monochromatic illumination and (c) with red monochromatic illumination.
Figure 6.40 A schematic illustration of how a series of images are collected by a multispectral imager to form an ‘image cube’ and the corresponding RGB representation.
Figure 6.41 A fingermark developed using ninhydrin over a purple printed pattern: (a) RGB representation of the image cube collected by a multispectral imaging system, (b) a false colour, unmixed image and (c) an image showing the distribution of the ninhydrin colour spectrum only.
Chapter 07
Figure 7.1 The molecular structure of ethyl cyanoacrylate.
Figure 7.2 Initiation and first propagation of the polymerisation of ethyl cyanoacrylate.
Figure 7.3 Delocalisation of the negative charge, stabilising the reaction intermediate.
Figure 7.4 Propagation step in the polymerisation process.
Figure 7.5 Termination of the polymerisation reaction.
Figure 7.6 Generic polymerisation reaction for cyanoacrylate monomers (the ‐R group representing the different carbon chain lengths).
Figure 7.7 Electron micrograph of the fibrous deposits formed by cyanoacrylate fuming at a relative humidity of approximately 80%.
Figure 7.8 Electron micrograph of the flat deposits formed by cyanoacrylate fuming at a relative humidity of approximately 40%.
Figure 7.9 A fingermark developed at a relative humidity of approximately 100%: (a) high magnification photograph showing poor definition between ridges and furrows and (b) electron micrograph showing flat polymer structure.
Figure 7.10 Scanning electron micrograph of the edge of a ridge of a sebaceous fingermark developed at 80% relative humidity (×1700 magnification).
Figure 7.11 Scanning electron micrograph of a fingermark developed under vacuum conditions.
Figure 7.12 Examples of fingermarks developed using different initiators: (left) fingermark developed with DMAB‐initiated polycyanoacrylate, producing blue fluorescence; (middle) fingermark developed using DMAC‐initiated polycyanoacrylate, producing yellow fluorescence; and (right) fingermark developed with dansyl‐initiated polycyanoacrylate, producing green fluorescence.
Figure 7.13 Relationship between temperature and humidity in a closed system, shown using a theoretical plot derived from a known mass of water contained in air at 80% relative humidity and 20°C.
Figure 7.14 Measured excitation and emission spectra for Basic Yellow 40.
Figure 7.15 Measured excitation and emission spectra for Basic Red 14.
Figure 7.16 A semi‐porous surface treated using (a) cyanoacrylate fuming followed by a liquid dye and (b) by one‐step fluorescent cyanoacrylate fuming.
Figure 7.17 Schematic diagram of normal development, showing zinc depositing where gold nuclei are available on the surface.
Figure 7.18 Photograph of a normally developed mark on a polyethylene bag, (a) under reflected white light and (b) viewed using bright‐field transmitted light.
Figure 7.19 Schematic diagram of reverse development, showing different rates of zinc deposition according to size of gold nuclei available on the surface.
Figure 7.20 A ‘reverse developed’ mark on a low density polyethylene bag.
Figure 7.21 A single fingermark crossing a boundary between dissimilar materials, processed using a single gold/zinc vacuum metal deposition run. Left‐hand side: high density polyethylene, showing ‘normal’ development. Right hand side: low density polyethylene, showing ‘reverse’ development.
Figure 7.22 Schematic diagram of a case where no development occurs, showing zinc unable to find gold nuclei on surface.
Figure 7.23 Schematic diagram of silver vacuum metal deposition on a plasticised surface, showing the different sizes of silver nuclei formed in the ridges and on the surface.
Figure 7.24 An example of marks developed on a clear polyethylene bag using silver vacuum metal deposition, showing developed ridges both lighter and darker than the background.
Figure 7.25 Typical vacuum metal deposition equipment.
Figure 7.26 Fingermarks on white lined notepaper developed by iodine fuming.
Figure 7.27 Spots of sebaceous fingermark constituents (octadecanoic acid, palmitic acid, myristic acid, octanoic acid, squalene) on filter paper processed using iodine fuming, showing strong reaction with the unsaturated squalene.
Figure 7.28 Proposed fixing mechanism for iodine using α‐naphthoflavone.
Figure 7.29 An item being treated by iodine fuming in a treatment chamber.
Figure 7.30 Autoradiographs obtained using the radioactive sulphur dioxide process: (a) from a 1970s Bank of England £5 note and (b) from brown wrapping paper.
Figure 7.31 Schematic diagram illustrating the radioactive SO
2
process: (a) SO
2
gas diffusing through porous substrate and (b) autoradiography of sample with radioactive sulphur bound into fingermark ridges.
Figure 7.32 The apparatus used for radioactive sulphur dioxide processing.
Figure 7.33 Autoradiograph of fabric sample exposed to different environments and treated with radioactive sulphur dioxide.
Figure 7.34 Fingermarks on a metal surface developed by anthracene fuming.
Figure 7.35 A series of fingermarks and palmar ridge detail on a brass plate developed using disulphur dinitride.
Figure 7.36 Proposed mechanism for the formation of SN
x
polymer from S
2
N
2
.
Chapter 08
Figure 8.1 Schematic diagram showing electrostatic attraction between charged particles and the residual charge on a fingermark.
Figure 8.2 Schematic diagram showing trapping of low aspect ratio particles within the viscous constituents of a fingermark.
Figure 8.3 Schematic diagram showing wetting and drawing of high aspect ratio particles to a fingermark by low viscosity liquid constituents.
Figure 8.4 Scanning electron micrographs of a representative aluminium powder.
Figure 8.5 Marks developed using aluminium flake powder, (a) optical micrograph of a mark on a dark surface and (b) scanning electron micrograph of a powdered ridge.
Figure 8.6 Pictures of Zephyr‐style glass fibre brushes: (a) visual image and (b) scanning electron micrograph.
Figure 8.7 Scanning electron micrographs of typical (a) black and (b) white granular powder.
Figure 8.8 Marks developed using granular powders: (a) optical micrograph of a black granular powder mark on a light surface and (b) scanning electron micrograph of a powdered ridge.
Figure 8.9 Pictures of animal (squirrel) hair mop style brushes, visual image and scanning electron micrograph.
Figure 8.10 Scanning electron micrograph of a representative magnetic granular powder.
Figure 8.11 Marks developed using magnetic granular powders: (a) optical micrograph of a mark on a dark surface and (b) scanning electron micrograph of a powdered ridge.
Figure 8.12 A ‘brush’ formed on a magnetic wand by a black magnetic powder.
Figure 8.13 Scanning electron micrograph of a representative magnetic flake powder.
Figure 8.14 Marks developed using magnetic flake powders: (a) optical micrograph of a mark on a dark surface and (b) scanning electron micrograph of a powdered ridge.
Figure 8.15 Scanning electron micrograph of a representative fluorescent powder.
Figure 8.16 Fingermarks developed by ESDA on a paper document.
Figure 8.17 Schematic diagrams showing toner development of electrostatic images, (a) development of electrostatic fringing fields on the polymer film and (b) selective adherence of toner particles to regions where fields are present.
Figure 8.18 Schematic diagram illustrating local modification of the dielectric constant (permittivity) of the paper substrate by the fingermark.
Figure 8.19 Schematic diagram of a generic functionalised nanoparticle.
Figure 8.20 Schematic diagram of constituent‐specific binding of functionalised nanoparticles.
Figure 8.21 Schematic diagram showing how nanoparticles act as matrix enhancers for processes producing ionisation of the fingermark.
Chapter 09
Figure 9.1 Chemical bonding schematic showing how amino acids can form hydrogen bonds with sites along a cellulose fibre.
Figure 9.2 Fingermarks on white copier paper developed using ninhydrin.
Figure 9.3 Generally accepted reaction pathway between ninhydrin and amino acids to form Ruhemann’s purple.
Figure 9.4 Coloured reaction products formed between ninhydrin and 0.1 M solutions of amino acids and other eccrine constituents deposited onto filter paper.
Figure 9.5 Complex formed between zinc salt and Ruhemann’s purple, in some cases giving rise to colour changes and fluorescence.
Figure 9.6 Ninhydrin marks toned with zinc chloride solution, (a) viewed under room lighting and (b) viewed using fluorescence examination.
Figure 9.7 Measured excitation and emission spectra for ninhydrin toned with zinc chloride.
Figure 9.8 Mark developed on paper using DFO.
Figure 9.9 Proposed mechanism for formation of hemiketal.
Figure 9.10 Proposed reaction path of DFO with amino acids (Wilkinson, 2000).
Figure 9.11 Reaction products formed between DFO and 0.1 M solutions of amino acids and other eccrine constituents deposited onto filter paper, (a) viewed under white light and (b) by fluorescence examination.
Figure 9.12 Excitation and emission spectra of DFO.
Figure 9.13 Marks developed using 1,2‐indandione on paper, viewed (a) under white light and (b) using fluorescence examination.
Figure 9.14 Proposed reaction pathway for 1,2‐indandione with amino acids.
Figure 9.15 Reaction products formed between 1,2‐indandione and 0.1 M solutions of amino acids and other eccrine constituents deposited onto filter paper, (a) viewed under white light and (b) by fluorescence examination.
Figure 9.16 Absorption and emission spectra measured for 1,2‐indandione‐zinc.
Figure 9.17 A fingermark developed on a cheque using benzo[f]ninhydrin.
Figure 9.18 Structures of some of the principal ninhydrin analogues.
Figure 9.19 Test spots of different 0.1 M amino acids deposited on filter paper and developed using ninhydrin analogues: (a–c) benzo[f]ninhydrin, dark green principal reaction product; (d–f) 5‐methoxyninhydrin, red/purple principal reaction product; and (g) 5‐methylthioninhydrin, pale purple reaction product, all viewed using white light. Analogous results for proline also shown.
Figure 9.20 Measured excitation and emission spectra for 5‐methylthioninhydrin‐zinc.
Figure 9.21 Marks developed using fluorescamine on a matt emulsion painted wall.
Figure 9.22 Reaction of fluorescamine with amines to form fluorescent products.
Figure 9.23 Reaction products formed between fluorescamine and 0.1 M solutions of amino acids and other eccrine constituents deposited onto filter paper, viewed by fluorescence examination.
Figure 9.24 Measured emission spectra for fluorescamine.
Figure 9.25 Proposed reaction between
o
‐phthalaldehyde, 2‐mercaptoethanol and α‐amino acids.
Figure 9.26 Measured emission spectra for
o
‐phthalaldehyde.
Figure 9.27 Marks on paper developed using genipin, viewed (a) under white light and (b) under fluorescence examination.
Figure 9.28 Proposed reaction mechanism for genipin with amino acids.
Figure 9.29 Reaction products formed between genipin and 0.1 M solutions of amino acids and other eccrine constituents deposited onto filter paper, viewed (a) under white light and (b) by fluorescence examination.
Figure 9.30 Measured excitation and emission spectra for genipin.
Figure 9.31 Structure of lawsone and the proposed reaction product with amino acids.
Figure 9.32 Reaction products formed between lawsone and 0.1 M solutions of amino acids and other eccrine constituents deposited onto filter paper, viewed (a) under white light and (b) by fluorescence examination.
Figure 9.33 Measured excitation and emission spectra for lawsone.
Figure 9.34 Structures of alloxan and the corresponding Ruhemann’s purple analogue.
Figure 9.35 Fluorescent product formed by reaction between NBD chloride and amino acids.
Figure 9.36 Reaction products formed between different amino acids and NBD chloride, (a) alanine reaction product, white light, (b) alanine reaction product, fluorescence, (c) threonine reaction product, white light, (d) threonine reaction product, fluorescence.
Figure 9.37 Reaction between dansyl chloride and amino acids.
Figure 9.38 Fingermarks developed on lined notepaper using the contact transfer DMAC process.
Figure 9.39 The structures of DMAB and DMAC.
Figure 9.40 Reaction mechanism between DMAB and amino acids.
Figure 9.41 Reaction products formed between DMAC and 0.1 M solutions of amino acids and other eccrine constituents deposited onto filter paper, viewed (a) under white light and (b) by fluorescence examination.
Figure 9.42 Measured excitation and emission spectra for DMAC.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Fingermark on lined notepaper enhanced using DMAC solution.
Figure 10.2 Proposed mechanism for formation of coloured product from reaction between DMAC and urea under acid conditions.
Figure 10.3 A fingermark developed on untreated wood using silver nitrate.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Palm and fingermarks approximately 1 year old, left‐hand side treated with physical developer and right‐hand side treated with Oil Red O.
Figure 11.2 Mark contaminated with butter on a clean ceramic tile enhanced using Solvent Black 3.
Figure 11.3 Structure of Solvent Black 3.
Figure 11.4 Schematic illustration of the Solvent Black 3 process. (a) Solvent Black 3 molecules in solvent with limited solubility, (b) lipophilic component of Solvent Black 3 molecule preferentially dissolving into lipids in fingermark ridges and (c) fingermark after drying, leaving dyed ridges.
Figure 11.5 Optical micrograph of a natural (ungroomed) fingermark ridge dyed with Solvent Black 3, showing inhomogeneous staining of fingermark constituents.
Figure 11.6 A mark on adhesive tape developed by Basic Violet 3, (a) viewed under white light and (b) using fluorescence examination.
Figure 11.7 The Basic Violet 3 molecule.
Figure 11.8 (a) Photograph of adhesive side of tape sample treated with Basic Violet 3, showing violet staining of lipids in ridges and of epithelial cells in particular, and (b) higher magnification image of a mark on a glass microscope slide showing stained skin cells.
Figure 11.9 Photographs of different adhesive tapes, showing difference in fingermark enhancement between phenol (right‐hand side) and DOSS‐based (left‐hand side) Basic Violet 3 formulations.
Figure 11.10 Measured excitation and emission spectra for Basic Violet 3.
Figure 11.11 A fingermark developed on paper using Oil Red O.
Figure 11.12 Structure of Oil Red O (Solvent Red 27).
Figure 11.13 Reduction of ruthenium tetroxide by reaction with unsaturated fatty acids.
Figure 11.14 Marks developed using europium chelate on a drinks can, viewed using fluorescence examination.
Figure 11.15 Structure of biological fluorophore (Wilkinson, 1999).
Figure 11.16 Measured excitation and emission spectra for europium chelate.
Figure 11.17 A fingermark contaminated with butter on a dark ceramic tile enhanced with Natural Yellow 3.
Figure 11.18 The chemical structure of Natural Yellow 3.
Figure 11.19 Measured excitation and emission spectra for Natural Yellow 3.
Figure 11.20 The chemical structures of Nile Red and Nile Blue A.
Figure 11.21 Articles processed using Nile Red and Nile Blue A. (a) Nile Red processed article viewed under white light and (b) viewed using fluorescence examination and (c) Nile Blue A processed article viewed under white light and (d) viewed using fluorescence examination.
Figure 11.22 Measured excitation and emission spectra for Nile Red.
Figure 11.23 The chemical structure of Basic Violet 2.
Figure 11.24 Fingermark developed on brown packaging tape using Basic Violet 2.
Figure 11.25 Measured excitation and emission spectra for Basic Violet 2.
Figure 11.26 The reaction path for fingermark visualisation using rubeanic acid and copper acetate.
Figure 11.27 A sebaceous‐rich fingermark on paper developed using rubeanic acid and copper acetate.
Figure 11.28 The chemical structures of phosphomolybdic acid.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Photographs of marks developed on articles exposed to extreme conditions using physical developer: (a) marks on charred paper and (b) mark on invoice nearly 60 years old.
Figure 12.2 Fingermarks developed on an expanded polystyrene tile using small particle reagent.
Figure 12.3 Schematic illustration of the small particle reagent process: (a) stable micelles formed around particles of molybdenum disulfide, (b) destabilisation of micelles by fingermark constituents leading to particles settling on ridges and (c) dried mark, leaving particles adhering to ridges.
Figure 12.4 Fingermarks developed on a dark surface using a white powder suspension formulation.
Figure 12.5 Schematic diagrams illustrating a proposed mechanism for powder suspensions and a possible explanation why the process is more effective on older, dried marks: (a) freshly deposited mark with relatively large interaction distance d
1
and (b) with significantly reduced interaction distance d
2
.
Figure 12.6 A mark developed using physical developer on a cheque.
Figure 12.7 Schematic diagram of a negatively charged silver nucleus.
Figure 12.8 A schematic representation of the micelle formed around silver particle by cationic surfactant molecules (
n
‐dodecylamine acetate) interacting with citrate anions (HL
3−
) and the associated structures of the citrate anion and
n
‐dodceylamine acetate molecule.
Figure 12.9 Scanning electron micrographs of a fingermark developed with physical developer: (a) low magnification showing fingermark ridge flow, (b) medium magnification showing fingermark ridge and (c) high magnification showing individual silver particles.
Figure 12.10 Marks developed using physical developer on an old receipt (a) after development and (b) after further enhancement with sulfide toning.
Figure 12.11 Mark on black paper, before and after bleaching and iodide toning.
Figure 12.12 A mark developed using physical developer on an old receipt (a) after development and (b) after further enhancement with Fotospeed Blue Toner.
Figure 12.13 Schematic diagram illustrating the stages in the multi‐metal deposition process: (a) colloidal gold binding to ridges, (b) preferential deposition of silver particles on pre‐existing gold and (c) dried mark with contrast provided by silver particles.
Figure 12.14 Scanning electron micrographs of marks developed using MMD: (a) low magnification showing fingerprint ridges after gold deposition stage only, (b) low magnification showing fingerprint ridges after silver deposition and (c) higher magnification of an area in (b) showing precipitated silver particles.
Figure 12.15 Fingermarks developed on a cling film test substrate used to wrap a sample of cannabis resin, showing the ability of the process to discriminate the ridge detail in the presence of contamination.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Chemical structure of the haem molecule.
Figure 13.2 Part of a palm mark in blood on glass, with ridge detail diffused by excessive spraying.
Figure 13.3 Structure of Acid Black 1.
Figure 13.4 Fingermarks in blood on a greetings card enhanced using Acid Black 1.
Figure 13.5 Structure of Acid Violet 17.
Figure 13.6 Fingermarks in blood on a drinks carton enhanced using Acid Violet 17.
Figure 13.7 Structure of Acid Yellow 7.
Figure 13.8 Fingermarks in blood on a dark bottle enhanced using Acid Yellow 7.
Figure 13.9 Measured excitation and emission spectra for Acid Yellow 7.
Figure 13.10 The structures of Acid Violet 19 and Acid Blue 83, used as dyes in alternative protein stain formulations for enhancing marks in blood.
Figure 13.11 Peroxidase reactions for tetramethylbenzidine and diaminobenzidine, showing how they become oxidised from the colourless form to coloured polymers/dimers.
Figure 13.12 The coloured and colourless forms of the dyes Leuco Crystal Violet and Leuco Malachite Green.
Figure 13.13 The chemical structures of the fluorescent, coloured fluorescein molecule, and the non‐fluorescent, colourless reduced form fluorescin.
Figure 13.14 Schematic diagrams showing the mechanisms associated with the chemiluminescent reaction between luminol and blood.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Schematic diagram showing selective etching of the metal and masking of regions under the ridges by a sebaceous mark.
Figure 14.2 Schematic diagram showing selective etching of the corrosion initiated by the ridges of the eccrine mark.
Figure 14.3 Schematic diagram showing differences in electrical properties between the region of the fingermark and the uncorroded surface.
Figure 14.4 Schematic diagram showing principle of operation of scanning Kelvin probe.
Figure 14.5 Scanning Kelvin probe images. (a) Greyscale interpolated Volta potential maps produced by substantially eccrine (left) and sebaceous (right) fingermarks on a planar iron surface. Scans were carried out at room temperature and ambient humidity using a 0.1 mm diameter profiled gold wire probe and scanning at a probe to sample height of 0.05 mm using a data point density of 20 pts/mm, and (b) fresh sebaceous fingermark deposited on 9 mm Luger calibre bullet, fired using a Smith & Wesson model 5903 handgun. Visual image of scanned surface along with SKP‐derived Volta potential maps recorded 12 days after firing. Images reproduced courtesy of Swansea University.
Figure 14.6 Schematic diagram showing fingermark enhancement by selective growth of surface films on a metal surface, with the fingermark acting as a mask.
Figure 14.7 The polymerisation reaction of polyaniline.
Figure 14.8 The different oxidation states of polyaniline that can be utilised by electrochromic enhancement.
Figure 14.9 A fingermark deposited on stainless steel cutlery and enhanced by the electrodeposition of polyaniline.
Figure 14.10 Fingermarks on brass and nickel cartridges developed using gun blueing.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Schematic diagram showing how gelatin lifts can lift and reproduce surface features.
Figure 15.2 Fingermarks lifted from a metal push plate on a door using a black gelatin lift and imaged using specialist equipment.
Figure 15.3 Principal interactions between electron beam and sample in scanning electron microscopy.
Figure 15.4 An image produced by X‐ray fluorescence from a mark developed on fabric using vacuum metal deposition, red signal = zinc from metal deposition, green signal = fabric background.
Figure 15.5 A physical developer mark on paper after iodide toning: (a) image of mark in X‐ray transmission mode and (b) image formed from characteristic X‐rays from iodine.
Figure 15.6 SIMS imaging of fingermarks. Positive ion images of an undoped fingermark deposited on a silicon wafer depicting (a) elemental ions (Na, K and either
41
K or CaH, respectively), (b) fragment ions originating from the substrate and (c) fragment ions originating from the fingermark.
Figure 15.7 The use of MALDI‐MSI to reveal fingermark ridge detail. Optical image: a mark on the sticky side of a parcel tape processed with iron oxide powder suspension, exhibiting poor enhancement. Endogenous species imaged by MALDI reveal ridge detail, maps shown for 13‐aminotridecanoic acid (
m
/
z
230.2), oleic acid (
m
/
z
283.2), eicosenoic acid (
m
/
z
311.1), glycerophosphoserine (
m
/
z
666.6).
Figure 15.8 A fingermark viewed under white light and a small portion of the same fingermark imaged using ATR‐FTIR. The ‘heat map’ represents the distribution and relative concentration of a lipid component of the fingermark.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 The ‘quartered fingermark’ concept used for investigating variations in processing parameters: (a) schematic diagram and (b) image of a comparison of different dye concentrations in a reagent under evaluation.
Figure 16.2 Schematic diagram of a dilution series concept used for investigating process sensitivity to particular constituents or contaminants.
Figure 16.3 Depletion series deposited by several different donors, with variability between donors: (a) schematic diagram and (b) practical example showing fingermarks developed using cyanoacrylate fuming and fluorescent dye staining.
Figure 16.4 The concept of a split depletion series overcoming issues of intra‐donor variability: (a) schematic diagram and (b) practical example comparing different formulations of 1,2‐indandione.
Figure 16.5 Schematic diagram showing the concept of using the proportion of area developed as visible ridge detail as a means of comparing marks.
Figure 16.6 Examples of marks graded 1, 2, 3 and 4 using the grading scheme outlined above.
Figure 16.7 Plastic bags found in an environment where they have been subjected to water immersion.
Figure 16.8 Examples of ways in which constituents/contaminants can be inhomogeneously distributed on a fingertip: (a) part of a finger covered in contaminant and (b) eccrine sweat constituents concentrated around pores with other constituents more evenly distributed along ridges.
Figure 16.9 Equivalent bundles of cheques used for pseudo‐operational trials on different processes.
Figure 16.10 Marks developed on a paper document using ninhydrin in a pseudo‐operational trial: (a) areas of continuous ridge detail drawn on clear acetate overlay and (b) acetate sheet placed over graph paper to enable area of ridge detail to be determined.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Processing chart for generic porous surfaces and associated key from the
Fingermark Visualisation Manual
(Bandey, 2014).
Figure 17.2 Schematic representation of a processing sequence for porous surfaces illustrating how fingermark constituents are successively targeted by different processes.
Figure 17.3 Processing chart for generic non‐porous surfaces from the
Fingermark Visualisation Manual
(Bandey, 2014).
Figure 17.4 Schematic representation of a processing sequence for porous surfaces illustrating how fingermark constituents are successively targeted by different processes.
Figure 17.5 A series of photographs of a multiple‐donor ceramic tile taken at different stages of a sequential processing study: (a) fluorescence examination using ultraviolet excitation, (b) black magnetic powder, (c) cyanoacrylate fuming/Basic Yellow 40 staining and (d) Basic Violet 3.
Figure 17.6 Schematic of a split depletion series used to establish processing sequences and an example showing where the prior application of ninhydrin has proved detrimental to subsequent treatment with vacuum metal deposition.
Figure 17.7 A fingermark from a pseudo‐operational trial, initially treated with iodine solution (blue‐black regions) and with further ridge detail revealed by ninhydrin (purple regions).
Figure 17.8 A gelatin lift taken from the screen of a tablet device, enabling fingermark recovery to take place before further handling for data extraction.
Figure 17.9 Writing in different inks on lined notepaper, treated with an experimental 1,2‐indandione formulation and viewed under white light and fluorescence examination under green light. In this case, undesirable ink run has occurred.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Close‐up image of powdered marks and contextual overview shot showing the marks at a point of entry.
Figure 18.2 An example of information about the recovery location of the mark recorded on a lift of an aluminium powdered mark.
Figure 18.3 Schematic diagram showing penetration of fingermark constituents through the reverse side of a thin, porous substrate.
Figure 18.4 Schematic diagram showing transfer of fingermark constituents between an adhesive surface and a non‐porous substrate.
Figure 18.5 Marks developed using multi‐metal deposition on cling film, showing evidence of transfer between tacky surfaces that have been in contact (marks originally deposited between gridlines).
Figure 18.6 Development of fingermarks on both sides of a transparent, thin substrate: (a) schematic diagram illustrating a scenario, (b) fluorescence examination, revealing marks on both sides of a transparent substrate (acetate sheet) with no clear indication of correct orientation and (c) examination using oblique light, revealing only fingermarks on top surface in their correct orientation.
Figure 18.7 Texture affecting take‐up of powder on surface, potentially giving false features within mark, (a) an apparently smooth surface lit using oblique lighting to reveal surface features and (b) mark deposited over the same area and subsequently developed using black granular powder.
Figure 18.8 Possible scenarios where fingermarks may be associated with blood: (a) fingermarks with blood contaminant on a clean surface, (b) latent fingermarks subsequently covered by a layer of blood and (c) impressions left in a pre‐existing layer of blood.
Figure 18.9 Mark in blood developed using Acid Violet 17 showing ambiguity between ridges and furrows and Acid Black 1 showing development of ridges as ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ regions within the same cluster of ridge detail.
Figure 18.10 Examples of both (a) ‘normal’ and (b) ‘reverse’ developments of ridge detail on different areas of the same plastic bag by vacuum metal deposition.
Figure 18.11 Example of a ‘reverse’ developed mark produced using cyanoacrylate fuming followed by fluorescent dye staining on a contaminated surface where material has been removed by the finger. The ridges in this image are darker than the background.
Figure 18.12 Sequence of fingermarks on a polymer substrate: left‐hand side kept at ambient temperature and right‐hand side heated in an oven at 100°C for 20 min before processing with cyanoacrylate fuming.
Figure 18.13 Images of a fingermark captured at 250, 500 and 2000 ppi, showing the differences in the levels of detail that can be discerned.
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Fingerprint Development Techniques
Theory and Application
Stephen M. Bleay
Home Office Centre for Applied Science and Technology, Sandridge, UK
Ruth S. Croxton
School of Chemistry, University of Lincoln, UK
and
Marcel de Puit
Ministerie van Veiligheid en Justitie, Nederlands Forensisch Instituut, Digitale Technologie en Biometrie, The Hague, The Netherlands
This edition first published 2018© 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Series Preface
Developments in forensic science
Practising forensic scientists are constantly striving to deliver their very best in the service of national and international justice. As many types of forensic evidence come under increased scrutiny, the onus is on the forensic science community in partnership with academic researchers, law enforcement and the judiciary to work together to address these challenges. We must have confidence in the scientific validation of the methods used to develop forensic evidence and in how that evidence is correctly and scientifically interpreted within a case context so that it can be admitted within our criminal justice systems with confidence.
As we develop new knowledge and address the research and practical application of science within the forensic science fields, the consolidation, scientific validation and dissemination of new technological innovations and methods relevant to forensic science practice also become essential.
