Food Chemistry E-Book
190,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
FOOD CHEMISTRY A unique book detailing the impact of food adulteration, food toxicity and packaging on our nutritional balance, as well as presenting and analyzing technological advancements such as the uses of green solvents with sensors for non-destructive quality evaluation of food. Food Chemistry: The Role of Additives, Preservatives and Adulteration is designed to present basic information on the composition of foods and the chemical and physical changes that their characteristics undergo during processing, storage, and handling. Details concerning recent developments and insights into the future of food chemical risk analysis are presented, along with topics such as food chemistry, the role of additives, preservatives, and food adulteration, food safety objectives, risk assessment, quality assurance, and control. Moreover, good manufacturing practices, food processing systems, design and control, and rapid methods of analysis and detection are covered, as well as sensor technology, environmental control, and safety. The book also presents detailed information about the chemistry of each major class of food additive and their multiple functionalities. In addition, numerous recent findings are covered, along with an explanation of how their quality is ascertained and consumer safety ensured. Audience The core audience of this book include food technologists, food chemists, biochemists, biotechnologists, food, and beverage technologists, and nanoscientists working in the field of food chemistry, food technology, and food and nanoscience. In addition, R&D experts, researchers in academia and industry working in food science/safety, and process engineers in industries will find this book extremely valuable.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 733
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
1 Food Chemistry: Role of Additives, Preservatives, and Adulteration
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Categories of Food Colors
1.3 Natural Colors Are Best Over Artificial Colors
1.4 Classification of Food Colorants
1.5 Classification of Food Additives
1.6 Food Spoilage and Preservation
1.7 Preservatives
1.8 Antioxidants
1.9 Oils and Spices
1.10 Introduction to Hurdle Technology
1.11 Adulteration
1.12 Food Safety and Standards Act
1.13 Conclusion
References
2 Additives and Preservatives Used in Food Processing and Preservation, and Their Health Implication
Abbreviations
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Merits and Demerits of Food Additives and Preservatives
2.3 Types of Food Additives and Preservatives
2.4 Health Effect of Food Additives and Preservatives
2.5 Conclusion
References
3 Role of Packaging in Food Processing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 State-of-the-Art
3.3 Raw Materials Used in Food Packaging
3.4 Packaging Footprints on Quality, Shelf Life, and Safety of Food
3.5 Prolegomenon on Active and Smart Packaging Systems
3.6 Aseptic Packaging in Food Processing
3.7 The Paradigm in Strategies for Improvement of Food Packaging
3.8 Integration of Nanotechnology to Ameliorate Food Packaging
3.9 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
3.10 Deciphering the Challenges for Sustainable Food Packaging
3.11 Conclusion and the Way Forward
Acknowledgement
References
4 Laws Impacting Chemicals Added to Food
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Functions of Food Additives
4.3 Classification of Food Additives
4.4 Classification Based on Primary and Secondary Technological Roles—Direct and Indirect Additives
4.5 Evaluating the Health Risk of Food Additives
4.6 International Regulations for the Efficacy of Food Additives
4.7 International Laws
4.8 Indian Regulations—Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), Additives Regulations (Regulation 3.1)
4.9 Safety Assessment: Redbook’s Principles of Safety Evaluation
4.10 Levels of Concern for Direct Food Additives
4.11 Threshold Regulation Exemption for Indirect Food Additives
4.12 Estimated Daily Intakes
4.13 Human Data and Clinical Studies
4.14 GRAS Substances
4.15 European Union Legislation
4.16 Categorization of Food Additives
4.17 Safety Assessment of Food Additives
4.18 Safety Evaluation Process and Authorization
4.19 Use of Food Additives in Food Products
4.20 Labeling Regulations and Guidelines
4.21 Conclusion
References
5 Detection of Food Adulterants in Different Foodstuff
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Types of Adulteration
5.3 Impact of Adulteration on Health
5.4 Approaches for Adulterant Authentication in Food Materials
5.5 Physical Authentication Techniques
5.6 Application of Biochemical and Analytical Methods in Adulterant Authentication
5.7 Adulterant Identification by Molecular Techniques
5.8 Limitation in Use of Molecular-Based Methods for Adulterant Authentication
5.9 Conclusion
References
6 Trends of Food Adulteration in Developing Countries and Its Remedies
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Food Fraud in Developing Countries
6.3 Classification of Food Adulteration
6.4 Common Food Adulterants
6.5 Adulteration Remedy Strategies
6.6 Conclusion
References
7 Food Adulteration and Its Impacts on Our Health/Balanced Nutrition
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Types of Adulteration
7.3 Adulteration in Foods
7.4 Effects of Food Adulteration
7.5 Measures to Mitigate Food Adulteration
References
8 Natural Food Toxins as Anti-Nutritional Factors in Plants and Their Reduction Strategies
Abbreviations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Anti-Nutritional Factor
8.3 Methods to Reduce Levels of Anti-Nutritional Factors in Foods
8.4 Conclusion
References
9 Feeding the Future—Challenges and Limitations
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Early Life Nutrition and Healthy Future
9.3 Challenges and Opportunities in Developing the Future Food Systems
9.4 Sustainable Diet for the Future
9.5 Research Trends and Green Food Technologies
9.6 Regulations and Trade
9.7 Conclusion
References
10 Alternate Food Preservation Technology
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Non-Thermal Preservation Technique
10.3 Novel-Thermal Preservation Technique
10.4 Other Alternate Preservation Techniques
10.5 Hurdle Technology for Preservation of Food
10.6 Irradiation Process for Preservation of Food
10.7 Food Additives for the Preservation of Food
10.8 Conclusion
References
11 Green Solvents for Food Processing Applications
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Green Solvents
11.3 Synthesis of NADES
11.4 Conclusion and Future Trends
References
12 Technological Advancement in Food Additives and Preservatives
Abbreviations
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Food Additives and Preservatives
12.3 Regulatory Aspects of Food Additives and Preservatives
12.4 Health Concerns of Conventional Food Additives
12.5 Technological Advancements in Food Additives and Preservatives
12.6 Novel Technological Approaches for Enhanced Functionality
12.7 Methods for Food Additives Determination
12.8 Future Prospects
12.9 Conclusion
References
13 Sensors for Non-Destructive Quality Evaluation of Food
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Different Types of Non-Destructive Methods
13.3 Non-Destructive Quality Testing in Various Food Commodities
13.4 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Types of food additives.
Figure 2.2 Types of sweetener.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Life cycle of food packaging.
Figure 3.2 Conventional and emerging technologies strategies employed for the fo...
Figure 3.3 The global market share of packaging materials [14].
Figure 3.4 Characteristics of active packaging in food applications.
Figure 3.5 The framework of dimensions of the food packaging industry of supply ...
Figure 3.6 The classification of biopolymers [36].
Figure 3.7 Probable harmful effects of exposure of nanoparticles on human health...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Physical authentication techniques.
Figure 5.2 Analytical techniques for food authentication.
Figure 5.3 Molecular authentication techniques.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Potential sources/processes for adulterant entry/contamination into t...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Overview of MAP packaged minimal processed fresh product.
Figure 10.2 Generation of O
3
.
Figure 10.3 HPP processed food product.
Figure 10.4 Different frequencies of ultrasound.
Figure 10.5 Operating mechanism of PEF.
Figure 10.6 Application of cold plasma in agro-food processing industries.
Figure 10.7 Working mechanism of CP.
Figure 10.8 Electrical circuit for generation of OMF.
Figure 10.9 Operating mechanism of OH.
Figure 10.10 Spectrum of electromagnetic wavelength and frequencies.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 New 12 principles of green chemistry postulated by Anastas and Warne...
Figure 11.2 Schematic phase diagram of super critical carbon dioxide.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Schematic diagram of the electronic nose system [14].
Figure 13.2 Electromagnetic spectrum.
Figure 13.3 Schematic diagram of NMR spectrometer [32].
Figure 13.4 Schematic optical diagram of NIR spectrometer.
Figure 13.5 Schematic representation of NIR spectroscopy.
Figure 13.6 Schematic representation of HSI.
Figure 13.7 Schematic representation of an imaging system technique [5].
Figure 13.8 Schematic representation of the optical fiber–based setup of diffuse...
Figure 13.9 Sound measurement technique using instrumental compression [5].
Figure 13.10 Schematic diagram of sensor fusion for assessment of final quality ...
Figure 13.11 Scientific principle of non-destructive quality estimation for vege...
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Chemical classification of natural colorants.
Table 1.2 Common color and associated food.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Food additives and its sources.
Table 2.2 List of natural food colors permitted by FSSAI.
Table 2.3 List of synthetic food colors permitted by FSSAI.
Table 2.4 List of natural non-nutritive sweeteners.
Table 2.5 List of artificial non-nutritive sweeteners.
Table 2.6 List of some common spices and their bioactive compounds [21].
Table 2.7 List of additives and preservatives that can affect human health [24].
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 The innovations to increase the quality and shelf life of food.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Concern levels and study requirements for compound categories as per U...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Cases of food fraud reported by media and summarized by European commi...
Table 5.2 Physical methods used for authentication for various food products.
Table 5.3 Analytical methods used for adulterant authentication.
Table 5.4 PCR-based molecular techniques for food authentication.
Table 5.5 Use of RTPCR techniques for adulterant authentication.
Table 5.6 Application of next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques in authenti...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Common adulterant for food product [3, 19].
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Type of adulterants/contaminants with their examples.
Table 7.2 Different type of adulterants in food products.
Table 7.3 Types of adulterants and their health effects.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Common sources of anti-nutrient factors.
Table 8.2 Adverse health effects of anti-nutrient factors.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Emerging “green” trends in food processing and technology [27].
Table 9.2 CRISPR/CaS9 in improving traits in agricultural crops [34].
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Gas composition of MAP with different food products.
Table 10.2 Application of non-thermal technologies for different food products.
Table 10.3 Typical ranges of membrane filtration.
Table 10.4 Application of novel-thermal technologies for different food products...
Table 10.5 MW frequencies and power level utilized for different food products.
Table 10.6 IRH spectra categorized based on wavelength and appearing temperature...
Table 10.7 Types of freezing process operated at different temperatures.
Table 10.8 Application of hurdle technology for different food products.
Table 10.9 Regulatory bodies limitation for IR doses applied on different food p...
Table 10.10 Application of IR for different food products.
Table 10.11 Application of food additives for different food products.
Table 10.12 Derived sources and compounds of natural additives.
Table 10.13 Synthetic agent and properties of synthetic additives.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Ionic liquids as green solvent for phytochemical extraction from vari...
Table 11.2 Various methods and components for the synthesis of NADESs.
Table 11.3 NADES as green solvent for phenolic compound extraction from various ...
Table 11.4 NADES as green solvent for flavonoid extraction from various food sam...
Table 11.5 Components for the synthesis of natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES)...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Quality parameters in vegetables and fruits [2].
Table 13.2 Non-destructive methods for the analysis of food product quality char...
Table 13.3 Summary of some non-destructive techniques [1].
Table 13.4 Some of the research studies conducted on staple foods using NDT meth...
Table 13.5 Some of the research studies conducted on fruits using NDT methods [3...
Table 13.6 Some of the research studies conducted on vegetables using NDT method...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
Pages
v
ii
iii
iv
xix
xx
xxi
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Food Chemistry
The Role of Additives, Preservatives and Adulteration
Edited by
Mousumi Sen
Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Amity University, Uttar Pradesh, India
This edition first published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
© 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC
For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Wiley Global Headquarters
111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty
While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-79161-4
Cover image: Pixabay.Com
Cover design by Russell Richardson
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
Printed in the USA
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Preface
Food processing is no longer as simple and straightforward as it was in the past and has now become more of a highly interdisciplinary science than an art, and although the basic principles of food chemistry remain the same, much additional research has been carried out in recent years that has extended and deepened our knowledge. In light of the fact that each of the processes involved in food production—including storage, preparation, and distribution—influences the different qualities of food in either a beneficial or harmful way, it is crucial to have a basic understanding of every safeguarding strategy and how it impacts different food systems. Thus, it is of utmost importance to acquire the requisite knowledge about the technology, methods, and the science of the mode of action. Because of the importance of this complex subject, Food Chemistry: Role of Additives, Preservatives, and Adulteration is designed to present basic information on the composition of foods and the chemical and physical changes that their characteristics undergo during processing, storage, and handling. Details concerning recent developments and insights into the future of food chemical risk analysis are also presented, along with topics such as food chemistry, the role of additives, preservatives and food adulteration, food safety objectives, risk assessment, and quality assurance and control. Moreover, good manufacturing practices, food processing systems, design and control, and rapid methods of analysis and detection are covered, as well as sensor technology, environmental control, and safety.
Today, the variety of food items—mainly fast foods—is greatly increasing for food lovers. Due to tremendous advancements, synthetic and natural supplements are added to these food items and beverages in huge amounts, sometimes with serious consequences. For example, when color preservatives overshoot the sanctioned limit, they gradually cause hyperactivity in children. Therefore, it is mandatory to ensure that the food quality and supplements being added to food for consumption are safe. Consequently, this book contains detailed information about the chemistry of each major class of food additive and their multiple functionalities. In addition, numerous recent findings are covered, along with an explanation of how their quality is ascertained and consumer safety ensured.
A brief description of the topics presented in each chapter of the book follows, starting with the first chapter on health-related aspects such as the limited use of additives to perform and fulfill a certain function within the legal framework. The various rules for consumer safety that should be followed for food to remain healthy and nutritious and the importance of spreading awareness about food adulteration are discussed. The next chapter presents various facts about additives and preservatives used in food processing and preservation, and their health implications. For example, the effect of additives on the population, especially children, as consumption of additives is related to hyperactivity and hypersensitivity. Synthetic additives should especially be avoided due to their potential toxic effect.
The third chapter includes the zealous objective to elevate sustainability or recyclability of plastic packaging via enhanced recovery and the choice of packaging design that takes its end of life into consideration. Progress toward the efficacy of packaging materials can also enhance the removal of food pathogens and alleviate environmental waste by maintaining food quality. Because laws regulating food additives are extremely important for safe use and application, the national and international laws associated with food additives used in the food industry are highlighted in the fourth chapter.
Since screening and detecting adulterants in food commodities is a step that ensures the quality of the product, the fifth chapter highlights detection techniques such as physical, chemical, analytical, and immuno-based techniques. The objective of the sixth chapter is to identify common cases of food adulteration malpractice in developing countries. A preventive and remedial approach to counter food adulteration by evaluating existing laws and technology and looking for gaps in the law is discussed.
Food adulteration, why it is done, and its effect on human health and balanced nutrition are covered in the seventh chapter. Regulations that severely punish illegal traders and dishonest producers that adulterate different food products in various ways should be enforced. Next, the eighth chapter attempts to elucidate different types of antinutrients, their structures and adverse effects, as well as strategies for reducing their levels to improve the quality of food. Also discussed is the extensive research on strategies to reduce the levels of anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) in foods, which is essential to produce foods with few or no ANFs without altering their nutritional or organoleptic value. The ninth chapter is a detailed discussion of the challenges and constraints in future food security. Green technologies and associated research trends in food processing are covered, with a major focus on topics like the search for alternative protein sources, novel technologies in food processing, nutrigenomics, biomimicry, DNA barcoding, lab-on-chip, and nanosensors in food safety technology as remedial solutions and associated regulations in attaining a future sustainable food supply.
Alternative food preservation technologies are advantageous over conventional technologies for beverages and solid foods as they can retain nutritional qualities, sensory attributes, lower the chances of crosscontamination, and increase shelf life. The tenth chapter discusses these alternative food preservation techniques for extending and improving the shelf life of food products with shorter treatment duration and higher product safety. The next chapter discusses the tractability of natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) in relation to environmental impact, stability, solute recovery, and toxicity, taking into consideration the costs.
The twelfth chapter provides a succinct overview of various conventional food additives and preservatives with a major emphasis on their type, functionality, mode of action, and significance for food applications. Furthermore, it stipulates various technological advancements made over the years with novel alternative ingredients and discusses the opportunities shaped by the advent of technologies like nanoencapsulation. The last chapter discusses the broader concept of using nondestructive methods in quality assessment of food products and their applications for food evaluation and quality. The overall quality measurement in the food industry is attributed to the sensor fusion technique, which is a collaborative multi-sensor approach to enhance the quality assessment of agro-food products. These methods, which help to ensure customer satisfaction of products by providing good quality products without rupturing the food product, are discussed in this chapter.
In conclusion, I am very grateful for all the hard work and efforts of the many contributors to this book. I would like to thank all the authors for sharing their insightful research and information with us. I am also very much thankful to Aarushi Sen for her unending encouragement and support throughout the creation of this book. Her help was much appreciated. I am also most grateful for the efforts put in by Martin Scrivener of Scrivener Publishing, whose help made this book possible. I thank him for his patience and consistent support throughout the journey. Finally, I express my sincere thanks to the Department of Chemistry, Amity University, Uttar Pradesh for all the help and support I have received.
Dr. Mousumi Sen
October 2021
1Food Chemistry: Role of Additives, Preservatives, and Adulteration
Mousumi Sen
Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Amity University, Uttar Pradesh, India
Abstract
Food is one of the most important substances for survival, it contains all the components that are required for nutrition to maintain a healthy life. Nowadays, due to tremendous advancement, synthetic and natural supplements are added to food items and beverages in huge amount. The synthetic or artificial colors need a strong accreditation from the administrative bodies for their consumption [1–4].
When color preservatives overshoot the sanctioned limit it gradually causes hyperactivity in children. It is mandatory to oversee food quality and the supplements being added to the food for consumption. Also, natural color is rapidly being replaced with artificial or synthetic colors [5].
It is very crucial and critical to understand the effects of each preservation methods and their handling procedure on various foods because each step of storage, handling, processing, and distribution affects the various characteristics of food which could be desirable/undesirable.
Adulteration of food is a demonstration of deliberately corrupting the nature of nourishment offered available to be purchased either by the admixture or substitution of second rate substances and which antagonistically influence nature of food sources, yet in addition their coincidental pollution during the time of development, reaping, capacity, preparing, transport, and dispersion [6–8].
Keywords: Synthetic and natural supplements, artificial colors, food colors, chemical food preservation, sophisticated techniques, adulteration of food, health hazards, pollution
1.1 Introduction
Food colors are basically the supplements that are called as pigments or dyes. When these supplements are added to the food, these improve color of the eatables. These type of color supplements are basically increased within the food just to overcome the color loss that is caused due to the prolong storage conditions. These additives also provide color to the colorless food that makes them more attractive [9]. Food colorants are being added to food in one or another form since many years. Food color plays an eminent role in today’s scenario.
Colorant are different from one another on the basis of their chemical properties and physical properties such as structure, sources, and usage purpose. Colorants are usually added to processed food such as candies, snacks, margarine, cheese, soft drinks, jam/jelly, gelatin, pudding, and pastry fillings [10, 14]. It is known that in medieval ages nitrate was used to enhance the color of meat and to prevent botulism apart from salt and smoke that were used as preservatives.
Food colorants were used by Egyptians in 400 BC to regulate the color of wine and confectionery products. Around the mid-1800 some of the natural colorants added to food were vegetable-derived products such as saffron, carrot, mulberry and flower, various animal originated pigments, and minerals from copper and iron. Around the end of 19th century, the first synthetic dye obtained from organic coal tar was used in butter and cheese [11, 13]. It has been reported that food colorants were used in Europe during the Bronze age.
1.2 Categories of Food Colors
Food colors are classified into three categories:
➢
Natural colors
: Natural colors are the pigments that are made by living organisms. For example: beetroot extract, lutein, and annatto.
➢
Nature-identical colors
: Nature-identical colors are the manmade pigments which are basically found in nature. For example: beta-carotene and canthaxanthin.
➢
Artificial colors
: Artificial colors are purely man-made colors. For example: allura red, and brilliant blue.
1.3 Natural Colors Are Best Over Artificial Colors
Artificial food coloring causes many ill effects mainly to the health. Some of them are mentioned below:
➢ The major effect caused is the behavioral problems especially in children.
➢ Depression in youth is observed on a large scale.
➢ Food allergies and food poisoning are quite common.
➢ Headaches and migraines in people are also seen.
1.4 Classification of Food Colorants
1.4.1 Natural Colorants
Natural food colorants are used worldwide, are known to have significant benefits when consumed, and are demanded by people for their reliability, functionality, biological potential, and health effects [12]. Many consumers associate good and natural looking food and drinks with high quality while they think the other way around when it comes to faded and artificial shining products. In addition, the production of colorants from known sources such as beetroot, grape, cabbage, and paprika makes the consumer feel safe and makes it easier to familiarize and accept the product. Natural colorants are less stable to heat, light, or pH, and their production is inadequate to meet industrial demand. Chemical classification of natural colorants is shown in Table 1.1 [17, 18].
They quickly fade when exposed to light and show low resistance to acidity and high temperature. For example, annatto turns to pink from yellow at low pH and chlorophyll turns to brown from green. This makes natural origin colorants more expensive. For example, natural red and yellow colorants may cost 100 times more than synthetic products with the same effect. Natural coloring matters are synthesized by plant and animal organisms or microorganisms and they naturally exist in them. The most notable colorants obtained from animal sources are Natural Sepia (Cuttle fish), Crimson (Kermes Lotus), and Tyrian purple (Murexshellfish).
We all need food to survive and to maintain our health and as the population is increasing day by day, demand for food is also increasing. In modern days, consumer wants good food with appropriate quality, taste, and safety. For these improvements and increasing demand of food, food additives are required in our daily food for good quality to fulfil the demands of consumers. Ingredients or substance that added in a food for processing, preserve, or storage is called food additives. Food additives are of little or no nutritive values and it includes food coloring agents, flavoring substance, and food preservatives. Food additives are also used for enhancing the taste and appearance.
Table 1.1 Chemical classification of natural colorants.
Sl. no
Color
Chemical classification
Plant sources
1
Orange-yellow
Flavone dyes, isoquinoline dyes, polyene dyes, pyran dyes, chromene dyes
Marigold, β-carotene, lycopene, gentism, turmeric, saffron, Sanguinaria canadensis
2
Brown
Naphthoquinone dyes
Camellia thea, Lawsonia inermis
3
Red
Quinone dyes, anthraquinone dyes, chromene dyes
Annatto, Beta vulgaris, paprica, grapes vitacea, Alkanna tinctoria
4
Purple-blue
Benzopyrone dyes
Centaurea cyanus, Indigofera inctoria, Vaccinium myrtillus
As we all need food for living and for good health, but the demand of food is increases with increasing population day by day. In modern days, consumer wants food with increasing standard of quality, taste, and safety. For this improvement, we added food additives in our daily food for good quality. So, when food is manufacture, it has to face many challenges which can be technologically fascinating.
Food additives are used to prevent from spoiling and it also prevents the growth of bacteria, yeast, in food. The most commonly used additives are salt and sugar. Other examples of additives are ammonium carbonates, sodium nitrates, white sugar, potassium bromate, sodium benzoate, etc.
As with the time, people’s lifestyle changes, and nowadays, most of the people depends on the factory made food (also called processed food) rather than the homemade food. So, the factory made food should be balance its taste, appearance, texture, and its safety. The processed food should remain safe for long time after it has been made [15, 16]. The important roles of additives in our food are as follows:
1. For improving quality of food, for example, preservatives.
2. For giving the texture and consistency, for example, gelling and emulsifier.
3. For improving the nutritional value in food, for example, sweeteners.
4. For improving the flavor and taste, for example, acidulants and flavoring.
5. For preserving the food from different types of bacteria or fungi, etc.
All additives are assigned by European wide basis. European wide regulates and controls the use of additives in food. All food additives are tested and must be shown to be safe before food manufacture able to use them. Food preservatives are a part of food additives as they come under the category of food additives. For example, chips packet are not completely filled up with chips but also contains almost half the packet of gas which is nitrogen gas used for preserving the chips. Table 1.2 shows the common color and associated food [20–25].
Table 1.2 Common color and associated food.
Sl. no.
color
Chromophore
Plant sources
Nutrients
1
Purple-blue
Anthocyanins
Eggplant, blackberry, purple cabbage, plum, blueberry, raisins, prunes, purple grapes, figs
Lutein, zeaxanthin, resveratrol, vitamin C, flavonoid, ellagic acid, quecertin
2
Green
Chlorophyll
Avocado, cucumber, spinach, kale, broccoli, snow pea, zucchini, artichoke, lettuce, kiwi
Lutein, zeaxanthin, resveratrol, vitamin C, calcium, folate, β-carotene
3
White-tan
Anthoxanthins
Cauliflower, mushrooms, parsnip, potato, ginger, onions, jicama, banana, garlic
Ancilin, potassium, selenium
4
Yellow-orange
Carotenoids
Papaya, pineapple, apricot, pumpkin, peach, carrot, orange, corn
β-carotene, zeaxanthin, flavonoid, vitamin C, potassium
5
Red
Lycopene or anthocyanins
Cranberry, beet, watermelon, tomato, strawberry, pomegranate
Ellagic acid, quecertin, hesperidin
Food additives can be natural or artificial. Natural food additives are extracted from fruits, plants, etc., for example, beetroot powder which is used to as coloring agent, whereas artificial food additives are made synthetically, for example, vanillin which is used as flavoring agent in desserts [20].
With time, the lifestyles of people are changing, and nowadays, most people depend on factory made food also known as processed food rather than using homemade food, for example, people prefer packed dairy products like paneer instead of making at home on their own. So, machine made food should have appropriate taste, appearance, texture, and its safety. Processed food should remain safe for longer time after it has been made.
The important functions of food additives are as follows:
• to prevent food from spoiling, for example, adding preservatives to food;
• to give texture and consistency, for example, gelling and emulsifiers;
• to improve flavors, taste, for example, adding flavoring agents to food;
• to enhance the nutritional values, for example, sweeteners;
• to make food attractive and appealing;
• to garnish food;
• to expand affordability and convenience;
• to maintain the freshness of food.
1.4.2 Synthetic Colorants
Synthetic colorants are the colorants which are not found in nature due to their chemical structure and obtained by chemical synthesis. In 1856, William Henry Perkin discovered the first synthetic organic color which is purplish lilac color obtained from coaltar. Synthetic food colorants have their high coloring ability, various color tone, homogeneous color distribution, brightness, stability, and ease of application [19, 26].
Synthetic are divided into three groups according to their solubility:
➢ Water soluble synthetic colors
➢ Fat soluble synthetic colors
➢ Lake colors
1.4.2.1 Water Soluble Synthetic Colors
Allura Red AC: This synthetic colorant, generally known to be derived from insects, is actually produced from coal tar. Allura Red AC is used in the production of food like carbonated drinks, gums, snacks, sauces, soups, wine, and especially apple wine [27].
Sunset Yellow: It is orange red color, and it is usually used for food such as bread, drinks, cereals, sweet powders, ice cream, and snacks.
Brilliant Blue FCF and Brilliant Black BN: Available in blue and black colors, it exists in powder and granular form. It is easily soluble in water while being less soluble in ethanol. Brilliant black is used in the production of various cheese, wine, sauce, and beverages.
Tartrazine: Tartrazine is used to obtain lemon yellow color and is added to food products such as bread, beverages, cereals, peanuts, confectionery, cream, ice cream, and canned food.
Erythosine: Being a xanthen-class colorant in the structure of benzoate, erythosine exists the form of red powder or granules. It is added to flavored milk and puddings, ice products, chewing gum and candies, jelly and drink powders [29, 30].
Quinoline Yellow: Quinoline yellow is a synthetic substance used to obtain a greenish yellow color. It is used in soft drinks, jams and canned foods, edible ice, sweets, candies, pickles, sauces, and spices [28].
Brown FK and Brown HT: Brown FK is used in smoked and cured fish, meat, and chips, while Brown HT is used in various biscuits, chocolates, and cakes.
Other water soluble synthetic colorants are Green S, Indigotine, Patent Blue V, Litolurubin BK, Red 2G, Ponso 4R, and Azorubin.
1.4.2.2 Fat Soluble Synthetic Colorants
Artificial colorants soluble in oil or organic solvents are insoluble in water as they do not contain groups capable of forming salt form as in water-soluble colorants. This group of colorants are not allowed to be used for food coloring because of their toxic properties. For example, the use of oil-soluble Penso SX for the coloring of butter and margarine was banned in 1976. Oil Red XO, Yellow AB used in the coloring of orange peels and Yellow OB are not allowed to use because of their toxic properties [31–34].
1.4.2.3 Lake Colorants
Lake colorants are water-insoluble precipitation of aluminum hydrate substrate and are produced in the form of very fine powders. The dye content and particle size determine the color tone of the powder. As they are not soluble in water, oil, and other solvents, they are dispersed in food and produce color. They are used in cakes, biscuit fillings, confectionery, powder drinks, sweets, soups, and spice mixtures [36–38].
1.4.2.3.1 How to Minimize the Health Risk of Food Additives Consumption?
As we all know, food additives cause harmful health effects [39–44]. So, we should try to take precautions before consuming them. Some measures are as follows:
➢ The food containing danger preservatives and additives should be avoided to minimize the risks related to health.
➢ We should check the ingredients of packed food before purchasing them from markets.
➢ We should eat organic food because they do not have any artificial additives and preservatives in food.
➢ The freshly prepared food should be consumed to maximum extent and use of processed food should be discouraged.
➢ We should decrease the amount of consumptions of packed food items which contain lots of additives.
➢ We should buy certified food items which have been legally approved by FDA.
➢ We should read instructions given on food label before consuming them.
1.5 Classification of Food Additives
Food additives can be classified into many types [45–51], such as follows:
1. Acidity regulator:
• Acidity regulators are those substances which are used for controlling the pH of food for the stability [35].
• Types of acid regulators include acidity regulator, buffer, and acidifier.
• Examples: sorbic acid, benzoic acid, and acetic acid.
2. Anti-caking agent:
• These substances are used to prevent formation of lumps in dairy products.
• Types of anti-caking agents are dusting agent, antisticking agent, and dusting agent.
• Examples: baking powder, milk powder, table salt, icing sugar, and cake mixes.
3. Bulking agent:
• These substances increase the bulk of food without changing its taste.
• Bulking agents include fillers.
• Examples: glycerin, polydextrose, and pectin.
4. Antioxidants:
• These additives prevent spoiling of food by oxygen.
• Types of antioxidants: antioxidant synergist and anti-browning agent.
• Examples: vitamin C, vitamin E, polyphenols, and zinc.
5. Color retention agents:
• These agents are used to maintain and retain the color of food.
• Types of color retention agent are color stabilizer, color fixative, and color adjunct.
• Examples: sodium nitrite, citric acid, EDTA, and sodium nitrate.
6. Emulsifiers:
• These substances are used to form uniform emulsion of more than one phase in a food. They help oil and water to remain mixed together, like in mayonnaise and ice creams.
• Types: plasticizer, dispersing agent, clouding agent, crystallization inhibitor, suspension agent, and surface active agent.
• Examples: egg yolk, agar, albumin, and alignates.
7. Flavors:
• These additives are used to give characteristic taste or smell to the food.
• Flavors can be naturally derived ingredients or artificially synthesized.
• Examples: citric acid, acetic acid, and ethylvanillin.
8. Stabilizers:
• Stabilizers are used for maintaining uniform dispersion of more than one component in a food and it also gives suitable texture. They are not true emulsifiers but helps in stabilizing emulsions. These are used in jams, gellies, etc.
• Types of stabilizers are foam stabilizers, colloidal stabilizers, and emulsion stabilizer.
• Examples: polysaccharides, starch, and proteins like gelatin.
9. Preservatives:
• Preservatives protect food from deterioration caused by microorganisms. It prevents food from spoiling and also stops the growth of microbes.
• Types of preservatives: fungistatic agent, antimycotic agent, antimicrobial synergist, bacteriophages control agent, antimould, and antirope agent.
• Examples:
- Benzoic acid: it increases the shelf life and protect from microorganism. Soft drink, beer, and acidic foods contain benzoic acid.
- Sulfites: Fruit-based pie fillings and dried fruits are the examples of
- where sulfites are found.
- Nitrites: it helps in preserving the color in meat and dried fruits.
10. Sweeteners:
• Sweeteners are added in food to give flavor. Sweeteners are unlike sugar, they are used to maintain low food calories. Sweeteners have fruitful effects on diabetes mellitus, diarrhoea, and tooth decay.
• Sweetener can be naturally derived or artificially synthesized.
i. Natural sweeteners are obtained from nature. For example: sugarcane, sugar beet, and fruits.
ii. Artificial sweeteners are of two types:
a) Non-caloric sweeteners: they do not add calories to foods like snack food and drinks. For example: saccharine and aspartame.
b) Sugar alcohol: found in candies and chewing gums. They contain calories as sugar. For example: sorbitol and mannitol.
• Some common sweeteners used are as follows:
a) Saccharin: it is 300–500 times sweeter than sugar. Saccharin is most commonly used as sweeteners. They are harmless if used in limited quantity.
b) Aspartame: it is 200% sweeter than sugar and it is low calorie sweetener. It can be added to all kind of food, beverages, and medicines. It usually found naturally in protein rich food.
c) Acesulfame K: it is 130–200 times sweeter than sugar and 0-calorie sweetener. It helps to reduce the calorie of product. It can be found in food preserve, dairy product, and in beverages.
11. Fortifying agents:
• Fortifying agents are used to increase the nutritional value.
• Examples: vitamins, lipids, carbohydrates, minerals, and dietary supplements.
12. Flavor enhancers:
• These substances are used to enhance the existing flavor of food.
• Types of flavor enhancer includes natural and artificial enhancers.
• Examples: monosodium glutamate and salt.
13. Humectants:
• These prevent food from drying.
• Examples: aloe vera gel, honey, egg yolk, and lithium chloride.
1.5.1 Why Food Colors Are Preferred
Food supplements are quantized to modify the natural or original color of foods. For example, manufacturing of the strawberry jam that looks much brighter adds certain value to the foods. Sunlight can effectively affect the flavors in the foods [55–57]. Hence, dyes, pigments, or colors are added to the foods as they help to conserve the foods from detaching such nutrients. Food colors are also added to foods so they look attractive like in cakes. Foods that seems to look more appealing seem more appetizing and tend to be sold more faster.
Nowadays, food additives are more firmly studied, managed, and supervised than in past due to increasing use and demands. This responsibility of studying and determining the safe use of food additives is done by FDA (Food and Drug Administration). A manufacturer, producer, or sponsor should petition FDA for approval of food additives. After approval, they should be in agreement with specific food additive regulations [52].
FDA considers the following factors for studying the safety of a substance for its approval:
(i) Consumable amount
(ii) Properties and constitution of the substance
(iii) Long-term and instant effects of health
(iv) Evaluation of safety
(v) Environment assessment
After the approval, FDA issues regulations which includes the following: in which type of food, it must be used, highest amount to be consumed, and how it must be recognized on product labels. Since 1999, approval process is modified. Now, FDA may consult USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) during the review process of substances to be used in meats and poultry products. Regulations known as Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) limit the quantity of food substances used in foods to the quantity necessary to attain the desired effect [53–55].
1.5.2 E-Numbering
• Additives are allotted a special number which is known as E-NUMBER. It is used in Europe for all the approved food additives. This process of giving characteristic number to food additives for easy identification is known as E-numbering [59].
• E-numbering is done to modulate these additives and to notify the consumers.
• The naming of all approved additives starts with the prefix “E” and followed by the number assigned for the approved additive [57].
• All countries other than Europe do not use the prefix “E”. For example, in Europe, acetic acid is written as E260, whereas in other countries, it is simply written as additive 260.
• Some examples of E-numbers of food additive are as follows:
- Tartrazine (E102)
- Quinoline yellow (E104)
- Amaranth (E123)
- Saffron (E164)
- Sorbic acid (E200)
- Benzoic acid (E210)
- Malic acid (E296)
- Sodium alignate (E400)
- Agar (E406)
- Shellac (E904)
Food is defined as the complex mixture of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, and the vitamins. Because of these ingredients, the food undergoes spoilage mechanisms. Different microorganisms utilize these ingredients and grow and degradation of the product or any component causes spoilage of food. That is why we implement the food preservation technique.
There are two types of food preservation techniques: physical method and chemical method. Physical method includes manipulation of storage temperature, pasteurization, and sterilization to arrest the growth of microorganisms [56, 58, 60]. This type of method is although good in arresting the growth of microbes, they employ the economic investment as it requires a continuous supply of electricity which is not possible in developing countries like India. That is why we need to use chemical preservatives. Chemical preservatives are added in a very small quantity that they do not affect the organoleptic and physical properties of food.
Food preservatives contains a complex of substances having unsimilar molecular structures (organic and inorganic substances having different functional group and capacity to form ions). No methods are generally applied in the analysis of preservatives as a subgroup of food additive, the methods are specified to the preservative being examined.
1.6 Food Spoilage and Preservation
It is defined as an undesirable changes that occur in food due to the influence of factors like heat, light, air and moisture which favors the growth of various micro-organisms. Foods take different period of time to lose their natural form their spoilage [61–63]. The time for which a food can be kept fresh is called shelf life.
Food preservation is defined as a science which deals with the process of preservation of decay or spoilage of food to be stored in a fit condition for future use. It has been described as a state in which any food may be retained over a long period of time without being contaminated by pathogenic organisms or chemicals and losing optimum qualities of color, texture, flavor, and nutritive value. Preservation is important as it destroys pathogens and reduces the microbial, takes care of the excess produce, adds variety to our meals, and allows food items to be sent to places where they are not grown.
1.6.1 Causes of Spoilage
Germs are the major sources which infects food and water. The flies carry germs, they pass on these germs when they sit on our food and spoil it and that is when the food becomes infected. There are different factors that are responsible for food spoilage that are as follows:
Bacteria: There are variety of microorganisms present on the earth. They are small in size and has various shapes. Some bacteria are found to be useful like lactobacillus which converts milk to curd.
Protozoa: The single-celled microorganisms that are responsible for food poisoning, etc.
Fungi: They are the organisms that grows on the dead matter and found in the warm places.
Temperature: Too high temperature or too low temperature affects the food and becomes responsible for spoilage of food.
1.6.2 Principle of Food Preservation
Principle of food preservation includes killing the microorganisms or delaying the action of microorganisms and stopping the action of enzymes [64–67].
➢ Inhibit microbial growth is called as “microbistatic”.
➢ Irreversibly inactive microorganisms (microbicidal).
➢ Mechanically remove microorganisms.
➢ Maintain asepsis.
➢ Prevent self-decomposition of food.
➢ Inactivate food enzymes.
1.7 Preservatives
There are different types of preservatives that are best for certain products and are useful and operative against particular chemical specific changes. In things like fruit juice, cheese, bread, and dried fruit, “antimycotics” stops the growth of molds which degrades the quality of those things. Some examples are sodium and calcium propionate and sorbic acid. Another one is “antioxidants” whose butylated hydroxytoluene or (BHT) slows down the occurrence of rancidity created by oxidation in margarine, shortening, and different sets of foods consisting of fats and oils [68]. The growth of harmful bacteria in poultry, seafood, and canned foods is stopped by “antibiotics” like tetracyclines, and to keep these products moisturized, humectants and substances are used. The preservatives may get reactive toward body [70]. It can cause reactions toward in sensitive people like skin allergies including itching and rashes, difficulty in breathing, sneezing, etc.
1.7.1 Factors Affecting Preservative Efficiency
1.7.1.1 Interaction With Formulation Components
Methyl cellulose, alignates, and tragacanth that are hydrocolloids can communicate with preservatives and stop their activity. In pharmaceutical preparations, different emulgents are utilized in preparation of many applications [69]. Preservatives, emulsified oil phase, and emulgent molecules react together. The concentration of preservatives is affected by multiple factors such as the nature of oil, type of concentration of emulgent, and water ratio.
1.7.1.2 Properties of Preservatives
The dispersal of preservative should be similar/homogeneous in nature and increased solubility should be present in the bulk phase is more suitable in multi-phase system. Different chemicals like chlorobutol may get hydrolyze on storage if pH do not favor it. Preservatives do get reactive with some compounds and results in the loss of their antimicrobial property.
1.7.1.3 Effect of Containers
The preparations packed in glass containers can be anticipated to keep their preservative content if the container is closed airtight [71, 72]. Preservatives may pass through the plastic container and reacts together. Rubber is the major things which sometimes reacts with some of the preservatives but it is still used for the closures. Containers may cause defilement of pathogens.
1.7.1.4 Types of Micro-Organisms
Clostridium species, Bacillus anthracis, are some of the plant products which may have some pathogenic microorganisms from the soil. The degradation of the pharmaceutical products is caused by these soil microorganisms. Salmonella typhi is the type of pathogen that is produced from the animal source [74].
1.7.1.5 Influence of pH
The chemical stability and the activity of the preservative may get affected by the adjustment of the pH. Mostly, preservatives are less determined by the pH.
1.7.2 Factors Affecting Chemical Preservation
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Microbial
Processing
Food nutrients composition [73]
Processing temperature
Inherent resistance (vegetable cells/spores/strain/differences)
Changes in composition
pH/acidity [74]
atmosphere
Initial number
Changes in microbial composition
Buffering capacity [75]
Relative humidity
Growth rate
Changes in food microstructure
1.7.3 Classification of Chemical Preservatives
Many chemicals are used as a chemical preservative and are added into the food. According to Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), chemical preservatives are classified into two classes [76–78]:
Class 1: These are the preservatives that we can usually find them in our house in kitchens. They are the preservatives that are derived from the nature. They are not harmful in nature for our body. Example: common salt, sugar, spices, vinegar, vegetable oil, honey, and wood smoke.
Class 2: These are the man-made preservatives that are chemically prepared. There are more chances that they could react with the body and causes harmful effects to the body. Example: calcium or sodium propionate, sorbic acid or its sodium potassium and calcium salt, and acidulants.
1.7.4 Types of Chemical Preservatives
These preservatives are used in foods either as direct additives or are themselves developed during processes such as fermentation or decomposition [79, 80]. There are certain preservatives which can be used.
Natural
Sugar, Salt
Weak organic acid (Acidulants)
Acetic acid, lactic acid, sorbic acid and its salt, benzoic acid and its salt, propionic acid and its salt, malic, tartaric, citric, and ascorbic acid
Inorganic Salt
Nitrites and nitrates, chlorine, iodine, hydrogen peroxide phosphoric acid, and borax
Gaseous
Sulfur dioxide and sulfites, carbon dioxide and ethylene and propylene oxides
Other
Antioxidants, oils, and spices
1.7.5 Natural Chemical Preservatives
From ancient times, the salt and sugars are used as chemical preservatives. They are the regular part of our diet. The salt causes the food dehydration by drying out the water and tying up from the tissues of the food. It also ionizes yielding chlorine ion and interfere with the action of proteolytic enzymes which is harmful to the microorganisms. Similarly, sugar is also a part of our regular diet. It also produces the condition of high osmotic pressure that are unfavorable. Natural preservatives are the part of ancient method to save food from decaying. It delays the growth of unwanted substances like bacteria in the food for some time. They have different properties like antioxidative, antifungal, and antimicrobial which helps in the delay and prevention of the growth of unwanted substances [81–86].
1. Salt (Sodium Chloride, NaCl): It can be found in everyone’s kitchen. It is considered as one of the best natural preservative. It helps in the preservation of non-vegetarian food like meat, chicken, and some vegetables, too. Different unwanted substances sometimes breed on the food in the aqueous medium like bacteria and yeast, and they feed and degrade the food making it unfit to eat so salt helps to prevent this spoilage by the help of the process osmosis in which it dehydrates the microbes.
2. Sugar (Sucrose, C
12
H
22
O
11
): It is also a natural preservative which can be found in everyone’s kitchen as the major role of it is to act as a sweetener. Sugar also helps to prevent the spoilage by the help of the process osmosis in which it dehydrates the microbes and bacteria, and yeast cannot breed and reproduce there.
3. Vinegar: Vinegar is also a natural preservative which everyone has in their kitchen helps in the preservation of meat and poultry food items. It also elevates the taste and antimicrobial property is also present in it. The fermentation of sugar is the process which helps in the formation of the vinegar. Vinegar has acetic acid in it which destroys the microbes and stops the food degradation. We have a very common example, i.e., “Pickling” which acts as a preservative.
4. Onion: Onion has some antioxidant and antimicrobial properties which makes it as another type of natural preservative. Onion has some components which has these properties. Basically, the onion extracts are considered as the natural preservatives. They stops the growth of microorganisms on the food.
5. Olive Oil: Olive oil acts as natural preservative as it segregates/separates the food from coming in contact with the air which detains oxidation, degradation and molding.
6. Cloves: It is the most traditional food preservative which we use from ancient times. It contains phenolic compounds in a large amount which consist of antioxidant properties which makes sure that it prevents the breeding of fungus and bacteria on the food. It is a very useful and effective method since the beginning.
7. Ginger: Ginger is also a natural preservative which helps in the preservation of the food due to its “antimicrobial” property.
8. Castor Oil: Castor oil has anti-fungal property which helps in the food preservation. It inhibits the growth of the fungus on the food. Many grains and pulses are coated with the castor oil so that they can be stored for the long time.
1.7.6 Methods of Food Preservation
1. Drying: It is an ancient method used for the food preservation. This method prevents hydrolysis makes the environment for bacteria unfit for the growth. It uncovers the food to the high temperature which helps the food to be demoisturized. Electric dehydrator is consider to be the best unit for process of drying [90].
2. Freezing: It is storing the food stuffs in the storages which are cold. Potatoes are being kept in the dark room but the potatoes should be frozen.
3. Smoking: It is the process in which food gets exposed to the smoke from the burning wood as smoke has a property of being antioxidant and antimicrobial, mostly meats and fish are burned and smoked. Hot smoking and cold smoking are the different methods of smoking but it has a disadvantage that it increases the probability of cancer [87].
4. Vacuum Packing: In this process, the bags and bottles are being air tight and makes it a place where no oxygen could be present and bacteria dies there.
5. Pickling: In this process, it helps to remove the moisture from the food making the environment unfit for microorganisms to grow. Chemical pickling and fermentation pickling are the types of it. EDTA is added in commercial pickles to increase its life span [90].
6. Sugar: It is also a natural preservative which can be found in everyone’s kitchen as the major role of it is to act as a sweetener. Sugar also helps to prevent the spoilage by the help of the process osmosis in which it dehydrates the microbes and bacteria, and yeast cannot breed and reproduce there [89].
7. Lye: It helps to convert the food alkaline and helps to prevent the bacterial growth on it.
8. Canning: It is the process in which food is being sealed in cans and sterile bottles. Boiling is done in order to make sure that the bacteria is killed, and then, it is being sealed. When the seal is broken, then the chances of food spoilage increases again.
