Food Processing By-Products and their Utilization E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: IFST Advances in Food Science
- Sprache: Englisch
Food Processing By-Products and their Utilization
An in-depth look at the economic and environmental benefits that food companies can achieve—and the challenges and opportunities they may face—by utilizing food processing by-products
Food Processing By-Products and their Utilization is the first book dedicated to food processing by-products and their utilization in a broad spectrum. It provides a comprehensive overview on food processing by-products and their utilization as source of novel functional ingredients. It discusses food groups, including cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, meat, dairy, marine, sugarcane, winery, and plantation by-products; addresses processing challenges relevant to food by-products; and delivers insight into the current state of art and emerging technologies to extract valuable phytochemicals from food processing by-products.
Food Processing By-Products and their Utilization offers in-depth chapter coverage of fruit processing by-products; the application of food by-products in medical and pharmaceutical industries; prebiotics and dietary fibers from food processing by-products; bioactive compounds and their health effects from honey processing industries; advances in milk fractionation for value addition; seafood by-products in applications of biomedicine and cosmeticuals; food industry by-products as nutrient replacements in aquaculture diets and agricultural crops; regulatory and legislative issues for food waste utilization; and much more.
- The first reference text to bring together essential information on the processing technology and incorporation of by-products into various food applications
- Concentrates on the challenges and opportunities for utilizing by-products, including many novel and potential uses for the by-products and waste materials generated by food processing
- Focuses on the nutritional composition and biochemistry of by-products, which are key to establishing their functional health benefits as foods
- Part of the "IFST Advances in Food Science" series, co-published with the Institute of Food Science and Technology (UK)
This bookserves as a comprehensive reference for students, educators, researchers, food processors, and industry personnel looking for up-to-date insight into the field. Additionally, the covered range of techniques for by-product utilization will provide engineers and scientists working in the food industry with a valuable resource for their work.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series
Forthcoming titles in the IFST series
List of Contributors
Preface
Biography of Editor
Chapter 1: Food Processing By-Products and their Utilization: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Food Processing Wastes and By-Products for Industrial Applications
1.3 By-Products from Cereal Processing Industries
1.4 Fruits and Vegetables By-Products
1.5 By-Products from the Meat and Poultry Processing Industries
1.6 Seafood Processing By-Products
1.7 By-Products from the Dairy Processing Industries
1.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Fruit Processing By-Products: A Rich Source for Bioactive Compounds and Value Added Products
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Phenolic Compounds as Functional foods
2.3 Fruit By-Products Sources
2.4 Dietary Fibers-Rich By-Products
2.5 Value-Added Products from Fruit By-Products
2.6 Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 3: Utilization of Waste from Tropical Fruits
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Pineapple
3.3 Guava
3.4 Papaya
3.5 Summary and Future Trends
References
Chapter 4: Valorization of Vegetable Wastes
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Losses of Vegetables from Production to Consumption
4.3 Extent of Vegetable Losses
4.4 Reasons and Overall Prevention of Vegetable Wastes
4.5 Loss Quantification of Some Important Vegetables after Harvest
4.6 Utilization of Vegetable Wastes
4.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Application of Food By-Products in Medical and Pharmaceutical Industries
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Agroindustry By-Products and Potential Recovery of Bioactive Compounds
5.3 By-Products from Animal Origin
5.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Dietary Fibers, Dietary Peptides and Dietary Essential Fatty Acids from Food Processing By-Products
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Dietary Fiber from Food Processing By-Products
6.3 Dietary Proteins and Peptides from Food Processing By-Products
6.4 Dietary Essential Fatty Acids
References
Chapter 7: Prebiotics and Dietary Fibers from Food Processing By-Products
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Oligosaccharides from Food Processing By-Products
7.3 Polysaccharides from Food Processing and Agricultural By-Products
7.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Utilization of By-Products from Food Processing as Biofertilizers and Biopesticides
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Concept of Food Processing By-Products
8.3 Plant-Based Food By-Products and their Importance as Biofertilizers
8.4 Importance of Plant-Based Food Processing By-Products as Biopesticides
8.5 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 9: Banana Peels and their Prospects for Industrial Utilization
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Chemical Properties and Bioactive Compounds Present in Banana Peel
9.3 Utilization of Banana Peel
9.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Utilization of Carrot Pomace
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Value-Added Products from Carrot Pomace Powder
10.3 Nutritional, Functional and Medicinal Value of Carrot and Carrot By-Products
References
Chapter 11: Processing and Utilization of Soy Food By-Products
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Soy Products and Human Diet
11.3 Functionality of Soyabean in Various Food Products
11.4 Processing and Soyabean Composition
11.5 Raw Soy and Soybean Inhibitors in Digestive Enzymes of the Pancreas
11.6 Soybean Inhibitors and Inactivation of Digestive Enzymes
11.7 Beneficial Effects of Soy-Containing Diets
11.8 Traditional Soy-Foods
11.9 Source of Various Enzymes having Industrial Significance
11.10 Major Soybean By-Products
11.11 Tofu Whey and its Uses
11.12 Applications of important soybean products
References
Chapter 12: Value-Added By-Products from Rice Processing Industries
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Rice Bran
12.3 Rice Hull and Rice Bran Fiber
12.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13: Bioprocessing of Beverage Industry Waste for Value Addition
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Coffee
13.3 Tea
13.4 Fruit Juice and Soft Drinks
13.5 Alcoholic Beverages
13.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Bioactive Compounds and their Health Effects from Honey Processing Industries
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Biological Applications of Honey
14.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Advances in Milk Fractionation for Value Addition
15.1 Dairy Ingredient Development
15.2 Milk Proteins
15.3 Milk Proteins Classification
15.4 Milk Fats
15.5 Milk Carbohydrates
15.6 Milk Oligosaccharides
15.7 Future Outlook
References
Chapter 16: Bioprocessing of Chicken Meat and Egg Processing Industries' Waste to Value-Added Proteins and Peptides
16.1 Introduction
16.2 By-Products and Wastes Generated During Chicken Meat and Egg Processing
16.3 Proteins and Peptides derived from Chicken Processing By-Products and Waste
16.4 Valorization of Egg Waste
16.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Bioprocessing of Beef and Pork Meat Processing Industries, ‘Waste to Value-Add’
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Different By-Products and Waste coming from Beef and Pork Meat Processing Industries
17.3 Valorization of Beef and Pork Meat Processing Waste
17.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Aquaculture and Marine Products Contribution for Healthcare Application
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Various Classes of Freshwater and Marine Products and their Healthcare Application
18.3 Recent Patents in Healthcare Applications
18.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: Seafood By-Products in Applications of Biomedicine and Cosmeticuals
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Seafood By-Products and Biomedicine
19.3 Marine Cosmeticuals
19.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 20: Food Industry By-Products as Protein Replacement in Aquaculture Diets of Tilapia and Catfish
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Alternatives to Fishmeal in Catfish Diets
20.3 Alternatives to Fishmeal in Tilapia Diets
References
Chapter 21: Value-Added By-Products from Sugar Processing Industries
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Pulp and Paper Production
21.3 Agglomerated Products Production from Bagasse
21.4 Alcohols
21.5 Animal Feed
21.6 Acids
21.7 Pectins
21.8 Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals
21.9 Anti-Desiccants
21.10 Biodegradable Plastics and Biopolymers
21.11 Food Products, Flavorings and Aromas
21.12 Char and Biofertilizers
21.13 Waste Water Treatment and Environmental Bioremediation
21.14 Energy and Biogas from Sugar Industries
21.15 Sprays and Colors
21.16 Solvents
21.17 Bio-Filters
21.18 Microbial Substrates
21.19 Summary and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 22: Regulatory and Legislative Issues for Food Waste Utilization
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Possible Mitigation Measures for Food Processing Wastes
22.3 Impact of Waste Disposal on Environment and Human Health
22.4 Need of Legislative and Regulatory Guidelines
22.5 Concept of Policies, Legislations, Code of Conduct and Regulations for Food Waste Utilization
22.6 Prevailing Legislation and Regulatory Guidelines for Food Waste Utilization
22.7 Possible Amendments and Scope for the Development of New Regulations on Food Waste Utilization
22.8 Use of Recent Advancements in Food Waste Utilization
22.9 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 3: Utilization of Waste from Tropical Fruits
Figure 3.1 (a) Pineapple fruit; (b) pineapple cut into halves; (c) pineapple peel; and (d) pomace after juice extraction.
Figure 3.2 (a) Guava fruit on tree; (b) guava fruit; (c) guava seeds; and (d) guava peel.
Figure 3.3 Flow chart for the extraction of pectin from guava.
Figure 3.4 Flow chart for the production of Single Cell Protein.
Figure 3.5 (a) Papaya fruit; (b) papaya cut into halves; (c) papaya seeds; and (d) papaya peel.
Figure 3.6 Flow chart for extraction of papain.
Figure 3.7 Flow chart for preparation of papaya seed flour.
Chapter 4: Valorization of Vegetable Wastes
Figure 4.1 Production of fruits and vegetables in each region in million tonnes (adapted from Gustavsson
et al
., 2011).
Figure 4.2 Percentage of non-edible portion of different vegetables (Kantor, 1998).
Figure 4.3 Vegetable waste pyramid.
Figure 4.4 Vegetable consumptions by Australian adults (2011–2012 Australian health survey).
Figure 4.5 A conceptual method of biogas and electricity production.
Figure 4.6 Biogas content of different vegetable wastes.
Figure 4.7 Average total polyphenols in some vegetables.
Figure 4.8 Aseptic extraction of flavour from vegetable waste by SCC.
Figure 4.9 Abiotic stress-based bioprocesses for the production, separation, purification and polishing technologies of high-value phenolic compounds from vegetable wastes.
Figure 4.10 Dietary fibre contents of some important vegetables.
Figure 4.11 Example of procedure used to extract DF from vegetable waste.
Figure 4.12 Flow diagram of extraction of starch from culled plantain or potato pulp.
Figure 4.13 Overall procedures for the production of heat stable resistant starch from culled plantain or potato pulp starch.
Figure 4.14 A theoretical representation of bio fuel and biochar production.
Chapter 5: Application of Food By-Products in Medical and Pharmaceutical Industries
Figure 5.1 Flow chart for utilization of fruit pomace (Dilas
et al
., 2009).
Figure 5.2 By-products from food of animal origin and their possible pharmaceutical and medical applications.
Chapter 6: Dietary Fibers, Dietary Peptides and Dietary Essential Fatty Acids from Food Processing By-Products
Figure 6.1 Flow diagram of the main steps in the isolation of bioactive peptides from marine by-products/co-product processing streams.
Chapter 7: Prebiotics and Dietary Fibers from Food Processing By-Products
Figure 7.1 Some structures of neutral sugars.
Figure 7.2 Chemical structure of xylo-oligosaccharide.
Figure 7.3 Xylo-oligosaccharides production from wood raw material.
Figure 7.4 Hydrothermal treatment coupled with solvent extraction for production of purified XOS from xylan-containing lignocellulosic materials.
Figure 7.5 Chemical structure of chitin, chitosan and chito-oligosaccharide.
Figure 7.6 Chemical structure of inulin.
Figure 7.7 Chemical structure of fructo-oligosaccharide: a) 1-kestose (GF
2
); b) nystose (GF
3
); and c) 1-β-fructofuranosylnystose (GF
4
).
Figure 7.8 Process flow sheet of the industrial production of FOS consisted of FTase production section, FTase immobilization section, and FOS production section.
Figure 7.9 Flow diagram illustrating the processing of soybeans for commercial products.
Figure 7.10 Chemical structure of soybean oligosaccharides.
Figure 7.11 Chemical structure of (1,3) β-glucans.
Figure 7.12 Flow chart of the β-glucans manufacturing process.
Figure 7.13 Constituents of total dietary fiber measured by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) method and non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) measured by the Englyst method.
Figure 7.14 Comparison of corn wet-milling and dry-grind processes and the by-products produced.
Figure 7.15 Chemical structure of amylose and amylopectin in resistant starch.
Chapter 10: Utilization of Carrot Pomace
Figure 10.1 Major carrot varieties.
Figure 10.2 Fresh carrot pomace.
Figure 10.3 Drying set-up used for drying studies of carrot pomace.
Figure 10.4 Thin layer drying curves of carrot pomace at selected temperatures and 0.7 m/s air velocity.
Figure 10.5 Carrot pomace-based wheat bread (buns).
Figure 10.6 Change in colour during storage of carrot pomace-based extrudates.
Figure 10.7 Overall acceptability of carrot pomace incorporated extrudates during frying at different times and temperatures.
Figure 10.8 Micrograph of carrot pomace incorporated extrudates.
Chapter 11: Processing and Utilization of Soy Food By-Products
Figure 11.1 By-products of soybean.
Chapter 12: Value-Added By-Products from Rice Processing Industries
Figure 12.1 Rice kernel compositions.
Figure 12.2 Schematic diagram showing rice milling process.
Figure 12.3 Peptide content during milk fermentation with
Enterococcus faecalis
strain CECT 5727, 5728, 5826 and 5827.
Figure 12.4 Rice bran wax (Ashian Oils Pvt Ltd).
Chapter 15: Advances in Milk Fractionation for Value Addition
Figure 15.1 Model of functional drivers for the development of dairy food ingredients through their path from industry to the consumer
Figure 15.2 Protein composition of mature human and bovine milks. Casein constitutes the major protein portion; however, -lactalbumin and lactoferrin are predominant in human milk, while -lactoglobulin predominates in bovine milk.
Figure 15.3 Simplified schematic diagram for milk value addition processes (Gonzalez, 2014b).
Figure 15.4 Structure of the milk fat globule membrane and associated lipids and proteins.
Figure 15.5 Whole milk process flow chart for fat and carbohydrate separation, showing approximate yield values for 100 kg of liquid milk.
Figure 15.6 Schematic representation of sugar structures in GOS. A transgalactosylation of a galactose to a lactose (n=2) yields a tri-saccharide. Steric hindrances limit the polymerization significantly beyond n=5.
Figure 15.7 Milk oligosaccharides have a lactose at the reducing end, and most have a backbone formed by repeating units of N-acetyllactosamine. Bovine milk is mostly acidic, with 3′- and 6′-sialyllactose the most abundant. Human milk oligosaccharides are mostly neutral with a fucosyl terminal
Chapter 16: Bioprocessing of Chicken Meat and Egg Processing Industries' Waste to Value-Added Proteins and Peptides
Figure 16.1 By-products generated during poultry processing
Figure 16.2 Components of blood plasma.
Figure 16.3 Extraction of plasma proteins
Figure 16.4 ACE inhibition of the renin angiotensin system (Belovic
et al
., 2011).
Chapter 17: Bioprocessing of Beef and Pork Meat Processing Industries, ‘Waste to Value-Add’
Figure 17.1 The waste by-products from beef processing industries.
Figure 17.2 The waste by-products from pork processing industries.
Figure 17.3 Extraction of bioactive peptides (Toldrá
et al
., 2012).
Figure 17.4 A schematic of a wool fiber drawn by Bruce Fraser and Tom MacRae (Copyright CSIRO Australia 1996. Reproduced with permission from The Lennox Legacy.
Figure 17.5 Structural versus regulatory functions of keratins (Magin
et al
., 2007).
Chapter 18: Aquaculture and Marine Products Contribution for Healthcare Application
Figure 18.1 Major classes of marine and freshwater products.
Figure 18.2 Major uses of marine and freshwater products.
Chapter 20: Food Industry By-Products as Protein Replacement in Aquaculture Diets of Tilapia and Catfish
Figure 20.1 World utilization of oilseed meals 2013
Chapter 21: Value-Added By-Products from Sugar Processing Industries
Figure 21.1 Sugar cane crop in fields, Thailand (left) and Pakistan (right).
Figure 21.2 Cane sugar production flow chart
Figure 21.3 Summary of useful by-products obtained from sugar industries.
Figure 21.4 Chemicals from ethanol
Chapter 22: Regulatory and Legislative Issues for Food Waste Utilization
Figure 22.1 The waste hierarchy
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Food Processing By-Products and their Utilization: Introduction
Table 1.1 Different food processing industries and their wastes (Ezejiofor
et al.
, 2014)
Chapter 3: Utilization of Waste from Tropical Fruits
Table 3.1 Utilization of by-products, from the selected tropical fruits into the value-added products
Table 3.2 The valuable constituents in pineapple waste
Table 3.3 Amino acids composition of papaya and guava seeds
Table 3.4 Value-added products from papaya waste and their functions
Chapter 4: Valorization of Vegetable Wastes
Table 4.1 Percentage of produced fruits and vegeTable wasted at different levels throughout the supply chain (adopted from Gustavsson,
et. al.
, 2011)
Chapter 5: Application of Food By-Products in Medical and Pharmaceutical Industries
Table 5.1 Bioactive components isolated from byproducts of fruit processing
Table 5.2 Application of blood components in medical and pharmaceutical field (adapted from Bah
et al
., 2013)
Table 5.3 Application of chitin and chitosan biomedical and pharmaceutical field (adapted from Hamed
et al.
, 2016; Kim
et al.
, 2008)
Chapter 6: Dietary Fibers, Dietary Peptides and Dietary Essential Fatty Acids from Food Processing By-Products
Table 6.1 Classification of dietary fiber components based on water solubility
Table 6.2 Water-holding capacity (WHC) and oil holding capacity (OHC) of some fruit and cereal processing by-products
Table 6.3 Dietary fiber reference intake values for total fiber by age group
Table 6.4 Technological and physiological properties of dietary fiber products
Chapter 7: Prebiotics and Dietary Fibers from Food Processing By-Products
Table 7.1 Potential sources of by-products for prebiotics production
Table 7.2 Percent yields of by-products of orange with different cultivars
Table 7.3 Example of enzymes for pectic oligosaccharide production
Table 7.4 POS monosaccharide composition
Table 7.5 Chemical composition of white flesh dragon fruit peel
Table 7.6 Chemical composition of pectin extract from white flesh dragon fruit peel
Table 7.7 Potential by-products from fruits and vegeTable for production of fructo-oligosaccharide
Table 7.8 Some source, solubility and structure of the β-glucans
Table 7.9 Soluble (SDF), insoluble (IDF) and total (TDF) dietary fiber content of some fruit and vegeTable wastes (values in g/100 g dry product) were obtained by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) method)
Table 7.10 Carbohydrate content of baby corn (dry matter basis)
Table 7.11 Examples of naturally origins and its by-products of resistant starch
Chapter 9: Banana Peels and their Prospects for Industrial Utilization
Table 9.1 Peel composition (fresh weight basis) of dessert bananas
Table 9.2 Antioxidant and antinutrient components present in the different varieties of banana peels (per kg) (adapted from Nagarajaiah and Prakash, 2011)
Table 9.3 Total antioxidant activity and phytochemical content in peel of different banana varieties (adapted from Baskar
et al
., 2011)
Table 9.4 Concentration of NDF (neutral detergent fibre), ADF (acid detergent fibre), cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin (% dry matter) in banana and plantain peels (adapted from Emaga
et al
., 2008)
Chapter 10: Utilization of Carrot Pomace
Table 10.1 Nutritional composition of raw and processed carrot
Table 10.2 Final effective diffusivity and activation energy of carrot pomace using hot air dryer at air velocity of 0.7 m/s
Table 10.3 Variation in properties of carrot pomace incorporated extrudates with storage period
Table 10.4 Effect of frying and seasoning on various properties of extrudate properties with storage period
Chapter 11: Processing and Utilization of Soy Food By-Products
Table 11.1 The approximate food value of 100g of edible soybean
Table 11.2 Major health benefits from the regular use of soybean in the daily diet
Table 11.3 Some of the food uses of soybean and its derivatives
Table 11.4 Protein digestibility corrected amino acids score (PDCAAS) of some selected proteins
Table 11.5 Composition of typical soy protein products (adapted from USDA, 1986)
Table 11.6 Uses of soy flour
Chapter 12: Value-Added By-Products from Rice Processing Industries
Table 12.1 Chemical compositions of rice by-products (% of dry matter) (adapted from Esa
et al
., 2013)
Table 12.2 Protein types found in rice bran
Table 12.3 Fiber compositions of rice hull, rice bran fiber and rice straw
Chapter 13: Bioprocessing of Beverage Industry Waste for Value Addition
Table 13.1 Production of various by-products during different coffee processing steps (Murthy and Naidu, 2012)
Chapter 14: Bioactive Compounds and their Health Effects from Honey Processing Industries
Table 14.1 Honey Grade Scale in the USA
Table 14.2 Nutritional value of honey
Chapter 15: Advances in Milk Fractionation for Value Addition
Table 15.1 Composition of milk proteins in mature bovine milk (adapted from Bylund, 1995)
Table 15.2 Fatty acid composition of bovine and human milk fat (g/100 g total fatty acids). Saturated fatty acids are more abundant in bovine milk fat than in human milk fat. Butyric and caproic acids (C4:0 and C6:0) are common in ruminants milk fat, but are almost absent in human milk fat (adapted from Precht and Molkentin, 1999: Givens and Shingfield, 2006)
Table 15.3 Fatty acid composition of anhydrous bovine milk fat (AMF) fractions separated via melt crystallization with cooling stops at 45°, 30°, 20° and 10°C (adapted from Bhaskara
et al
., 1998)
Table 15.4 Fatty acid composition of anhydrous bovine milk fat fractions separated via supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (adapted from Bhaskara
et al
., 1998)
Chapter 16: Bioprocessing of Chicken Meat and Egg Processing Industries' Waste to Value-Added Proteins and Peptides
Table 16.1 World poultry meat and chicken meat production by region (million tonnes) (adopted from website: www.thepoultrysite.com)
Table 16.2 World egg production (million tonnes) (adopted from website: www.thepoultrysite.com)
Table 16.3 Sources of gelatin from chicken waste
Chapter 17: Bioprocessing of Beef and Pork Meat Processing Industries, ‘Waste to Value-Add’
Table 17.1 Examples of traditional consumption of different edible meat by-products (adapted from Toldrá
et al
., 2012)
Table 17.2 Amino-acid composition in horn and hoof (wt %)
Chapter 18: Aquaculture and Marine Products Contribution for Healthcare Application
Table 18.1 FDA and EU approved marine drugs
Chapter 19: Seafood By-Products in Applications of Biomedicine and Cosmeticuals
Table 19.1 Proximate chemical composition of shrimp by-products in different species
Table 19.2 Biopeptides from different marine resources
Table 19.3 The lipid, EPA and DHA of some seafood
Chapter 20: Food Industry By-Products as Protein Replacement in Aquaculture Diets of Tilapia and Catfish
Table 20.1 Percentage yield of by-products from processing of raw food crops
Food Processing By-Products and their Utilization
Edited by
Anil Kumar Anal
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
This edition first published 2018
© 2018 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Anal, Anil Kumar, editor.
Title: Food processing by-products and their utilization / edited by Dr. Anil Kumar Anal.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2017017235 (print) | LCCN 2017037253 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118432938 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118432891 (epub) | ISBN 9781118432884 (cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Food processing by-products industry. | Food industry and trade-By-products.
Classification: LCC HD9495.A2 (ebook) | LCC HD9495.A2 .A53 2017 (print) | DDC 664/.08-dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017017235
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Cover Images: (Left image) © Allan Baxter/Gettyimages; (Center image) © IP Galanternik D.U./ iStockphoto; (Right image) Fuse/Getty Images
About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series
The Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) is the leading qualifying body for food professionals in Europe and the only professional organisation in the UK concerned with all aspects of food science and technology. Its qualifications are internationally recognised as a sign of proficiency and integrity in the industry. Competence, integrity, and serving the public benefit lie at the heart of the IFST philosophy. IFST values the many elements that contribute to the efficient and responsible supply, manufacture and distribution of safe, wholesome, nutritious and affordable foods, with due regard for the environment, animal welfare and the rights of consumers.
IFST Advances in Food Science is a series of books dedicated to the most important and popular topics in food science and technology, highlighting major developments across all sectors of the global food industry. Each volume is a detailed and in-depth edited work, featuring contributions by recognized international experts, and which focuses on new developments in the field. Taken together, the series forms a comprehensive library of the latest food science research and practice, and provides valuable insights into the food processing techniques that are essential to the understanding and development of this rapidly evolving industry.
The IFST Advances series is edited by Dr Brijesh Tiwari, who is Senior Research Officer at Teagasc Food Research Centre in Ireland.
Forthcoming titles in the IFST series
Herbs and Spices: Processing Technology and Health Benefits, edited by Mohammad B. Hossain, Nigel P. Brunton and Dilip K Rai
List of Contributors
Ali Akbar
, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan
Imran Ali
, Plant Biomass Utilization Research Unit, Department of Botany, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand and Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Balochistan Quetta, Pakistan
Anil Kumar Anal
, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
Manisha Anand
, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
Gabriel Arome Ataguba
, Aquaculture and Aquatic Resources Management (AARM), Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand and University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria
Dattatreya Banavara
, Global Innovation, Firmenich Inc, Plainsboro, NJ, USA
Deepak Bhopatkar
, Global Research and Development, Mead Johnson Nutrition, Evansville, IN, US
Arup Jyoti Das
, Department of Food Engineering & Technology, Tezpur University, Napaam, Sonitpur, Assam, India
Avishek Datta
, Agricultural Systems and Engineering, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani, Thailand
Sankar Chandra Deka
, Department of Food Engineering & Technology, Tezpur University, Napaam, Sonitpur, Assam, India
Lavaraj Devkota
, Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
Damodar Dhakal
, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
Taslim Ersam
, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Science, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya, Indonesia
Zannatul Ferdous
, Agricultural Systems and Engineering, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani, Thailand
Ganjyal Girish
, School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
Juan M. Gonzalez
, Global Research and Development, PepsiCo. Barrington, IL, USA
Wan Rosli Bin Wan Ishak
, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, Kubang Kerian, Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia
Surangna Jain
, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
Manoj Tukaram Kamble
, Aquaculture and Aquatic Resources Management (AARM), Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
Mandeep Kaur
, Amity Institute of Food Technology, Amity University, Noida, India
Prerna Khawas
, Department of Food Engineering & Technology, Tezpur University, Napaam, Sonitpur, Assam, India
Maushmi S. Kumar
, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Pharmacy and Technology Management, SVKM'S NMIMS, Vile Parle West, Mumbai, India
Navneet Kumar
, Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering & Technology, Anand Agricultural University, Godhra (Gujarat), India
Md. Abdul Matin
, Farm Machinery and Postharvest Process Engineering Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh
Seema Medhe
, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
Medina-Meza Ilce Gabriela
, Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering. Michigan State University, USA
Didier Montet
, Food Safety Team Leader, UMR Qualisud, CIRAD, Montpellier, France
Taslima Ayesha Aktar Nasrin
, Postharvest Technology Section, Horticulture Research Centre, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh
Ngo Dang Nghia
, Institute of Biotechnology and Environment, Nha Trang University, Vietnam
Zjahra Vianita Nugraheni
, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Science, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya, Indonesia
Muhammad Bilal Sadiq
, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
Krishna R. Salin
, Aquaculture and Aquatic Resources Management (AARM), Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
H.K. Sharma
, Food Engineering and Technology Department, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Sangrur, Punjab, India
Sajal Man Shrestha
, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
Rahul Shrivastava
, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal MP, India
Manisha Singh
, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
M.K. Tripathi
, Agro Produce Processing Division, ICAR-CIAE, Nabi Bagh, Bhopal MP, India
Kittima Triratanasirichai
, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
Hayat Ullah
, Agricultural Systems and Engineering, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani, Thailand
Santad Wichienchot
, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Nutraceutical and Functional Food, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, Thailand
Preface
This is the first book dedicated to food processing by-products and their utilization in a broad spectrum. It covers all food groups including cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, meat, dairy, marine, sugarcane, winery and plantation by-products. It aims to address the functional components, nutritional values and processing challenges relevant to the food by-products. This book provides the first reference text to bring together essential information on the processing technology and incorporation of by-products into various food and feed applications. Finally, it also delivers an insight into the current state-of-the-art and emerging technologies to extract valuable bioactive chemicals from food processing by-products. Over the past few years, not only food by-products, but also a number of other agricultural wastes, have attracted considerable attention as potential sources of bioactive chemicals, which can be used for various purposes in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries.
Considering the challenges in this area of the food industry, efforts are to be made to optimise food-processing technology to minimize the amounts of by-product waste. The food industry is generating increasing amounts of by-products all along the chain of food production and transformation. However, such by-products could be generated before the production of the finished product. Environmental regulations and high waste discharge costs have forced food processors to find ways to better treat and utilize processing wastes. Environmental legislation agencies have significantly contributed to the introduction of sustainable waste management practices throughout the world.
Efficient utilization of food processing by-products is important for the profitability of the food industry. By-products and wastes of food processing, which represent a major disposal problem for the industry concerned, are very promising sources of value-added substances, with particular emphasis being given to the retrieval of bioactive compounds and technologically important secondary metabolites. This makes them extremely suitable as raw materials for the production of secondary metabolites of industrial significance. The nutritional composition of such food waste is rich in sugars, vitamins, minerals and various health beneficial bioactive chemicals (polyphenols, carotenoids, polyacetylenes, glucosinolates, sesquiterpene lactones, alkaloids, coumarins, terpenoids, proteins, peptides, dietary fibers, fatty acids, etc.). The current trend in the world today is to utilize and convert waste into useful products and to recycle waste products as a means of achieving sustainable development. Over the next few years, the area of food processing waste management will expand rapidly.
In the last few years, there have been numerous publications focusing on the utilization of food processing by-products in both food and non-food applications. Furthermore, numerous texts and reference books are available on waste utilization and mostly their emphasis is on waste treatment. However, none of those sources deal with the utilization of by-products from the range of foods in a comprehensive way. This book is structured into 22 chapters covering an overview of food processing by products, nutritional, chemical, biochemical and physicochemical properties of food waste. It also includes food by-products, value addition and nutraceutical applications.
This book serves as a comprehensive reference book for students, educators, researchers, food processors and industry personnel, as well as policy developers, providing an up-to-date insight. The range of techniques for by-product utilization covered provides engineers and scientists working in the food industry with valuable resources for their work. As this proposed text is the first dedicated reference of its kind, it is expected that it will have broad and significant market appeal.
Anil Kumar Anal, PhD Editor
Biography of Editor
Anil Kumar Anal DVM PhD
Head, Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources Associate Professor, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Phone: +66-2-5246110 (Office)+66-829632277 (Mobile)[email protected]
Dr Anil Kumar Anal is Head of Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources and Associate Professor in Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand. His background expertise is in the Food and Nutrition Security, Food Safety, food processing and preservation, valorization, as well as bioprocessing of herbs, natural resources including Traditional and Fermented Foods, microorganisms, and Agro-industrial waste to fork and value addition, including its application in various food, feed, neutraceuticals, cosmetics and pharmaceutics. His research interests also include the formulation and delivery of cells and bioactives for human and veterinary applications, controlled release technologies, particulate systems, application of nanotechnology in food, agriculture and pharmaceutics, functional foods and food safety.
Dr Anil has authored 5 patents (US, World Patents, EU, Canadian and Indian), more than 100 referred international journal articles, 20 book chapters, 3 edited books and several articles in international conference proceedings. He has been invited as Keynote Speaker and Expert in various Food, Biotechnology, Agro-Industrial Processing and Veterinary as well as Life Sciences based conferences and workshops organized by national, regional and international agencies. Dr Anil has been serving as Advisory member, Associate Editor, and member of Editorial Boards of various regional and international peer-reviewed journal publications. He has experience in conducting numerous innovative research and product developments funded by various donor agencies, including the European Union, FAO, Ministry of Environment, Japan, and various food and biotech industries.
Chapter 1Food Processing By-Products and their Utilization: Introduction
Anil Kumar Anal
Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
1.1 Introduction
Food industries are growing rapidly to huge numbers due to globalization and population increase and are providing a wider range of food products to satisfy the needs of the consumers. The major food industries of the world include dairy, fruits and vegetables, meat and poultry, seafood and cereal. However, these industries generate huge amounts of by-products and wastes, which consist of high amounts of organic matter leading to problems regarding disposal, environmental pollution and sustainability (Russ and Pittroff, 2004). In addition, there is the loss of biomass and valuable nutrients that can be used for developing value-added products. Food industries are currently focusing on solving the problems of waste management and recycling by valorization, i.e. utilization of the by-products and discarded materials and developing new value-added products from them for commercial applications. Waste valorization is an interesting new concept that offers a range of alternatives for management of waste other than disposal or land-filling. Valorization allows exploration of the possibility of reusing nutrients in the production of main products, and thus highlights the potential gains that can be achieved. Traditional methods of waste utilization include their use as animal feed, fertilizer or disposal (Jayathilakan et al., 2012). However, their use has been limited due to legal restrictions, ecological problems and cost issues. Therefore, efficient, cheap and ecologically sound methods for utilization of wastes are being focused upon, which can minimize the quantities of wastes exposed to the environment and the subsequent health hazards.
Wastes from the food industries generally comprise of dietary fibers, proteins and peptides, lipids, fatty acids and phenolic compounds, depending on the nature of the product produced. For example, the wastes from meat and poultry industries comprise of proteins and lipids, while waste from fruit and vegetable processing industries and cereal industries comprise of phenolic compounds and dietary fibers. The recovery of these bioactive compounds is important for their commercialization, so that they can be utilized as nutraceuticals and pharmaceutical products.
1.2 Food Processing Wastes and By-Products for Industrial Applications
Food-processing wastes and by-products are generated during processing of the various food products by the industries, which have not already been used for other purposes and have not been recycled. Crude raw materials such as cereals, fruits, vegetables and animals are processed to final products with the production of large amounts of materials in the form of wastes (Ezejiofor et al., 2014). These wastes emerging from the food processing industries differ from one another, depending on the type of product being produced and the production technique used. Even the amount and concentrations of wastes differ and do not remain constant. For example, wastes from the fruit and vegetable processing industries comprise of high concentrations of polyphenols and dietary fibers, whereas wastes from meat processing industries comprise of high protein and fat content. The food processing wastes also possess characteristics, such as large amounts of organic materials in the form of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates and high chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (Ezejiofor et al., 2014). Hence, they are harmful and affect the environment and human health. Appropriate technologies that focus on their reuse for creation of valuable products, whose costs exceed the costs of reprocessing, should be considered. The different types of wastes produced by the different food processing industries are listed in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Different food processing industries and their wastes (Ezejiofor et al., 2014)
Food processing industry
Waste materials generated
Cereal processingFruits and vegetable processing
Husks, hull, rice branSkin, peels, pulp, seeds, stem, fiber
Poultry processing
Skin, bones, blood, feathers, liver, intestines
Marine products processing
Viscera, heads, backbones, blood and shells
Dairy products processing
Whey, lactose
1.3 By-Products from Cereal Processing Industries
Cereals are the edible seeds derived from plants, which are a good source of carbohydrates. They contribute to 60% of the total world food production (Krishna and Chandrasekaran, 2013), with the main seeds being maize and wheat. Wastes from cereal processing are produced during the harvesting period, post-harvesting and the production period. Presently, these by-products are used as animal feed. However, they need to be utilized more efficiently as they comprise of proteins, dietary fibers and small amounts of unsaturated fatty acids.
Rice bran is an important cereal industry by-product, which is generated during the production of white rice. It is generated during the milling process, where it is separated from the rice to produce white rice. The rice bran production is 60–66 million tonnes annually (Ryan, 2011) and it is mostly used as animal feed or in the production of edible cooking oil. Rice bran is a rich source of nutrients, proteins and peptides, with a wide range of nutritional and functional applications. Defatted rice bran is another by-product, which is produced after oil extraction from the rice bran, also a good source of proteins and dietary fibers (Anal, 2013a). It are currently being utilized in food supplements and in the production of bakery items.
1.4 Fruits and Vegetables By-Products
The world production of fruits and vegetables has increased rapidly. As crop production increases, there is a concomitant increase in the quantity of by-products generated (FAO, 2009). The fruit and vegetable processing by-products are regarded as waste and disposed of in the environment, which causes ecosystem problems as they are prone to microbial degradation. However, fruit and vegetable by-products and wastes are very good sources of bioactive compounds, such as dietary fibers and phenolic compounds with antibacterial, cardio-protective and antitumor activities (Khao and Chen, 2013). Efforts are being made to develop methods to reuse these wastes and by-products by obtaining bioactive compounds for health benefits, profit-making and allowing their environmental-friendly disposal.
The total worldwide production of citrus fruits was reported as 7.78 million tonnes in 2009 (FAO, 2009). These include oranges, lemons, grapefruits and limes They are commonly used forms are as fresh pulps or juice, but following their processing, the by-products such as peels, pulp and seeds remain that make up 50% of the fresh fruit weight (Khao and Chen, 2013). From these wastes, fibers, flavanoids, pectins and limonene can be produced. The major flavanoids found in the citrus peels and seeds include hesperidin, narirutin, naringin and eriocitrin (Mouly et al., 1994). These flavanoids have found to have antioxidant activities (Manthey et al., 2001). Limonin, nimolin and nomilinic acid are major limonoids found mainly in the peels, and demonstrate antibacterial, antiviral and antimicrobial activities (Djilas et al., 2009).
Banana is the largest growing tropical fruit following citrus fruits, contributing to 16% of total fruit production worldwide (Mohapatra et al., 2010). Waste from banana products includes the peels that represent about 40% of the total weight of the fresh bananas (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993). These peels are utilized in animal feed and the preparation of banana chips and banana powder. However, still huge amounts of the peels are being under-utilized and disposed of, resulting in environmental pollution. These banana wastes contain dietary fibers, proteins and different bioactive compounds such as phenolic compounds with reported antioxidant activities (Anal et al., 2014). Hence they need to be recycled so that they can be used for producing various valuable products.
Mango (Mangifera indica L., Anacardiaceae) is a common seasonal fruit, which is mainly processed to produce products such as juices, pickles, purees and canned products (Aslam et al., 2014). Recent researches have indicated that mango wastes, which mostly include the peels (7–24%) and the kernels (9–40%), are good sources of bioactive compounds. The mango peels comprise of functional compounds such as polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamins C and E, dietary fibers and natural antioxidants (Ajila et al., 2007), whereas the kernels are sources of essential amino acids like lysine, valine and leucine (Abdalla et al., 2007), phenolic compounds, edible oils and high amounts of unsaturated fatty acids. These wastes show huge potential to be used as valuable ingredients for the purpose of making functional foods.
Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L) is a popular fruit of several Asian countries. However, the increasing consumption of this fruit has led to the generation of ample abandoned mangosteen pericarps. It has been reported that 10 kg of harvested mangosteens lead to the generation of about 6 kg of pericarps (Mohammad et al., 2014). These pericarps are woody in texture, comprising of bitter substances such as xanthones, tannins and anthocyanins (Lim et al., 2013) that have medicinal properties and are being used as dietary supplements. The therapeutic benefits of these components include hypolipidemia, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and anti-carcinogenic properties (Zafra-Stone et al., 2007; Mishra et al., 2016). Another by-product from the processing of mangosteens is their seeds, which contain 21.18% oil (Ajayi et al., 2006) with essential and non-essential fatty acids. They have been reported to be safe for the heart and liver; hence they can be used as edible oils.
The apple processing wastes are termed apple pomace, which makes up 25–35% of the total apple wastes (Dijlas et al., 2009). The apple pomace includes the peels, seeds, stems, core and the soft tissues. They are good sources of polyphenols, which are mainly present in the peels such as catechin, quercetin, hydroxycinnamates, chlorogenic acid and epicatechins (Mamma et al., 2009) and pectins, proteins and vitamins. However, they are mainly utilized in the production of pectins, which can be co-precipitated out from the apple pomace. These pectins demonstrate good gelling properties, even better than citrus pectins.
Tomato is an important vegetable, with a world total production of 141 million tonnes in 2009 (FAO, 2009). The major products produced using tomatoes are soups, ketchup, juice and paste. Along with their high consumption, there is the generation of huge amounts of by-products and wastes accounting for 40% of the total fresh weight of the tomatoes. These include the seeds (33%), peels (27%) and the pulp (40%) (Encinar et al., 2008; Kaur et al., 2008). These wastes are good sources of proteins (35%) and fats (25%) (Anal et al., 2013a). In addition, they contain high amounts of unsaturated fatty acids due to which the tomato seed oil is used as edible oil. Lycopene, an important carotenoid, is also present in large amounts in tomato wastes.
Carrot processing, for the production of carrot juice, generates wastes in the form of peels and pomace (Chantaro et al., 2008). These wastes make up 12% of the fresh carrot weight and comprises of several valuable compounds such as carotenes, uronic acids and sugars, which are generally discarded or used in feeds and fertilizers. These compounds have important beneficial properties and hence can be utilized for value addition. The carrot waste also contains huge amounts of fibers, including cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin and pectin (Nawirska and Kewasniewska, 2005). Studies are being done to recover these fibers from the carrot waste residues, as they have been reported to have cholesterol-lowering effects that can protect against coronary heart diseases. Also, various attempts are being made to incorporate the valuable compounds from carrot wastes into the production of functional foods and beverages.
The total world onion production in 2009 was reported to be 72 million tonnes (FAO, 2009). During the processing of onions, the major wastes that are generated are the peels and roots. They are a serious threat to environmental pollution, as they are not suitable for fodder because of their aroma or as fertilizers due to the fast development of phytogenetic agents, and also they contribute to toxicity in animals during digestion (Bello et al., 2013). Hence, new applications need to be found for these wastes, which contain high amounts of polyphenols and dietary fibers.
Cabbage is also a vegetable that has a high production yield; however, since it is consumed either in the raw form or the fresh form, wastes generated are very little. The main wastes are their outer leaves which are disposed off. These leaves can be used mainly for the production of biofuels by the anaerobic digestion process (Liu et al., 2006).
1.5 By-Products from the Meat and Poultry Processing Industries
Meat and poultry processing generates a number of organic by-products like bones, blood, feathers, head etc. (Lasekan et al., 2013). The majority of these by-products are produced during the slaughtering process. The slaughterhouse waste comprises of the portion that cannot be utilized or sold as meat. This includes bones, skin, blood and internal organs (Lasekan, et al., 2013). Currently, these wastes are under-utilized, discarded and disposed of in landfills. However, they must be dealt with efficiently, as the growth of these industries mainly depends on the management of their by-products (Jayathilakan et al., 2012). The disposal of these wastes can also be difficult, due to their high water content, susceptibility to oxidation and changes caused by enzymatic activity that results in serious environmental pollution and hazards. Hence, it is essential to find applications for these wastes, which are becoming a serious environmental issue.
Blood is the first and most inevitable by-product of the meat and the poultry industries, which is a major problem due to its high pollutant load. However, blood comprises of a number of compounds that have potential value and is a good source of proteins which makes it an important edible by-product (Jayathilakan et al., 2012). Blood from a healthy animal is generally sterile. It will be approved for use in food products, if it has been obtained from bleeding a healthy animal. Due to an increasing trend in worldwide protein deficiency, usage of animal blood as a source of protein should be investigated and further extraction of bioactive peptides can be carried out to allow for large-scale utilization of the blood.
A great amount of poultry feathers of about 1.8 million tones are generated every year in the form of wastes (Wang and Cao, 2012). These feathers are an important waste product and are used mainly as animal feed; however, research is being made into their new applications. Feathers are composed of 90% proteins with the main one being keratin (Wang and Cao, 2012). The remainder comprises of 1% lipids and 8% water. Keratins are the major structural proteins found in feathers and are characterized by high amounts of cysteine and hydroxyl amino acids such as serine.
Bones are not usually consumed and have no value for the meat and poultry processing industries; hence they are discarded. Approximately 16–45 million tons of bones are discarded worldwide (Dong et al., 2014). They can also be utilized in feed products, as they comprise of proteins, calcium, essential minerals and lipids, which are useful for bodily function. Therefore, studies about comprehensive utilization of bones are required for developing an effective way to utilize the huge amount of bones as potential protein sources.
Skin is also an important and valuable by-product obtained from animals. Just like bones, the skin also contains huge amounts of proteins such as collagen. Gelatin is also one important protein that can be obtained after the hydrolysis of collagen under controlled conditions (Jayathilakan et al., 2012). Both of these proteins have been reported to have various functional and biological properties.
Another product of the poultry industry, which is largely produced and consumed, is poultry eggs. Their high nutritional value and relative low cost has led to their increased production worldwide. According to the FAO, global egg production in 2012 was reported as 65 million tonnes (FAO, 2012), which includes all types of eggs, including hatching eggs. However, the egg processing industries generate huge amounts of wastes, of about 1.5 million tonnes annually, in the form of shell wastes (Wei et al., 2009), which are discarded and disposed of in landfills. This contributes to environmental pollution and hazards and loss of potential revenues. By-products of the egg-processing industries comprise of the eggshells and the eggshell membrane (ESM) that represents 11% of the total egg weight (Stadelman, 2000). The ESM mainly are a very good source of bioactive compounds such as proteins and polysaccharides, together with high amounts of polypeptides (Zhao and Chi, 2009; Jain and Anal, 2016). Collagen makes up 10% of the total proteins, whereas the rest (70–75%) comprises of the glycoproteins. Due to their high protein content, they can be used for production of proteins, and peptides from them can be used in a wide range of food and nutraceutical applications.
1.6 Seafood Processing By-Products
Marine organisms are an important food source for many countries and contain value-added compounds such as lipids, amino acids, proteins and polysaccharides, which are crucial for human health. Industrial processing of these marine organisms leads to the generation of huge amounts of waste that are either discarded or used as fertilizers and fish meals. By-products from seafood processing include viscera, heads, backbones, skin, tail, blood and shells, which comprise of important bioactive compounds that can be used in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications (Anal et al., 2013b). Some of the valuable components that can be obtained from seafood processing are the bioactive peptides, proteins such as collagen, polyunsaturated fatty acids and chitin (Suresh and Prabhu, 2013).
Collagen is a major protein obtained from seafood processing by-products, which are mainly obtained from the skin, bone, tendons etc. (Regenstein and Zhou, 2007). They have a wide range of applications, such as gel formation, water binding, formation of stable emulsions and formation of films (Gomez-Guillen et al., 2011). They are also a good source of bioactive peptides. Gelatin, another protein, can also be derived from collagen, which have many applications in food industries. They can be used as food additives for improving the texture and stability of food products such as meat, bakery goods etc. (Mariod and Fadul, 2013). They are also used in the pharmaceutical industries for making capsules and tablet coatings.
