Food Science and Technology E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1708

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

Food Science and Technology, Second Edition is a comprehensive text and reference book designed to cover all the essential elements of food science and technology, including all core aspects of major food science and technology degree programs being taught worldwide. The book is supported by the International Union of Food Science and Technology and comprises 21 chapters, carefully written in a user-friendly style by 30 eminent industry experts, teachers, and researchers from across the world. All authors are recognized experts in their respective fields, and together represent some of the world’s leading universities and international food science and technology organizations.

All chapters in this second edition have been fully revised and updated to include all-new examples and pedagogical features (including discussion questions, seminar tasks, web links, and glossary terms). The book is designed with more color to help enhance the content on each page and includes more photos and illustrations to bring the topics to life.

• Coverage of all the core modules of food science and technology degree programs internationally
• Crucial information for professionals in the food industry worldwide
• Chapters written by subject experts, all of whom are internationally respected in their fields
• A must-have textbook for libraries in universities, food science and technology research institutes, and food companies globally
• Additional interactive resources on the book's companion website, including multiple choice questions, web links, further reading, and exercises

Food Science and Technology, 2nd Edition is an indispensable guide for food science and technology degree programs at the undergraduate and postgraduate level and for university libraries and food research facilities.

Leseprobe

Food Scienceand Technology

Second Edition

Edited by

Geoffrey Campbell-Platt

Professor Emeritus of Food Technology, University of Reading, UKPresident of IUFoST, 2008–2012

This edition first published 2018 © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.First edition published 2009 © by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Geoffrey Campbell-Platt to be identified as the editor of this edited work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataNames: Campbell-Platt, Geoffrey, editor. | International Union of Food Science and Technology. Title: Food science and technology / edited by Geoffrey Campbell-Platt professor emeritus of food technology, University of Reading, president of IUFoST 2008-2012. Other titles: Food science and technology (John Wiley & Sons) Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed. Identifiers: LCCN 2017026331 (print) | LCCN 2017026724 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118846247 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118846230 (epub) | ISBN 9780470673423 (cloth) Subjects: LCSH: Food industry and trade. | Food--Biotechnology. Classification: LCC TP370 (ebook) | LCC TP370.F629 2017 (print) | DDC 664/.024--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017026331

Cover image: © Photoslash/iStockCover design by Andy Meaden

CONTENTS

Contributors

About the Companion Website

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Food Science and Technology Course Elements

1.2 Evolution of the Book

1.3 Food Safety Assurance

1.4 The International Union of Food Science and Technology

1.5 The Book

Chapter 2 Food Chemistry

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Carbohydrates

2.3 Proteins

2.4 Lipids

2.5 Minor Components 
of Foods

2.6 Water in Foods

2.7 Physical Chemistry 
of Dispersed Systems

2.8 Chemical Aspects of Organoleptic Properties

Further Reading and References

Chapter 3 Food Analysis

3.1 Sampling Techniques

3.2 Gravimetry

3.3 Titrations

3.4 Other Volumetric Methods

3.5 Spectroscopy and Spectrometry

3.6 Non-Spectroscopic Optical Methods

3.7 Mass Spectrometry

3.8 Chromatography

3.9 Electrophoresis

3.10 Electrochemical Methods

3.11 Thermal Analyses

3.12 Biochemical Methods

Further Reading and References

Chapter 4 Food Biochemistry

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Carbohydrates

4.3 Introduction to Protein Biochemistry

4.4 Biochemistry of Food Lipids

4.5 Genetic Materials and Our Food

4.6 Food Biochemical Toxins

4.7 Food Processing and Storage

4.8 Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: 
Biochemical Aspects 
and Applications

4.9 Summary

Further Reading and References

Chapter 5 Food Biotechnology

5.1 History of Food Biotechnology

5.2 Traditional Fermentation Technology

5.3 Enzyme Technology

5.4 Modern Biotechnology

5.5 Genetic Engineering

5.6 Tissue Culture

5.7 Nanotechnology in Food Biotechnology

5.8 Future Prospects

Further Reading and References

Chapter 6 Food Microbiology

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Microorganisms Important to the Food Industry

6.3 Microscopic Appearance of Microorganisms

6.4 Culturing Microorganisms

6.5 Microbial Growth

6.6 Methods of Measuring Growth

6.7 Microbial Biochemistry and Metabolism

6.8 Agents of Foodborne Illness

6.9 Outbreaks

6.10 Incidence of Foodborne Illness

6.11 Some Recent Trends

6.12 Waterborne Diseases

6.13 Traditional and Novel Methods of Microbial Detection

6.14 Microbiological Sampling Plans

6.15 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points

6.16 Hygienic Factory Design

6.17 Microbial Fermentation

6.18 Acknowledgements

Further reading and references

Chapter 7 Numerical Procedures

7.1 International System of Units

7.2 Rules for Using International System of Units

7.3 Equation

7.4 Graphs − Linear and Exponential Plots

7.5 Calculus

Further Reading and References

Chapter 8 Food Physics

8.1 Physical Principles

8.2 Material Properties

8.3 Food Microstructural Properties

Further Reading and References

Chapter 9 Food Processing

9.1 Fundamentals 
of Fluid Flow

9.2 Principles of Heat Transfer

9.3 Unit Operations

9.4 Food Preservation

9.5 Food Processes and Flowcharts

Further Reading and References

Chapter 10 Food Engineering

10.1 Engineering Aspects of Hygienic Design and Operation

10.2 Cleaning and Sanitizing

10.3 Process Controls

10.4 Storage Vessels

10.5 Handling Solid Foods in a Processing Plant

10.6 Storage of Fruits and Vegetables

10.7 Refrigerated Transport of Fruits and Vegetables

10.8 Water Quality and Wastewater Treatment in Food Processing

Further Reading and References

Chapter 11 Food Packaging

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Functions and Attributes of Packaging Materials

11.3 Classification of Packaging Materials

11.4 Barrier Properties of Plastic Packaging

11.5 Packaging and 
Shelf life

11.6 Interactions between Packaging Materials and Food

11.7 Packaging Systems

11.8 Package Closures and Integrity

11.9 Environmental Aspects of Packaging

Further Reading and References

Chapter 12 Nutrition

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Human Energy Requirements

12.3 Protein

12.4 Carbohydrates

12.5 Lipids and Energy Density

12.6 Micronutrients – Vitamins, Minerals and Trace Minerals

12.7 Conclusion

Further Reading and References

Chapter 13 Sensory Evaluation

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Background and Definition

13.3 Facilities

13.4 Subjects

13.5 Methods

13.6 Other Methods

13.7 Summary

Further reading and references

Chapter 14 Statistical Analysis

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Descriptive Statistics

14.3 Inferential Statistics

14.4 Correlation, Regression, and Multivariate Statistics

Further reading and references

Chapter 15 Quality Assurance and Legislation

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Fundamentals of 
Food Law

15.3 Food Quality Management Systems

15.4 Statistical Process Control

Further Reading and References

Websites

Chapter 16 Regulatory Toxicology

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Regulatory Toxicology

16.3 Chemical Hazards in Food

16.4 Conclusions

Further reading and references

Chapter 17 Food Business Management: Principles and Practice

17.1 Introduction

17.2 The Food Business Environment

17.3 The UK Food Chain System

17.4 Characteristics of UK Food Retailers

17.5 Characteristics of UK Food Processors

17.6 Marketing in Food Business Management

17.7 Food Operations Management

17.8 Human Resource Management

17.9 Finance and Accounting for Food Firms

17.10 Conclusions

Further Reading and References

Chapter 18 Food Marketing

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Marketing Principles

18.3 Marketing Research

18.4 Strategic Marketing and the Marketing Plan

Further Reading and References

Chapter 19 Product Development

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Background

19.3 Class Protocols

Further Reading and References

Chapter 20 Information Technology

20.1 Computers and Computing Skills

20.2 Electronic Communication

20.3 Managing Information

20.4 Software Tools for Food Science

20.5 Distance Education

Further Reading and References

Chapter 21 Communication and Transferable Skills

21.1 Study Skills

21.2 Information Retrieval

21.3 Communication and Presentation Skills

21.4 Team and Problem-Solving Skills

Further Reading and References

Index

EULA

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 2.4

Table 2.5

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Table 4.6

Table 4.7

Chapter 5

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Table 5.3

Table 5.4

Table 5.5

Table 5.6

Table 5.7

Table 5.8

Table 5.9

Table 5.10

Table 5.11

Table 5.12

Table 5.13

Chapter 6

Table 6.1

Table 6.2

Table 6.3

Table 6.4

Table 6.5

Table 6.6

Chapter 7

Table 7.1

Table 7.2

Table 7.3

Table 7.4

Table 7.5

Table 7.6

Table 7.7

Table 7.8

Chapter 8

Table 8.1

Table 8.2

Table 8.3

Table 8.4

Chapter 9

Table 9.1

Table 9.2

Table 9.3

Table 9.4

Table 9.5

Table 9.6

Table 9.7

Chapter 10

Table 10.1

Table 10.2

Table 10.3

Table 10.4

Table 10.5

Table 10.6

Table 10.7

Table 10.8

Table 10.9

Table 10.10

Table 10.11

Chapter 11

Table 11.1

Table 11.2

Table 11.3

Table 11.4

Table 11.5

Chapter 12

Table 12.1

Table 12.2

Table 12.3

Table 12.4

Table 12.5

Table 12.6

Table 12.7

Table 12.8

Table 12.9

Table 12.10

Table 12.11

Table 12.12

Table 12.13

Table 12.14

Table 12.15

Table 12.16

Table 12.17

Table 12.18

Table 12.19

Table 12.20

Table 12.21

Table 12.22

Table 12.23

Table 12.24

Table 12.25

Table 12.26

Table 12.27

Table 12.28

Table 12.29

Table 12.30

Table 12.31

Table 12.32

Table 12.33

Table 12.34

Table 12.35

Table 12.36

Table 12.37

Table 12.38

Chapter 14

Table 14.1

Chapter 15

Table 15.1

Table 15.2

Table 15.3

Table 15.4

Table 15.5

Table 15.6

Table 15.7

Table 15.8

Table 15.9

Table 15.10

Table 15.11

Chapter 17

Table 17.1

Chapter 18

Table 18.1

Chapter 19

Table 19.1

Guide

Cover

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Contributors

 Lis Ahlström

Oxford Brookes University, Headington Campus, Oxford, UK

 Tim Aldsworth

Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Coventry University, Coventry, UK

 Rebecca N. Bleibaum

Dragonfly SCI, Inc., USA

 Michael Bourlakis

Cranfield School of Management, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK

 Dietmar Breithaupt

Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany

 Brian C. Bryksa

Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada

 Geoffrey Campbell-Platt

Depertment of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK

 Jianshe Chen

School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China

 Christine E.R. Dodd

Division of Food Sciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, UK

 Richard A. Frazier

Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK

 David B. Grant

Hull University Business School, Hull, UK and Ha

nken S

chool of Economics, Helsinki, Finland

 Gustavo Fidel Gutiérrez-López

Departamento de Ingeniería Bioquímica, ENCB Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico

 C. Jeya Henry

Clinical Nutrition Research Centre, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Singapore

 Heinz-Dieter Isengard

Institute of Food Science and Biotechnology, U

niversity o

f Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany

 David Jukes

Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK

 Cherl-Ho Lee

Division of Food Bioscience and Technology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Korea

 Gertrud Morlock

Institute of Nutritional Science, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany

 Gerald C. Moy

Department of Food Safety, Zoonoses and Foodborne Disease, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

 Keshavan Niranjan

Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK

 Hyun-Jin Park

Food Engineering and Packaging, Korea University, Seoul, Korea

 Gordon L. Robertson

University of Queensland and Food•Packaging•Environment, Hope Island, Queensland, Australia

 Andrew Rosenthal

Division of Food Science, School of Bioscience, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Cam

pus, U

K

 Jeremy D. Selman

Fossatello Group, Carnforth, Lancashire, UK

 Yugang Shi

School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China

 R. Paul Singh

Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, USA

 Herbert Stone

Sensory Consulting Services, USA

 Darío Iker Téllez-Medina

Departamento de Ingeniería Bioquímica, ENCB Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico

 Will Waites

Formerly at Division of Food Sciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, UK

 Paul Weightman

School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

 Ray Winger

Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand

 Rickey Y. Yada

Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

 Takahide Yamaguchi

Graduate School of Accountancy, University of Hyogo, Kobe, Japan

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by a companion website:

www.wiley.com/go/campbell-platt/foodscience

The website includes:

Interactive multiple choice questions

PDF files of all the key points from each chapter of the book, for downloading

PDF files of all the tables from the book, for downloading

PowerPoint slides of all the figures from the book, for downloading

CHAPTER 1Introduction

Geoffrey Campbell-Platt

Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences,University of Reading, Reading, UK

1.1 Food Science and Technology Course Elements

1.2 Evolution of the Book

1.3 Food Safety Assurance

1.4 The International Union of Food Science and Technology

1.5 The Book

Food science and technology is the understanding and application of science to satisfy the needs of society for sustainable food quality, safety and security.

At several universities worldwide, degree programmes in food science and technology have been developed in the past half-century. This followed the lead of the University of Strathclyde (then the Royal College of Science and Technology), in Glasgow, Scotland, under the ­leadership of the first Professor of Food Science, who also became President of the International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST), the late John Hawthorn.

The aim of these courses has been to provide food science and technology graduates with the ability, through multidisciplinary studies, to understand and integrate the scientific disciplines relevant to food. They would be able to extend their knowledge and understanding of food through a scientific approach, and be able to apply and communicate that knowledge to meet the needs of society, industry and the consumer for sustainable food quality, safety and security of supply.

1.1 Food Science and Technology Course Elements

Students studying food science and technology in higher education need to have undertaken courses in the basic scientific disciplines of chemistry, biology, mathematics, statistics and physics. These are developed in food science and technology degree programmes through course elements in food chemistry, food analysis, food biochemistry, food biotechnology, food microbiology, numerical procedures, and food physics. These are all covered by chapters in this book, followed by chapters covering food processing, food engineering, and packaging. Further courses are required in nutrition, sensory evaluation, statistical techniques, and quality assurance and legislation. Regulatory toxicology and food safety are addressed, as is food business management. Other course elements in food marketing, and product development are included, together with chapters on information technology, and communication and transferable skills.

Food science and technology is a science-based course, requiring good grounding in science and the use of laboratory and pilot-plant facilities, to reinforce the theoretical knowledge acquired. As well as gaining practical laboratory and observation skills, students need to learn how to write up laboratory experiments and to develop important reporting and interpretation skills. Universities therefore require up-to-date facilities for chemical, microbiological laboratory exercises, and processing pilot-plant facilities for teaching the principles of unit processing and engineering operations, as well as sufficient well-qualified staff to teach the range of disciplines covered in this book.

1.2 Evolution of the Book

Food Science and Technology, second edition, has evolved from a working group of the Committee of University Professors of Food Science and Technology (CUPFST), in the United Kingdom, who sought to agree a framework of common course elements for the various food science and technology courses established in the UK. Newer universities advised that each course element should be based on outcomes, which should be achieved on successful completion, and it is these outcome-headings that have largely been used as subject headings in each chapter. This approach is popular internationally, as well as being used by professional institutes such as the Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) in the UK, and the book has evolved in consultation with the recommended Education Standards for Food Science of the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) in the United States.

The IFT recognizes food science as the discipline in which engineering, biological and physical sciences are used to study the nature of foods, the causes of deterioration, the principles underlying food processing, and the improvement of foods for the consuming public. Food technology is recognized as the application of food science to the selection, preservation, processing, packaging, distribution and use of safe, nutritious and wholesome food. In short, it could be said that the food scientist analyses and takes apart food materials, whereas the food technologist puts all that knowledge into use in producing safe, desired food products. In practice, as recognized throughout the world, the terms are often used interchangeably, and practising food scientists and technologists have to both understand the nature of food materials and produce safe, nutritious food products.

It is understood, and desirable, that the various food science and technology courses offered will vary, reflecting particular research interests and expertise, in different institutions, and students will want to develop their own interests through specific module choices or individual research projects. However, the purpose of establishing the core competencies, reflected in the chapters of this book, is to recognize what a food science or food technology graduate can be expected to achieve as a minimum, so that employers and regulators know what to expect of a qualified graduate, who could then expect, after suitable relevant experience, to become a member of a professional body, such as IFT or IFST, or a Certified Food Scientist or Chartered Scientist.

This book also provides a useful framework for the delivery of food science and technology courses that meet the criteria for international IUFoST recognition.

1.3 Food Safety Assurance

In our increasingly interdependent globalized world, food safety is an implied term in the “food purchasing or food service” consumer contract, which often appears to be addressed publicly only when something goes wrong. In fact, food control agencies and food retailers require processors and manufacturers to apply Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) to all their processes. This, combined with good practices, such as Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and traceability, build quality and safety assurance into the food chain, which is inherently better with the very large number of food items produced and eaten frequently, and when individual item or destructive testing can only give a limited picture of the total production. Both HACCP and GMP require good teamwork by all involved in food processing, and it is the multidisciplinary-trained food scientist or technologist who usually is called upon to lead and guide these operations.

In our modern world where food ethics are to the fore, in terms of sustainable, environmentally friendly production practices, fair trade, packaging recycling and climate change concerns, food scientists and technologists have an increasing requirement to keep abreast of these issues and the science that can be applied to help address them. To be successful, food scientists need good interpersonal, communication and presentation skills, which may be learned through example, mentoring and practice in as many different situations as possible; in the future, these skills promise to be in even greater demand, as scientists engage with increasingly demanding members of the public.

1.4 The International Union of Food Science and Technology

The International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST) is the international body representing some 
75 member countries, and some 300 000 food scientists and technologists worldwide, focusing particularly on food safety, education and food security. IUFoST organizes World Congresses of Food Science and Technology in different locations around the world, normally every 
2 years, at which the latest research and ideas are shared, and the opportunity is provided for young food scientists to present papers and posters and to interact with established world experts. Higher education in food science and technology has been of great interest for several years, with many developing countries looking for guidance in establishing courses in the subject, or to align them more closely with others, to help graduates move more successfully between countries and regions. IUFoST is also helping the development of distance education, where people are in employment and not able to attend normal university courses. IUFoST therefore sees the publication of this book as an important part of its contribution to helping internationally in sharing knowledge and good practice.

IUFoST has also established the International Academy of Food Science and Technology (IAFoST), to which eminent food scientists can be elected by peer review, and designated as Fellows of IAFoST. The Fellows have acted as lead authors and advisers in the expanding range of authoritative Scientific Information Bulletins published by IUFoST, through its Scientific Council, which help summarize key food issues to a wider audience.

1.5 The Book

In writing this book, we have been honoured to have the 20 chapters written by some 30 eminent authors, from some 10 different countries. All authors are experts in their respective fields, and together represent several of the world's leading universities in food science and technology, as well as leading international organizations. We are particularly honoured that several of the authors are distinguished Fellows of IAFoST, so helping directly to inspire younger potential food scientists and technologists through this textbook for students.

Food Science and Technology is being adopted widely, providing tutors and students with the basic content of the core components of food science and technology degrees, while providing guidance through references to further knowledge and for more advanced study. If this work helps students worldwide in sharing a common ideal while developing their own interests and expertise, the original aim of Professor John Hawthorn in developing this vital subject, so essential for all of us, from Scotland to a worldwide discipline, will have been achieved.

CHAPTER 2Food Chemistry

Richard A. Frazier

Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Carbohydrates

2.2.1 Monosaccharides

2.2.2 Oligosaccharides

2.2.3 Polysaccharides

2.2.3.1 Starch

2.2.3.2 Glycogen

2.2.3.3 Cellulose

2.2.3.4 Pectins

2.2.3.5 Gums

2.2.4 Reactions of Carbohydrates

2.2.4.1 Caramelization

2.2.4.2 Maillard Browning

2.2.4.3 Toxic Sugar Derivatives

2.3 Proteins

2.3.1 Amino Acids – the Building Blocks of Proteins

2.3.1.1 Amino Acid Structure

2.3.1.2 Peptide Bonds

2.3.2 Molecular Structure 
of Proteins

2.3.2.1 Primary Structure

2.3.2.2 Secondary Structure

2.3.2.3 Tertiary Structure

2.3.2.4 Quaternary Structure

2.3.3 Denaturation of Proteins

2.3.4 Post-Translational Modification

2.3.5 Nutritional Properties of Proteins

2.4 Lipids

2.4.1 Lipid Structure and Nomenclature

2.4.1.1 Fatty Acids

2.4.1.2 Triglycerides

2.4.2 Polymorphism

2.4.3 Oil and Fat Processing

2.4.3.1 Hydrogenation of Lipids

2.4.3.2 Interesterification

2.4.4 Lipid Oxidation

2.4.4.1 Mechanism

2.4.5 Antioxidants

2.5 Minor Components 
of Foods

2.5.1 Permitted Additives

2.5.1.1 Colours

2.5.1.2 Preservatives

2.5.2 Vitamins

2.5.3 Minerals

2.6 Water in Foods

2.6.1 Water Activity

2.6.2 Microbial Growth, Chemical Reactivity and Food Texture

2.6.3 Sorption Isotherms

2.7 Physical Chemistry 
of Dispersed Systems

2.7.1 Solutions

2.7.1.1 Solvents

2.7.1.2 Solvation

2.7.1.3 Factors Affecting Solubility

2.7.1.4 Partitioning

2.7.2 Dispersed Systems

2.7.2.1 Colloidal Interactions

2.7.2.2 Foams and Emulsions

2.8 Chemical Aspects of Organoleptic Properties

2.8.1 Taste and Odour Reception

2.8.2 Primary Tastes

2.8.2.1 Sweetness

2.8.2.2 Bitterness

2.8.2.3 Sourness

2.8.2.4 Saltiness

2.8.3 Secondary Tastes

2.8.3.1 Meatiness (Umami)

2.8.3.2 Astringency

2.8.3.3 Pungency

Further Reading and References

Key Points

Carbohydrate chemistry: structures, properties and reactions of major monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides in foods.

Proteins: chemistry of the amino acids and their role in protein structure, a description of the major forces that stabilize protein structure and how they are disrupted during protein denaturation.

Lipids: structure and nomenclature, polymorphism of triglycerides, oil and fat processing (hydrogenation and interesterification), and lipid oxidation.

Chemistry of minor components in foods: permitted additives, vitamins and minerals.

Role of water in foods: water activity, its determination and the importance for microbial growth, chemical reactivity and food texture.

Physical chemistry of dispersed systems: solutions, lyophilic and lyophobic dispersions, colloidal interactions and the DLVO theory, foams and emulsions.

Chemical aspects of organoleptic properties of foods.

2.1 Introduction

Food chemistry is a fascinating branch of applied science that combines most of the subdisciplines of traditional chemistry (organic, inorganic and physical chemistry) together with elements of biochemistry and human physiology. Food chemists attempt to define the composition and properties of food, and understand the chemical changes undergone during production, storage and consumption, and how these might be controlled. Foods are fundamentally biological substances and are highly variable and complex; therefore, food chemistry is a constantly evolving and expanding field of knowledge that underpins other areas of food science and technology. This chapter cannot hope to encompass all of the intricacies and details of food chemistry, but instead attempts to provide an overview of the fundamental areas that constitute this important area of science. To delve deeper, the reader is encouraged to refer to one or more of the excellent texts relating to food chemistry that are listed as further reading at the end of this chapter.

2.2 Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate is the collective name for polyhydroxyaldehydes and polyhydroxyketones, and these compounds form a major class of biomolecules that perform several functions in vivo, including the storage and transport of energy. Indeed, carbohydrates are the major source of energy in our diet. The name carbohydrate derives from their general empirical formula, which is (CH2O)n; however, the carbohydrate group contains several derivatives and closely related compounds that do not fit this general empirical formula, but are still considered to be carbohydrates. There are three distinct classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides (1 structural unit), oligosaccharides (2–10 structural units) and polysaccharides (>10 structural units).

2.2.1 Monosaccharides

The monosaccharides are also termed simple sugars, are given the suffix -ose and classified as aldoses or ketoses depending on whether they contain an aldehyde or ketone group. The most common monosaccharides are either pentoses (containing a chain of five carbon atoms) or hexoses (containing a chain of six carbon atoms). Each carbon atom carries a hydroxyl group with the exception of the atom that forms the carbonyl group, which is also known as the reducing group.

Simple sugars are optically active compounds and can contain several asymmetrical carbon atoms. This leads to the possibility for the formation of multiple stereoisomers or enantiomers of the same basic structure. To ­simplify matters, monosaccharides are assigned optical configurations with respect to comparison of their ­highest numbered asymmetric carbon atom to the configuration of D-glyceraldehyde or L-glyceraldehyde (Figure 2.1). By convention, the carbon atoms in the monosaccharide molecule are numbered such that the reducing group carries the lowest possible number; therefore, in aldoses the reducing group carbon is always numbered 1 and in ketoses the numbering is started from the end of the carbon chain closest to the reducing group. Most naturally occurring monosaccharides belong to the D-series (i.e., their highest numbered carbon has a similar optical configuration to D-glyceraldehyde).

Figure 2.1 The D and L stereoisomers of glyceraldehyde.

The stereochemistry of the monosaccharides is depicted using the Fischer projection as shown for D-glucose and D-fructose in Figure 2.2