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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
From 5G to 6G Understand the transition to the sixth generation of wireless with this bold introduction The transition from the fifth generation of wireless communication (5G) to the coming sixth generation (6G) promises to be one of the most significant phases in the history of telecommunications. The technological, social, and logistical challenges promise to be significant, and meeting these challenges will determine the future of wireless communication. Experts and professionals across dozens of fields and industries are beginning to reckon seriously with these challenges as the 6G revolution approaches. From 5G to 6G provides an overview of this transition, offering a snapshot of a moment in which 5G is establishing itself and 6G draws ever nearer. It focuses on recent advances in wireless technology that brings 6G closer to reality, as well as the near-term challenges that still have to be met for this transition to succeed. The result is an essential book for anyone wishing to understand the future of wireless telecommunications in an increasingly connected world. From 5G to 6G readers will also find: * 6G applications to both AI and Machine Learning, technologies which loom ever larger in wireless communication * Discussion of subjects including smart healthcare, cybersecurity, extended reality, and more * Treatment of the ongoing infrastructural and technological requirements for 6G From 5G to 6G is essential for researchers and academics in wireless communication and computer science, as well as for undergraduates in related subjects and professionals in wireless-adjacent fields.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Author
Preface
1 Technologies and Development for the Next Information Age
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Roadmap to 6G
1.3 AI and Cybersecurity: Paving the Way for the Future
1.4 Fusion of IoT, AI, and Cybersecurity
1.5 How AI Can Help Solve These Problems
1.6 Connected Devices and Cybersecurity
1.7 Solutions for Data Management in Cybersecurity
1.8 Conclusion
References
2 Networks of the Future
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Motive for Energy‐Efficient ICTs
2.3 Wireless Networks
2.4 Cognitive Networking
2.5 Mobile Edge Computing
2.6 Quantum Communications
2.7 Cybersecurity of 6G
2.8 Massive Machine‐Type Communications (MTC)
2.9 Edge‐Intelligence and Pervasive Artificial Intelligence in 6G
2.10 Blockchain: Foundations and Role in 6G
2.11 Role of Open‐Source Platforms in 6G
2.12 Integration of 5G with AI and IoT and Roadmap to 6G
2.13 3GPP
2.14 Conclusion
References
3 The Future of Wireless Communication with 6G
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Recent Trends Leading to 6G Technology Evolution
3.3 Security and Privacy Challenges in 6G Wireless Communications
3.4 The Impact of 6G on Healthcare Systems
3.5 The Impact of 6G on Space Technology and Satellite Communication
3.6 The Impact of 6G on Other Industries
3.7 Terahertz Wireless Systems and Networks with 6G
3.8 The Future of 6G and Its Role in IT
References
4 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in the Era of 5G and 6G Technology
4.1 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Definitions, Applications, and Challenges
4.2 Artificial Intelligence: Laws, Regulations, and Ethical Issues
4.3 Potentials of Artificial Intelligence in Wireless 5G and 6G: Benefits and Challenges
4.4 Cybersecurity Issues in Advanced 5G and 6G
4.5 Benefits and Challenges of Using AI in Cybersecurity: Help or Hurt?
4.6 How Can AI Be Used by Hackers Attacking Networks?
4.7 Conclusion
References
5 6G Wireless Communication Systems
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Important Aspects of Sixth‐Generation Communication Technology
5.3 Enabling Technologies Behind the Drive for 6G
5.4 Extreme Performance Technologies in 6G Connectivity
5.5 6G Communications Using Intelligent Platforms
5.6 Artificial Intelligence and a Data‐Driven Approach to Networks
5.7 Sensing for 6G
5.8 Applications
5.9 Innovative 6G Network Architectures
5.10 Conclusion
References
6 6G
6.1 Introduction
6.2 6G Network Architecture Vision
6.3 6th Generation Networks: A Step Beyond 5G
6.4 Emerging Applications of 6G Wireless Networks
6.5 The Requirements and KPI Targets of 6G
6.6 6G Applications
6.7 Challenges in 6G: Standardization, Design, and Deployment
References
7 Cybersecurity in Digital Transformation Era
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Digital Transformation and Mesh Networks of Networks
7.3 Security as the Enemy of Digital Transformation
7.4 The Current State of Cybercrime
7.5 Security and Technologies of the Digital Transformation Economy
7.6 Tackling the Cybersecurity Maturity Challenges to Succeed with Digital Transformation
7.7 Security Maturity and Optimization: Perception versus Reality
7.8 Changing Security Parameters and Cyber Risks Demand a Holistic Security Approach for Digital Business
7.9 Cybersecurity Challenges and Digital Risks for the Future
7.10 Conclusion
References
8 Next Generations Networks
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The State of 5G Networks
8.3 6G: Key Technologies
8.4 6G: Application and Services
8.5 Benefits of 6G over 5G: A Comparison
8.6 6G: Integration and Roadmap
8.7 Key Words in Safeguarding 6G
8.8 Trustworthiness in 6G
8.9 Network Security Architecture for 6G
8.10 6G Wireless Systems
8.11 Fifth Generation vs. Sixth Generation
8.12 Conclusion
References
9 Artificial Intelligence
9.1 Introduction
9.2 5G and 6G
9.3 Cybersecurity in Its Current State
9.4 AI as a Concept
9.5 AI: A Solution for Cybersecurity
9.6 AI: New Challenges in Cybersecurity
9.7 Conclusion
References
10 Impact of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning on Cybersecurity
10.1 Introduction
10.2 What Is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
10.3 The Transformative Power of AI
10.4 Understanding the Relationship Between AI and Cybersecurity
10.5 The Promise and Challenges of AI for Cybersecurity
10.6 Broad Domain of AI Security (Major Themes in the AI Security Landscape)
10.7 Transparency of Artificial Intelligence and Accountability Societal Aspects
10.8 Global AI Security Priorities
10.9 Automation of Services in Cybercriminal Offense
10.10 The Future of AI in Cybersecurity
10.11 Conclusion
References
11 AI and Cybersecurity
11.1 Introduction
11.2 IoT Security and the Role of AI
11.3 Cybercrime and Cybersecurity
11.4 How Can AI Help Solve These Problems?
11.5 The Realm of Cyberspace
11.6 Connected Devices and Cybersecurity
11.7 Solutions for Data Management in Cybersecurity
11.8 Conclusion
References
12 Future 6G Networks
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Vision, Challenges, and Key Features for Future 6G Networks
12.3 Rationale for 6G Networks with Prevailing and Future Success of 5G
12.4 Missing Units from LTE and 5G That 6G Will Integrate
12.5 Features of 6G Networks
12.6 Wireless Networks
12.7 Challenges for 6G Networks
12.8 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Summary of comparison between the five mobile communication gener...
Table 2.2 Maximum speed comparison between the Wi‐Fi generations [9].
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 5G to 6G parameters and features [4].
Table 5.2 Characterization of emerging technologies under different 6G serv...
Table 5.3 mmWave, THz, and optical sub‐bands for possible wireless communic...
Table 5.4 THz channel features and impacts on 6G communication systems [8]....
Table 5.5 Artificial intelligence data rates and latency features [13].
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Brief description of 6G applications [21].
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Key performance indicators comparison between 6G and 5G communica...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Evolution of wireless technologies from 1G to 6G [2].
Figure 1.2 Features for various 3GPP releases [3].
Figure 1.3 Potential threats and novel events, and corresponding security me...
Figure 1.4 5G and 6G wireless characteristics [15].
Figure 1.5 Real‐time display of cyberattacks being performed/requested [21]....
Figure 1.6 Decline of fatal car crashes over the years 1949–2017 [19].
Figure 1.7 AI‐enabled 6G wireless network and related applications [20].
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 The rapid growth of global mobile data traffic forecast.
Figure 2.2 Characteristics of deployed wireless cellular technologies.
Figure 2.3 Heterogeneous network topology.
Figure 2.4 Internet‐based network [24].
Figure 2.5 Overall zero‐touch network and service management vision.
Figure 2.6 Mobile edge computing architecture [42].
Figure 2.7 Security evolution in legacy mobile network [49].
Figure 2.8 5G network capability [68].
Figure 2.9 Quantitatively comparison between the 5G and future 6G in terms o...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Comparison of 5G and 6G characteristics [2].
Figure 3.2 Potential security and privacy issues for 6G [3].
Figure 3.3 AI‐enabled functions for 6G [4].
Figure 3.4 Blockchain and security issues [9].
Figure 3.5 6G and AI usage [4].
Figure 3.6 Potential 6G connectivity for intelligent healthcare [10].
Figure 3.7 6G and space‐integrated computing network [11].
Figure 3.8 3D coverage of 6G [12].
Figure 3.9 Various potential use cases for 6G [14].
Figure 3.10 THz band and several pertinent applications [19].
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Network evolution graph over the years [3].
Figure 5.2 Comparison of 6G enabling technologies and relevant use cases [5]...
Figure 5.3 The use case for 6G technology [22].
Figure 5.4 Architectural innovations of 6G networks [5].
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 5G requirements imply a dramatic change in numerous directions [1...
Figure 6.2 Envisioned timeline for 6G by researchers and manufacturer [3].
Figure 6.3 6G and 5G comparison in multiple specifications [3].
Figure 6.4 Global examples of Beyond 5G (B5G) and 6G initiatives [2].
Figure 6.5 (a) Rising demand for data volume and the diversity of requiremen...
Figure 6.6 5G development history and 6G schedule [9].
Figure 6.7 Artificial intelligence implementation in 5G and 6G communication...
Figure 6.8 A hierarchical approach for the discussion of 6G's aspects [3].
Figure 6.9 Key features for future 6G [16].
Figure 6.10 Comparative study of KPIs of 5G and 6G [23].
Figure 6.11 The most essential of 6G applications [24].
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 A general depiction of what a mesh network of networks looks like...
Figure 7.2 A depiction of hierarchy with the operability of the holistic sol...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Speediest intelligence 5G data rate from Q3 2021 [1].
Figure 8.2 The architecture of the aero‐space‐ground‐ocean integrated inform...
Figure 8.3 Possible 6G communication architecture scenario [11].
Figure 8.4 Model of ID/locator split for trust networking [14].
Figure 8.5 Trust‐related data for reputation generation [14].
Figure 8.6 Role of ML in 6G networks [15].
Figure 8.7 Human body as part of the global network [14].
Figure 8.8 Visible light communications vs radio frequency communications [1...
Figure 8.9 Layout of the PHY layer security for VLC systems [14].
Figure 8.10 Comparison of 5G and 6G [17].
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Economic growth rate across various countries.
Figure 10.2 AI and healthcare across various regions.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Convergence of personal domains, digital, and the physical world...
Figure 12.2 Different 6G requirements and KPIs with different technologies [...
Figure 12.3 3D communication scenario in 6G.
Figure 12.4 HBC system architecture [37].
Figure 12.5 Security and privacy issues in the 6G network.
Figure 12.6 The main 6G goals, plus the KPIs where 6G will be improving 5G [...
Guide
Cover Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Author
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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IEEE Press445 Hoes LanePiscataway, NJ 08854
IEEE Press Editorial BoardSarah Spurgeon, Editor in Chief
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Amin Moeness
Brian Johnson
Tom Robertazzi
Desineni Subbaram Naidu
Ahmet Murat Tekalp
From 5G to 6G
Technologies, Architecture, AI, and Security
Abdulrahman Yarali
Murray State University
Murray, KY, USA
Copyright © 2023 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Yarali, Abdulrahman, author.Title: From 5G to 6G : technologies, architecture, AI, and security / Abdulrahman Yarali.Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, [2023] | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2023013868 (print) | LCCN 2023013869 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119883081 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119883098 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119883104 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Mobile communication systems–Technological innovations. | Mobile communication systems–Security measures. | Artificial intelligence.Classification: LCC TK5103.2 .Y3657 2023 (print) | LCC TK5103.2 (ebook) | DDC 621.3845/6–dc23/eng/20230405LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023013868LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023013869
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Rob Nazh/Shutterstock
Dedication
To my children
Fatemeh Zahra and Sadrodin Ali
About the Author
Abdulrahman Yarali, PhD, has led research teams working on wireless mobile communications systems design, implementation, and optimization for organizations such as AT&T, Nortel, and Sprint PCS. He is a faculty member at the School of Engineering and Cybersecurity and Network Management program at Murray State University in Murray, Kentucky, USA.
Preface
The advancement of technology never stops because the demands for improved internet and communication connectivity are increasing. With the advancements in digital circuitry and microprocessors making sensors small, lighter, and more powerful, a digital spillway has been opened. With wireless technology seeing exponential growth in the last decades, it is no wonder why it is becoming one of the largest and fastest‐growing industries in this technical revolution promoting economic advancement. Competition drives this high adoption through access, affordability, and flexibility. These changes have impacted virtually all parts of life, society, and industries, fulfilling the communication needs of humans and intelligent machines. They have led to many new challenges and increased new horizons that keep the industry on its toes.
With every generation, new advancements are being made. These improvements have dramatically changed the international communication sector, improving how information is transmitted.
Wireless communications began about five decades ago and have expanded very rapidly. The transition from 1G to 5G has occurred rapidly for mobile communications. Today 5G is a strong technology intensively developed; however, it has limitations with respect to future needs. Just as 5G networks, with their key enablers technologies of M‐MIMIO, small cells, and millimeter wave spectrum, are rolling out, allowing for many more devices to be connected to help pave the way for IoT devices like autonomous cars, smart devices, and many other things., the world has begun to talk about sixth‐generation networks (6G). Wireless generations of 4G, 5G, and 6G are iterative steps rather than huge leaps. There are intermediate steps between each large release. For example, LTE‐Advanced Pro was before 5G implementation started. There will be 5G‐Advanced before it is time for 6G. Although 5G is starting to pave the road for vehicle automation and smart cities, 6G should create a platform for all device connectivity driven by the applications such as multisensory XR, robotic and autonomous systems, wireless brain‐computer interactions, blockchain, and database ledger technologies. 6G is expected to outperform 5G in multiple specifications, such as latency of less than 1ms and .1ms for C‐plane and U‐Plane, respectively, with greater data rate than 1Tbps for individual and peak data rates greater, mobility up to 1000 Km/h and also spectral efficiency of 100bps/Hz. Although 6G will not replace 5G, 6G opens a new frontier of connectivity with the network built on the infrastructure put down for 5G extending the performance of existing 5G applications. Sixth‐generation wireless technology will be integrated with a set of previously disparate technologies with an extreme focus on short‐range communication, very high network heterogeneity, transformed radio topology, and AI, inherently expanding the scope of capabilities of new and innovative applications across the realm of wireless cognition, sensing, and imaging. With higher data rates, higher reliability, higher density, and higher intelligence, 6G is all about networks, human and machine with ubiquitous hyper‐connectivity, efficient, and intelligent systems, and will be characterized in many ways as substantively advanced as compared to 5G in prior versions of wireless evolution. The key features of 6G are high security, secrecy, and privacy by applying blockchain and quantum key; operational, environmental, and service intelligence; energy efficient network via harvesting energy from sunlight, wireless power, micro‐vibration, and ambient radio frequency signals; and multiband ultrafast transmission speed.
Newer efficient technologies such as—Enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB‐Plus), massive machine type communications (mMTC), 3D integrated communications (3D‐Integrated), and secure ultra‐reliable low latency communications (SURLLC)—support a host of applications across a diverse set of industries. 6G is expected to expand on vectors like holographic‐type communications using unconventional data communications technology (UCDC) for fully immersive 3D experiences and tactile Internet for real‐time remote operation with audio, visual, and haptic feedback, health, autonomous vehicles, and beyond. The perpetual demand for more data bandwidth pushes researchers to explore underutilized spectrums in the sub‐THz frequency bands. On the security side, asymmetric cryptography will become more prevalent in 6G technology. Radio access network (RAN) enhancements will lead to a large number of base stations that can be in different forms, such as all bands, BT, NFC, satellite, cloud‐based WIFI, etc.
In the era of 6G, several key technologies, such as AI to develop an intelligent network, big data analytics, and computing, will converge, and we will likely see extreme experiences with alternative forms of secure credential storage and trustworthiness in sustainable and global service coverage. As public mobile networks are expected to exchange information with a broadening spectrum of parties, given the variety of use cases, services, devices, and users, security controls will have to be adaptable and dynamic in nature, supported by machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI). Advanced AI systems could be used as a form of penetration testing for cybersecurity issues. Using AI for this purpose will allow systems to be tested far more thoroughly to detect vulnerabilities in systems. To address the security demands of 6G networks, SDN and NFV should be complemented with AI techniques for proactive threat discovery, intelligent mitigation techniques, and self‐sustaining networks. Enhancements in services will also lead to re‐consideration of complete key management, mobility security, and considerations of confidentiality, integrity, and availability of communication networks. An issue for the Telecom industry is the fewer regulations that come with more tech and more use cases across the world. The priority list for many is the need for constant security advancements for device connectivity and the infrastructure involved. With the applications, these technologies are being used in medicine, manufacturing, banking, agriculture, and other important aspects of the economy. Security absolutely must be taken seriously to avoid a collapse in the economy on a global scale. The sixth generation has a significantly higher cost associated with its production, and the current network infrastructure cannot support its implementation. There are some challenges, such as increased hardware complexity, intelligent wireless energy harvesting, the coexistence of multiple RAT, and dynamic radio resource allocation, that scientists, researchers, and the industry need to overcome. Since its predecessor, the fifth generation, is still developing, it may take a while before the sixth generation is integrated into modern daily life. Due to its higher cost and global coverage, the sixth‐generation networking and connectivity will see itself deployed into integrated space, aerial, ground, and undersea communications systems for ubiquitous 3D coverage.
We are very pleased that the technology, academic, and industry communities discuss this important and fast‐growing future 5G‐to‐6G‐transition networking. We are certain that this book's content will shed some light on these fast‐growing technologies with their impacts on our daily life and economy. The chapters presented in this book discuss the enabling technologies, design paths, implementation requirements, and solutions with AI and ML roles to pave the road for a higher generation of wireless technologies. The challenges and issues faced in providing applications and services to ubiquitously and securely user experiences are presented.
1Technologies and Development for the Next Information Age
1.1 Introduction
The advancement of technology never stops because the demands for improved internet and communication connectivity keep increasing. Just as 5G networks are rolling out, the world has begun to talk about sixth‐generation networks (6G). The semantics of 6G is more or less the same as 5G networks because they strive to boost speeds, machine‐to‐machine (M2M) communication, and latency reduction. However, some of the distinctive focuses of 6G include optimization of networks of machines through super speeds and innovative features. This chapter discusses many aspects of technologies, architectures, challenges, and opportunities of 6G wireless communication systems. We will discuss super‐smart societies, extended reality, wireless brain‐computer interactions, haptic communication, smart healthcare, five‐sense information transfer, the encompassing world of the Internet of Everything (IoE), and cybersecurity.
As we enter a new age of high‐speed data transfer and the implementation of new technologies that have been in our minds for decades, we begin to see the light that illuminates the beginning of the tunnel. This is quite different from the light at the end of the tunnel because of the vast advances that will take place when we start the journey to high‐speed data transfer. That will enable us to enter the proverbial tunnel, a virtual rabbit hole continuing to advancements at a speed that has never before been possible. With the advancements in digital circuitry and microprocessors making sensors small, lighter, and more powerful, a digital spillway has been opened. This paves the way for artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) that have already changed our behaviors in life [1] – to the point that even the recent term IoT has a new umbrella term being applied that will be discussed later in this book. In this chapter, I will cover several topics that will be leading the way in advancement in the next decade. The advent of the 5G network began this process but will be short‐lived without 6G rearing its head to turn imagination into realization. In this chapter, we will discuss super‐smart societies, extended reality, wireless brain‐computer interactions, haptic communication, smart healthcare, five‐sense information transfer, the encompassing world of the IoE, and cybersecurity.
1.2 Roadmap to 6G
The telecommunications sector is comprised of companies that deal with communication globally. These organizations range from cell phones, internet services, and airwave cables to other wired and wireless dealers. Telecom organizations have introduced data information of words, video, audio, and voice to the world through their improved basic infrastructure. The telecommunications industry consists of various subsectors such as wireless communication, communication equipment, processing systems, and products. In addition, subsectors such as long‐distance carriers, domestic telecom services, foreign telecom services, and diversified communication services also constitute the telecommunication industry.
Telecommunication achievements have led to dramatic changes in humans' lives and interactions with the inevitable advancement in technology associated with it. These changes have led to many challenges new to the industry and increased new horizons that keep the industry on its toes. The telecommunications sector consists of companies that enable communication globally; there can be multiple sources to achieve this, ranging from cell phones, internet services, airwaves, or cables, to other wired and wireless devices.
For example, Wi‐Fi facilitates access by low‐income individuals and countries and uses the network to empower its people.
The journey of wireless communication only began to develop about 51 years ago. Wireless technologies give an excellent opportunity for economic development, ensuring that services are delivered to developing nations. Such technological connectivity can play critical roles, considering how fast they facilitate access to better knowledge and acquisition of information.
Due to these advancements, the industry is experiencing several trends that will change the face of the industry in general:
The change in the network from 4G to 5G has been implemented in some regions of the world. The 5G advent will ensure increased network speed, increased efficiency, and less latency. Through this, the innovation of IoT has been the outcome.
Technology enabling autonomous vehicles is improving, and this could change the face of the world.
There is the potential for fewer regulations globally, and telecom companies would be exposed to global markets with more freedom and competition.
Security and privacy will be critical areas of concern for many internet users with the advancement in technology.
There would be an increase in cross‐industry partnerships associated with the evolution of new technological experiences and demands from clients worldwide.
The wireless mobile industry has seen large, exponential growth in the past decade. Wireless communications have brought dramatic changes in the international communication sector, improving informational infrastructure that uses radio waves in place of wires to transmit information. Wireless technologies give an excellent opportunity for economic development. Ensuring that services are delivered in developing nations can play critical roles, considering how fast they facilitate access to better knowledge and acquisition of information.
Over the span of five decades, wireless networks underwent various developments: wireless personal area networks (WPAN), wireless local area networks (WLAN), ad hoc networks (Adhoc), or wireless mesh networks, metropolitan area networks (WMAN), wireless wide area network (WWAN), cellular networks that spans from first‐generation 1G to 5G, and space networks. Broadband communication has gone through continuous and massive developments in recent decades, which has seen it become a more efficient and reliable industry for the function of people globally. The evolution of each generation of wireless technology has been a decade trend to cope with the end‐users demands.
Technologies such as Global Systems for Mobile (GSM) and CDMA (Coe Division Multiple Access) also offered data roaming services. Third generation (3G) was a huge milestone in transmitting the bulk of data and speed of transmission compared to 2G. 3G was introduced in the late 1990s with wider data bandwidth and faster internet connectivity. It is well applicable to a wireless voice telephone, internet access, wireless internet service, video calls, and mobile television technologies. This platform provided faster and better uplink/download packet access. It includes evolved HSPA (high‐speed packet access) and long‐term evolution‐advanced (LTE‐A). Advanced third generation, 3.5G, is a cellular telephone grouping and data technology designed to provide more efficient performance than the 3G network, as an interim advancement toward realizing full fourth‐generation (4G) capabilities.
The 4G cellular network is supposed to provide an environment for dynamic data access, HD video streaming, and global roaming regarding service delivery. Such services were not prevalent in previous mobile network technologies. 4G technology uses a combination of standards of IEEE802.11 and IEEE802.16 radio technologies ratified by IEEE.
5G network has demonstrated improved and advanced services with connectivity is considered to have a bandwidth of higher seed than the other four network generations. In addition, it has improved signal efficiency, significantly lower latency than 4G, and enhanced spectral reliability and efficiency.
Advancements in wireless communications as well as foreign and domestic telecom services have dramatically changed people's lives across the world, but they also pose new challenges and open new horizons to the industry players. While 4G was 3G but faster, 5G and 6G represent different iterations of wireless connectivity. Many predictions expect 6G will be reserved for business, military, and industrial purposes, with some consumer use such as immersive entertainment. It will not be practical initially to have every device streaming with 6G – but other advances may change that. Figure 1.1 shows the evolutionary roadmap of wireless generations.
Several new technologies are being tested to support the future generation of wireless communications (beyond 5G) B5G or 6G, which are expected to deliver high data rates for enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), support ultra‐reliable, and low‐latency services, and accommodate a massive number of connections.
The 5G standard has gone through two releases, Rel‐15 and Rel‐16, that will complete the development of 5G wireless communication. The standard will also include nonorthogonal multiple access (NOMA), ultra‐reliable low‐latency communication, vehicle‐to‐X communication, unlicensed band operation, integrated access, backhaul, terminal power saving, and positioning. Figure 1.2 shows various 3GPP 5G toward 6G releases. The standard will also include NOMA, ultra‐reliable low‐latency communication, vehicle‐to‐X communication, unlicensed band operation, integrated access, and backhaul, terminal power saving, and positioning.
Figure 1.1 Evolution of wireless technologies from 1G to 6G [2].
Figure 1.2 Features for various 3GPP releases [3].
Every 10 years, wireless (or mobile) communication undergoes a generation change. The next generation, 6G, has already started. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Focus Group Technologies for Network 2030 has listed several aspects of 6G, including new holographic media, services, network architecture, and internet protocol (IP). Many researchers and industries have started discussions on use cases, deployment scenarios, and performance requirements of 6G. These were compared with previous generations of mobile communication, and new network architectures were discussed. Technology maturity levels vary in 6G, with many technologies in their scientific exploration stage.
Technologies being considered include holographic radio, terahertz communication, large intelligent surface (LIS), orbital angular momentum, advanced channel coding/modulation, visible light communication, and advanced duplex. The goal of 6G is to provide the information society with services by around 2030. The 6G network will support many challenges, such as intelligence of network elements and network architecture, the intelligence of connected objects (terminal devices), and information support of intelligent services. The 6G network should be able to deliver 10 Tb per second and should have lower latency, higher reliability, and higher energy efficiency.
Several key features of 6G are terahertz communications, visible light communications, very large‐scale antenna, advanced channel coding, and space‐air‐ground‐sea integrated communications. Some technologies in the next generation of mobile communications are difficult to categorize and may eventually become part of 5G. Revolutionary technologies are still in the exploratory stage and might not reach maturity before 2030. In order to improve the performance of the physical layer, we need to develop new technologies such as photonics‐defined radios and holographic radios. Optical holography can be used to record the electromagnetic field in space based on the interference principle of electromagnetic waves, and radio frequencies are electromagnetic waves, so a continuous aperture antenna array can be used to record the electromagnetic field in space. The terahertz band is the last span of the radio spectrum and can be used for 6G, but it is not yet commercially available. The characteristics of the terahertz spectrum are unique, including wide bandwidth and low attenuation, but the spectrum is also prone to shadows and blocking due to the weak diffraction effect at short wavelengths and the short time for channel stabilization. There are many challenges in the engineering implementation of THz, including ultra‐high processing power and very large‐scale antenna, which could lead to a superfast‐speed broadband processing chip with high power consumption. Commercial products for THz communications are now available, and it is expected that these products will allow high data rates in the 6G era. Micro‐scale networks can be classified into two categories: indoor and outdoor scenarios.
1.2.1 Society 5.0
The first topic is a term that has been thrown around without many noticing what was being stated. The process started with the term smart society and progressed to a super‐smart society. Many have even mentioned Society 5.0, with most people thinking it was referring to an upgrade so that Apple's iOS systems use numbers; this was a slight overlook in my option. The term is used to prepare us for a society enriched with technology that will help push us into a more efficient life. Over the past 10 years, we have used search engines to increase human abilities and as a way to retrieve the information that will make users more productive. This requires us to initiate the sequence to get the process started by first looking for the information and then acting on it. In realizing the new Society 5.0 [4], we will not have to find the information to solve our daily problems, but instead, the information will find us the solution. This has been considered the fourth industrial revolution and will be implemented into our daily lives. This will contribute to more sustainable and comfortable living environments in people's lives. We have already progressed as a society through several of these without considering that it was propelling us forward. We started this process with the following stages, beginning with the Hunter‐Gatherer society (Society 1.0), Agrarian society (Society 2.0), Industrial society (Society 3.0), and Information society (Society 4.0) that we are currently in and starting to enter Society 5.0 without a coined name. With the collection of Big Data by IoT devices, the information will be converted into new types of intelligence by AI machines that will mine the data‐making informed decisions with only minimal human intervention if any at all. As AI devices are learning patterns, they will make people's lives more comfortable and sustainable. The participants will be provided with only the needed products and services, in the amounts needed and at the time they are needed. One of the areas that will be greatly affected by societal change is healthcare. This will provide rapid solutions for the connection and sharing of medical records. This will also initiate the implementation of remote medical care services. Using AI and robots at nursing facilities will lessen a load of healthcare workers to focus on less mundane tasks. This jump in society will also increase mobility for everyone, including the elderly and disabled. This will promote autonomous driving taxis and buses for public transportation, increasing accessibility in the country's rural areas.
Also, increasing the distribution and logistics in our supply chain by using unmanned‐following‐vehicle systems and drones to deliver products. We will be able to increase efficiency in our infrastructure using sensors, AI, and robots to inspect and maintain roads, bridges, tunnels, and dams. This will ensure that places that need repair can be detected at an early stage. Doing so will cut down on unexpected accidents and the time spent on construction while increasing safety and productivity. One of the last large categories will be the financial technology (FinTech) category. This will include using blockchain technology for monetary transfers, introducing open application programming interfaces (API) to firms and banks, and promoting cashless payment systems. The implementation of blockchain technology alone will reduce time and cost while increasing security in global business transactions.
1.2.2 Extended Reality
The second topic to discuss is the exciting world of extended reality. This covers three main areas in itself. We will start with the first area of extended reality (XR), an umbrella term for immersive technologies [5]. The ones that are currently in use today are augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and mixed reality (MR), plus new ones that are still to be created. AR is virtual information and objects that are overlaid on the real‐world background. This is accessed through items such as AR glasses or smart devices. This experience enhances the real world with digital details such as images, text, and animation. The next area is VR, a virtual reality experience that which users are fully immersed within a simulated digital environment. This requires participants to put on a VR headset or head‐mounted display to get the full experience of a 360° view of an artificial world that tricks their brains into believing they are in the place or world the developers have created. The last area is MR, mixing reality, digital, and real‐world objects that coexist while interacting in real time. This is the latest in immersive technology and requires an MR headset and a lot more processing power than the less‐advanced VR or AR devices.
1.2.3 Wireless Brain‐Computer
The third topic is a wireless brain‐computer interaction demonstrated by BrainGate researchers with the first human use of a wireless transmitter capable of delivering high‐bandwidth neural signals [6]. With this, the traditional cables are no longer needed. The wireless signal could be recorded and transmitted with similar fidelity, which means the same decoding algorithms are used as with wired systems. The main difference is that people do not have to be tethered to the equipment. This opens up a world of new possibilities in how the systems can be used. This development will be a step forward to a fully implantable system that helps restore the independence of people who have lost the ability to move. This is a huge achievement considering that the brain interacts with technology without new algorithms, sophisticated programs, or attached wires.
1.2.4 Haptic Communication
Haptic communication is also referred to as kinesthetic communication and 3D touch [7]. This is any technology that can create an experience of touch by applying forces, vibrations, or motions to the user. This technology can also be combined with VR to create virtual objects in a computer simulation to control objects and enhance the remote control of machines and devices. Haptic technology helps investigate how the human sense of touch works by creating controlled haptic virtual objects. The different ways of implementation are listed here with a brief description [8, 9]:
Vibration
. This is created using an eccentric rotating mass (ERM) actuator, which is an unbalanced weight attached to a motor shaft. When the shaft spins, the unbalanced weight causes the attached device to shake.
Force feedback
. Devices use motors to manipulate the movement of an item that the user holds. This is best known in racing games that use a steering wheel that, when turned, gives the feel of resistance or pull in the opposite direction. This allows the haptic simulation of objects, textures, recoil, momentum, and objects' perceived physical presence in games.
Air vortex rings
. A donut‐shaped air pocket is made up of concentrated gusts of air. These gusts can blow out a candle or move papers from a few yards away and can be used to deliver noncontact haptic feedback.
Ultrasound
. A focused beam can be used to create a sense of pressure on a finger without touching an object. The beams can also give sensations of vibration and give users the ability to feel virtual 3D objects.
The advancement of ultrasound technology has been integrated into many areas such as personal computers (PCs), mobile devices, virtual reality (VR), teleoperators and simulators, robotics, medicine, dentistry, art, aviation, space, automobiles, and teledildonics. The technology has been used for a while now but has gone under the radar for most customers [9].
1.2.5 Smart Healthcare
The fifth topic is the most expansive with the new age data transfer and is the one that will grow the fastest as 6G emerges. It is the smart healthcare topic of discussion. The increase in population and the recent COVID‐19 pandemic have taken the forefront in the technology age. With the extension of telemedicine and internal systems of the hospitals, the workload has become overwhelming. Smart healthcare covers services, medical devices, connectivity technologies, system management, applications, and end users.
When it comes to architecture and the requirements needed, there is a big demand placed on the systems. One of the broader demands comes from hardware and software requirements. With this, all areas have to be balanced and in the best performance abilities. There is a need for quality of service, low power usage, high efficiency, high system reliability, and form factor, interoperability with other systems, excellent connectivity, high speed, ambient intelligence, and sufficient memory. There is also a whole category of deployment with some that need to be further enhanced. There is a need for reliable Wi‐Fi/WLAN, MEMS, BLE, RFID, WPAN/6LoWPAN, GPS, and WSN. Even with this technology implemented, there is still space for improvement [10].
The IoT aspect of smart healthcare has to be mentioned. With some of the enormous attributes such as identification, location, sensing, and connectivity that come with the IoT, it is a huge component of the smart healthcare system. IoT can be broadly implemented, starting from calibrating medical equipment to the personalized monitoring system. IoT plays one of the most significant parts of the smart healthcare system, in my opinion, with much more to come. Big Data has taken a strong stance in the smart healthcare industry with the increase in smart sensors, social networks, and web services. Mobile devices are estimated to be generating more than 2.5 quintillion bytes per day [11]. This data collected by the smart systems have to be consistent in every way. The ability to offer medical services to users despite their geographic location results from cloud assistance. This gives the professionals the ability to offer services from any distance. With every good technological advancement, there are also challenges and vulnerabilities. With a large amount of personal data with smart healthcare, a higher bar has been set. Some of the issues start with patient privacy challenges. This includes but is not limited to data confidentiality, data privacy, data eavesdropping, identity threats, data freshness, service availability, data confidentiality, integrity, location privacy, authentication, self‐healing, access control, and unique identification, and resiliency. The final point in this category is one of the most interesting to me personally. It is the implementation of nano‐smart Healthcare, which consists of nanotechnologies to diagnose from the inside out. With the use of microimage sensors, processors, encapsulated battery, LED light, antenna, RF transmitter, and electrogram, a pill camera can be made for the patient to take that allows the physician to do an endoscopy or colonoscopy without the traditional methods that take longer to diagnose and treat. It makes the procedure as simple as swallowing a pill to retrieve more information than could be captured with a traditional diagnosis.
1.2.6 Five‐Sense Information
The sixth topic outlined is five‐sense information transfers. This is a way to experiment with the world around using 6G communication. Since humans use their five senses, the systems will remotely transfer the data obtained from the senses. This is used to detect the sensations from the human body and environment and uses the body effectively without the environment and local circumstances.
1.2.7 The Internet of Everything
The seventh topic in this chapter is the IoE, which is not the same as IoT in many ways. IoE is the intelligent connection of people, processes, data, and things. The IoE is the world where billions of devices have sensors to detect and assess the states of the environment. These are all connected over a public or private network using protocols both standard and private. The main characteristics of IoE are people, data, processes, and things. The IoT is the network of physical objects accessed through the internet. The main difference is that IoE has four distinguishable characteristics, while IoT has one. You will hear the term IoE as much or more than IoT shortly due to the vast range and expansion of the high‐speed data transfer and accompanying technology.
1.2.8 5G to 6G
Wireless communication has been developing since the 1980s with significant changes and advancements with each generation. We have recently entered the fifth generation of wireless communication (5G). The adoption and deployment of this newest generation are underway but will likely take three to five more years to see fully realized deployment. 5G has brought about the move to the cloud for software‐based networking, bringing about on‐demand, automated learning management of networking functions. But even with these advancements, researchers have already begun to look at the next generation (6G) and how the networking landscape will change with its adoption.
Through a variety of technologies, 6G is speculated to bring about a shift to completely intelligent network orchestration and management. The current evolution of 5G networking is helping to visualize the architectural framework of 6G. Heterogeneous cloud infrastructure should be an expected part of 6G as the existing cloud infrastructure and that of future generations will not simply disappear with the introduction of a new infrastructural component. Where it will begin to diverge from the present is the increased variety and flexibility of specialized networks for personal subnetworks and things such as flexible workload offloading.
As with every next step, 6G communication networks will have their own security and privacy concerns. Mobile security continues to be a very significant issue with each generation of wireless communications and seems to only get more difficult with each technological advancement. Past generations have dealt with everything from authentication issues to cloning. With the availability of computing resources and the sophistication of attackers now, it is expected that 6G networks see some of the same attacks such as zero‐day attacks and physical layer attacks, but also an increase in advanced attacks such as quantum‐based attacks and AI/ML‐based intelligent attacks. The addition of AI into the networks of 6G will work for and against its security, it seems. Figure 1.3 shows a summary of the potential and new threats, vulnerability, and corresponding security mechanisms simply by examining the risk exposure of proposed 6G technologies [13].
We must build on fifth‐generation security research to gain insight into what will be coming with the later generations of communication. Currently, there is not much insight and research that looks at the holistic picture of 6G security.
Current mobile data network technologies such as 4G and 5G are reaching their physical limit as more and more devices in our lives depend on the internet and mobile network connections. The idea of a 6G network is becoming the new ideal network upon which our society can grow into. My only concern is that the idea of the “6G communication system” will become a monolith that business and education communities will flock around, to a point where the idea of the 6G network becomes a near sci‐fi concept that is unreachable or that should be actualized immediately. Simply put, 6G is not some approaching bleeding edge technology but is an aggregate of multiple technologies that is a natural extension of our current mobile networks and wireless communication systems. The idea and fantasies behind 6G are attainable; people just have to keep their heads straight.
In the past few years, the amount of traffic over mobile data networks has drastically increased and shows no signs of stopping. This is due to an increasing number of applications that require connection to mobile data networks. Examples include the IoT, smart automobiles, and smart cities among many other things. Because of these new uses for the existing wireless mobile networks, our current 3G/4G networks struggle to keep up with the demand for these technologies that grow more numerous and more data‐hungry as time goes on. A potential solution to the limited capacity of current networks is to broaden available bandwidth to accommodate higher data rates. Even with newer 5G frequencies, more bandwidth is still a highly coveted goal that remains out of reach with the narrow bandwidth below 6 GHz. Technologies like multiple input, multiple output (MIMO) antennas do make the sub 6 GHz communications more efficient, however.
Very mobile devices, like smartphones and wearable devices, also tend to operate on multiple bands, which put more strain on existing networks, especially when these devices become more numerous and more data‐hungry with time. Also, mobile devices, by their nature of being incredibly mobile, are hard to communicate with consistently as they move and change orientation, making full, satisfying coverage harder to achieve. This difficulty of communication results in multiple different types and configurations of antennae.
Figure 1.3 Potential threats and novel events, and corresponding security measures [12].
5G and associated networks also struggle with complete coverage. Being ground‐based systems, 5G networks have trouble extending to inhospitable terrain. This problem is trying to be solved by integrating 5G communication systems into space‐based 6G systems. These space systems, built mainly on the back of satellite technology, will give rural and remote areas across the world entirely new or greatly improved mobile data network access.
There are some concerns regarding human health when it comes to 5G technologies and transmissions. An important fact is that many existing applications used similar bands and these technologies have had no evidence crop up that could suggest they are harmful to human health. Despite this, the effect of 5G signals, due to not having as many standards as a newer technology, will remain a concern until evidence convincingly proves its safety.
The current goal among relevant circles in business and education is an idea of the 6G system, featuring every aspect of a modern network, perfected. This includes high speed, high capacity, high security, and extensive coverage. The 6G network can support the massive, growing number of devices that require a connection. It will be expected to be very fast for communicating with transportation systems like airlines. Deep learning and AI will provide security insights to the 6G network. The 6G network will be fast enough to support live broadcasts and streaming. It is expected to be ubiquitous, being much larger than any standing 5G network. Finally, the 6G network will have significantly higher bandwidth and thus transmission rates. Many technologies that would allow the goal of 6G to be reached can be derived from existing 5G technologies or are new frontiers currently being explored.
In a society where high‐speed data transfer is not just a luxury but also a way of life, we have realized the need and demand for our wireless infrastructure have come under immense pressure to expand. I will cover several characteristics and trends in the mobile industry that show that the need to move from a 5G system to a 6G system is on the horizon. This will be a very condensed summary due to a large amount of information involved. I will briefly cover the prospects, applications, specifications, and requirements, technologies that enable growth, industry standardization, and future challenges. All the topics listed can be vastly expanded on and can occupy pages that cover changes in the network systems.
We will start with the global traffic volume of mobile devices in 2010 consumed 7.5 EB/month of data. This was not the beginning but gives a quick reference to the large jump made in the next decade. The predicted traffic in 2030 was estimated at a whopping 672% increase making data traffic consistent at 5016 EB/month with expectations to increase even greater in the future. This will strain the 5G network that is not fully functional in all areas of North America and will cripple it if the network structure does not change quickly [9]. The 5G network is rapid, including new techniques of managing data, including but not limited to new frequency bands. These changes are being implemented rapidly but not fast enough to keep up with the trends. We are already coming to the limit of 5G, which was stated to max out in 2030. With that being said, the predecessor of the 5G network is the new 6G network that will include all the bells and whistles of the 5G network, such as network densification, higher throughput rate, increased reliability, lowered energy consumption, and massive connectivity. This will pave the way for new services and devices to automate much of our lives. The most important aspect of the 6G network is handling massive amounts of data with very high data rate connectivity per device [14].
With the increased data rates and communication speeds, the new 6G systems will foster a new revolution in the digital age of industrial manufacturing. Some of the key prospects and applications, such as the super‐smart society, will accelerate the quality of life for all humanity with smart AI‐based communication. The ushering in of extended reality (XR) includes AR, MR, and virtual reality (VR), which all used 3D objects within the real‐life environment. This will also lead to advancements in robotics and autonomous systems, wireless brain‐computer interaction, haptic communication, smart healthcare, automation in the manufacturing industry, full sense information transfer, and the ever‐growing IoT technologies. IoT has been placed under an umbrella term of IoE, which will interconnect the world.
Some of the specifications and requirements that will be changing on the new horizon are the service requirements of the 6G network. This will include eMBB, ultra‐reliable low latency communications (URLLC), massive machine‐type communication (mMTC), AI communication, higher throughput, increased network capacity, and higher energy efficiency, low backhaul congestion, and – a hot topic the last few years – increased data security. This change will also include newer integrated networks with connected intelligence, seamless integration of wireless information, and energy transfer of super 3D connectivity. This will require fewer general requirements in the network characteristics, including small cell networks, Ultra‐dense heterogeneous networks, high‐capacity backhaul, and mobile technologies integrated with radar technology, softwarization with visualization. 6G is expected to outperform 5G in multiple specifications. We highlight six of them in Figure 1.4:
Figure 1.4 5G and 6G wireless characteristics [15].
Frequency
Individual data rate
Peak data rate
Spectral efficiency
Mobility
Latency
Some of the key enabling technologies that will help push this high‐speed age are:
AI, with its ability to learn without the need for human interaction
Terahertz communication which is needed for large data transfers
Free‐space optical (FSO) backhaul network for constant communication with devices and sensors
MIMO technology for increasing data connection while reducing latency
Ever‐growing blockchain ledger system with its decentralized data system
Fast retrieval speeds and quantum communication
Big Data analytics must be added to this list to market the expanding technologies to process the growing data retrieval.
There will have to be standardization in protocol and research activities. This has begun with Samsung Electronics leading the way and Finnish 6G Flagship programs that will help maintain consistency in the rapidly changing environment. The ITU has also kicked up while discussing the new 6G wireless network at the summit by the same name.
Some of the future challenges and the headed directions include but are not limited to areas in high propagation and the atmospheric absorption of THz to show the loss as frequency travels through free space. The added complexity in the resource management required for the 3D environments while minimizing hardware constraints. The required need to model sub‐mmWave (THz) frequencies to be managed with higher wavelength capabilities. This will include spectrum management to prevent overlap or interference and beam management in the THz communication range.
What this all boils down to is that there is a rapidly changing technological environment coming very soon. It leaves the consumers oblivious to the amount of change needed behind the scenes to bring this to fruition. Looking on the bright side, this will make our lives easier and even better in the future. And for students taking this class, it will bring increased opportunities in the industry.
1.3 AI and Cybersecurity: Paving the Way for the Future
In the twenty‐first century, cybersecurity and AI have presented numerous opportunities for the world while facing challenges behind the scenes. There is a battle to counter cyberthreats, turning to AI and machine learning. The US government employs methods to combat a new type of terrorism in a completely different environment. While it might seem that there are many challenges for cybersecurity and AI, there are also many opportunities for advancements in all types of technology.
Through recent advances in AI, we have seen what it is truly possible. Image recognition can analyze an image with a precision that would take hours for a human to do. New AI applications will bring challenges to the community that they have not previously faced. There are various security concerns with these applications because they are still vulnerable. Security will be the most important factor in the future for AI systems and applications.
There are many complexities involved with these systems, and they need to operate in all environments. There are four components in integrated AI systems: perception, learning, decisions, and actions. Each of these components must react independently from its counterparts, and each has unique vulnerabilities.
Since these AI systems can have high risks, trustworthiness must be ensured. Areas that need to be addressed for trustworthy decision‐making include defining performance metrics, developing techniques, making AI systems explainable and accountable, improving domain‐specific training and reasoning, and managing training data.
Even though AI does well on many tasks, vulnerabilities are still produced from corrupt inputs that produce inaccurate responses. These are current challenges the community is facing. “Modern AI systems are vulnerable to surveillance where adversaries query the systems and learn the internal decision logic, knowledge bases, or the training data. This is often a precursor to an attack to extract security‐relevant training data and sources or to acquire the intellectual property embedded in the AI” [1].
You can see how cybersecurity could be affected by AI. Cybersecurity can use AI to increase its awareness, react in real time, and improve its effectiveness. This means that it uses self‐adaptation and adjustment to face ongoing attacks and the ability to alter its course of action. It can help highlight weaknesses in an adversary's strategies by analyzing and reacting to them in real time.
