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From Additive Manufacturing to 3D/4D Printing 1 E-Book

Jean-Claude Andre

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Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
Sprache: Englisch

Beschreibung

In 1984, additive manufacturing represented a new methodology for manipulating matter, consisting of harnessing materials and/or energy to create three-dimensional physical objects. Today, additive manufacturing technologies represent a market of around 5 billion euros per year, with an annual growth between 20 and 30%. Different processes, materials and dimensions (from nanometer to decameter) within additive manufacturing techniques have led to 70,000 publications on this topic and to several thousand patents with applications as wide-ranging as domestic uses. Volume 1 of this series of books presents these different technologies with illustrative industrial examples. In addition to the strengths of 3D methods, this book also covers their weaknesses and the developments envisaged in terms of incremental innovations to overcome them.

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Leseprobe

Cover

Dedication

Title

Acknowledgments

Foreword

Preface

Introduction

I.1. Introduction

I.2. Historical reminder of 2D1/2 processes [AND 15, AND 16, LAV 15]

I.3. Framing the application market

I.4. A transition to “acceptance”

I.5. Societal impact of additive manufacturing

Bibliography

PART 1: From Spectacular Applications to the Economic Market of Additive Manufacturing

Introduction to Part 1

1 Some Significant Examples

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Maritime, military, aerial and spatial applications

1.3. Conception: art and new domestic applicative niches

1.4. Mechanical parts

1.5. Land transport

1.6. The question of spare parts

1.7. Toys for the young and the “not-so-young”

1.8. “Traditional” medical applications

1.9. Animation

1.10. Scientific applications

1.11. Nanometric origami

1.12. Conclusion

1.13. Bibliography

2 Integration of Additive Manufacturing Technologies into Society

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Markets and application domains of 3D printing

2.3. Growth dynamics

2.4. Studies on the dynamic of growth

2.5. Toward a certain stabilization: The dynamics of innovation

2.6. Conclusion

2.7. Bibliography

PART 2: 3D Processes

Introduction to Part 2

3 Processes, Machines and Materials

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Stereolithography

3.3. Process of wire fusion

3.4. Sheet or powder gluing process

3.5. Powder fusion/sintering

3.6. Conclusion

3.7. Bibliography

Conclusion

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Introduction

Table I.1. Kondratieff cycle

Table I.2. SWOT analysis corresponding to additive manufacturing

Table I.3. Some prospective elements concerning additive manufacturing

Table I.4. Stages of the adoption of 3D printing technologies

Table I.5. Perceived impact of additive manufacturing according to the Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army [OFF 16]

Table I.6. Advantages and difficulties of using additive manufacturing processes

Table I.7. Evolution of man–machine interfaces

Table I.8. Position of additive manufacturing in industrial devices

1 Some Significant Examples

Table 1.1. Current market for additive manufacturing, according to Sculpteo [SCU 16]

Table 1.2. Environmental advantage of the re-designed part

Table 1.3. Approximate relations between ends and manufacturing criteria imposing specific methods of additive manufacturing (+++: very high; ++: significant; +: modestly significant; =: indifferent; -: no importance; V: variable; C: complex; MC: moderately complex; S: simple)

2 Integration of Additive Manufacturing Technologies into Society

Table 2.1. Present and estimated markets for additive manufacturing

Table 2.2. Attempt to frame the application markets of additive marketing

Table 2.3. Influence of 3D printing, emerging technology, on the socioeconomy

Table 2.4. Domains in which industrial property intervenes (according to [BLO 16])

Table 2.5. Specific elements linked to hygiene and safety aspects

Table 2.6. Basic patents filed in the public domain (highlighted in beige)

Table 2.7. Synthetic SWOT analysis applied to additive manufacturing in France

3 Processes, Machines and Materials

Table 3.1. Different additive manufacturing methods: some differentiation elements

Table 3.2. Examples of monomers that can be used to create parts through photo-polymerization

Table 3.3. Synthesis of the criteria of influence on the performance of the FDM/FFF process

Table 3.4. Elements to be mastered for the development of the process

Table 3.5. Elements to be mastered for the development of additive manufacturing processes through powder fusion

Table 3.6. Different basic techniques in additive manufacturing

Table 3.7. Materials – additive manufacturing process relation (C for added charges)

Table 3.8. Approximate values of mechanical tolerance and roughness as a function of the additive manufacturing technology

List of Illustrations

Preface

Figure 1. From additive manufacturing to 3D/4D printing

Introduction

Figure I.1. First two patents in additive manufacturing (1984)

Figure I.2. Intervention axes of additive manufacturing (1: Mass production; 2: Manufacturing of few parts; 3: Complexity pertinence; 4: Mass production complexity; 5: Art; Individual Personalization; 6: Mass personalization; 7: Handmade and Fab-Lab products; 8: Total manufacturing freedom)

Figure I.3. Construction by voxels

Figure I.4. Historic schema of the principle of creating an object layer by layer

Figure I.5. Different manufacturing technologies (according to [AFP 15]); AM: Additive Manufacturing

Figure I.6. Principles of additive manufacturing

Figure I.7. Evolution in the methods of producing manufactured products

Figure I.8. Technological changes: from industry 1.0 to 4.0

Figure I.9. Main components of “Industry 4.0” (loT – Internet of Things)

Figure I.10. 2020 Priorities of Key Technologies in France (French: “Technologies clés”)

Figure I.11. Results of Boston Consulting Group’s survey on the attractiveness of devices associated with industry 4.0 (sum of first-, second- and third-priority responses for those surveyed)

Figure I.12. Division for the “High Tech” rubric of 3D activities according to Sculpteo [SCU 16a] – (A: High-Tech Activities; B: Totals; C: “Expert user” activities). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing1.zip

Figure I.13. Factors influencing technological innovation

Figure I.14. Importance of “Automation” aspects in the “Management” and “Manufacturing” branches

Figure I.15. Mapping the 12 criteria connected to the attractiveness of a technology and the associated risks

Figure I.16. Perception of the high attractiveness of 3D technologies for students

Figure I.17. The 3D enterprise, according to Deloitte: from the designed object to its creation (according to [COT 16])

Figure I.18. Interests and limitations of 3D printing relative to the conception of an object (the sign – represents the advantageous domain for traditional conception and the sign + for conception in additive manufacturing that becomes +++ when the object cannot be created by conventional means)

Figure I.19. Principles of convergence/divergence

Figure I.20. Reminders about the founding principles of a successful innovation

Figure I.21. Interdependency associated with the development of additive manufacturing

1 Some Significant Examples

Figure 1.1. New wall-manufacturing process using 3D network created through additive manufacturing

Figure 1.2. Ecosystem of additive manufacturing (under creative commons)

Figure 1.3. Part created through additive manufacturing for a study in a wind tunnel

Figure 1.4. Another niche example of very high added value: space (figure provided by 3ders.org, [3D 14])

Figure 1.5. “Spatialized” additive manufacturing

Figure 1.6. Presentation of a plate of printed food [ALE 16d]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing1.zip

Figure 1.7. 3D “Chocolate” printer (photograph conceived by the NYBI association at the Lorraine Fab Living Lab®, www.lf2l.fr (photo credit: Laurent Dupont, ERPI Laboratory, University of Lorraine, 2017)

Figure 1.8. Left: Shoe sole created through additive manufacturing [ALE 15d]; center and right: mold created through additive manufacturing by Prodways [PRO 17] - Copyright ©Prodways ©Hamilton de Oliveira

Figure 1.11. 3D “photographs” (agreement of Mcor IRIS HD, [MCO 17]; left and middle image generously provided by 3D Systems; right image corresponds to a photograph taken by Arte Journal [ART 17])

Figure 1.12. Works by C. Lavigne (upper left and center), F. de Comité (upper right) and L. West, A. Werby and M. Neubauer (from bottom left to right) [ARS 16]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing1.zip

Figure 1.13. 3D mobiles (reproduced with the authorization of Marco Mahler www.marcomahler.com)

Figure 1.15. Applications in restoration for museums; project to reconstruct a gate in Palmyra destroyed by ISIS [BEN 15]; project to reconstruct a bust of Nefertiti [BAL 16]; bottom, sculpture [PRO 17] - Copyright ©Prodways ©Hamilton de Oliveira

Figure 1.16. Making paintings accessible to the blind (The Flagellation of Christ by Caravaggio) (figure provided by D. Scher [email protected])

Figure 1.17. Close-up drawing of new structures created for construction and construction elements generously provided by XtreeE

Figure 1.18. House being created through additive manufacturing [ALE 17b]

Figure 1.19. Model of the Savoie de Pessac villa

Figure 1.20. Examples of additive manufacturing; left: part of a rocket motor (figure provided by 3ders.org [3D 14]); right: injector [GAO 15]

Figure 1.21. Close-up drawing of the creation of a waveguide for research in electromagnetism

Figure 1.22. Top: Drawing of a chemical reactor by AIF [AIF 16], ceramic parts (France 3, 2016; Mélanie [MÉL 17]; middle: industrial parts (BeAM left and 3A right); bottom: mold for bottles [PRO 17] - Copyright ©Prodways ©Hamilton de Oliveira

Figure 1.23. Close-up drawing of a re-design for an airplane part (seat attachment), illustrating the improvements in terms of weight and comparison between traditional manufacturing and additive manufacturing [ALE 15e]

Figure 1.24. Airbus’ “bionic” partition (printed with the authorization of Grégori Pujol alias Greg)

Figure 1.25. Automobile created with 3D printing [ALE 17c]

Figure 1.26. Comparison of pollutant emissions from traditional vehicles and those created with 3D printing (a.u. for arbitrary units); 1: Gasoline-powered vehicle; 2: Hybrid vehicle; 3: Electric vehicle; 4: Electric vehicle (SUV); 5: Gas-powered vehicle created through additive manufacturing; 6: Gasoline-powered vehicle created through additive manufacturing; the lower part of the consumption indices represents the vehicle’s functioning cost, median consumption and manufacturing height

Figure 1.27. Drawing of a honeycomb frame for a motorcycle created through additive manufacturing

Figure 1.28. Possible evolutions of automobile productions allowed by additive manufacturing

Figure 1.29. Drawing of a bicycle frame created through additive manufacturing and a 3D wheelchair [ALE 17a], both adaptable to the morphology of each user

Figure 1.31. Toys created through additive manufacturing

Figure 1.32. Functioning gun with bullets created through additive manufacturing, made of polymer that is unrecognizable in an airport scanner [ALE 14a]

Figure 1.33. Close-up drawing of using 3D technology to repair and regenerate nerves (rat)

Figure 1.34. Top: Porous ceramic repair part used during surgery (courtesy of 3DCeram); bottom: photographs before and after the operation

Figure 1.35. Artificial hand and “printing” of ear cartilage

Figure 1.36. Drawing of an artificial bone made of an elastic porous material [MAN 16, JAK 16]

Figure 1.37. 3D dental prostheses (before completion) according to Alex [ALE 14b]

Figure 1.39. Artificial kneecap [GAO 15]

Figure 1.40: Titanium hand prosthesis (with the permission of G. Kondo, Exiii [EXI 17])

Figure 1.41. Optical lenses created through spatially resolved photo-polymerization

Figure 1.42. Top: Optical lenses (from http://www.azom.com/article.aspx? ArticleID=11835); bottom: frames according to Prodways [PRO 17] - Copyright ©Prodways ©Hamilton de Oliveira; see also Lu-net.fr [LU 17]

Figure 1.43. Example of an object that could not be created by traditional means: a fractal pyramid

Figure 1.44. Creation of a dome with a variable density (with the permission of S. Lefebvre)

Figure 1.45. Micro-gears created through stereolithography [BER 97] and “stemmed glasses” [ZIS 96]

Figure 1.46. Rough drawing of a metal mini-part (according to Designboom [DES 13])

Figure 1.47. Example of multi-photonic micro-stereolithography [PAR 09], presented with publisher’s permission

Figure 1.48. Micronic objects (Nanoscribe [NAN 16] and its authorization, website: www.nanoscribe.com)

Figure 1.49. DNA origami (with the authorization of Paul Rothemund)

2 Integration of Additive Manufacturing Technologies into Society

Figure 2.1. Temporal effects on the improvement of processes

Figure 2.2. Division for the “high-tech” rubric of 3D activities

Figure 2.3. Average of the large application markets. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing1.zip

Figure 2.4. Centers of interest of additive manufacturing for manufacturers. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing1.zip

Figure 2.5. Evolution of additive manufacturing publications over time from the BU-Univ-Lorraine

Figure 2.6. Evolution of publications on additive manufacturing processes over time from the Univ-Lorraine Library

Figure 2.7. Evolution of publications on stereolithography over time from the Univ-Lorraine Library

Figure 2.8. Specific position of 3D printing

Figure 2.9. Principles of convergence/divergence

Figure 2.10. Reminders on the founding principles of a successful innovation

Figure 2.11. Mapping the 12 criteria connected to the attractiveness of a technology and the associated risks

Figure 2.12. Differences in perception of NBIC and ICT technologies [AND 16]

Figure 2.13. Attractiveness of additive manufacturing for an educated but untrained public (with the same mapping for ICT as a reminder)

Figure 2.14. Consequences of the technological advances associated with the revolution 4.0 on man and the environment (GE: geo-engineering; IoT: Internet of Things; AI+R: artificial intelligence and robotics; DLT: distributed ledger technology (e.g. Bitcoins); AR: augmented reality: Nanotech.: nanotechnologies; NDM: new digital methodologies; Materials: new and nanomaterials; REn: renewable energy)

Figure 2.15. Stages of manufacturing an object through additive manufacturing (red crosses indicate human intervention in the process)

Figure 2.16. Digitization of a person’s head (Patrick Visentin, 3D artist from Quebec). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing1.zip

Figure 2.17. Figures digitized using laser sheets, deformed by anamorphosis for creation using laser stereolithography in 1990. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing1.zip

Figure 2.18. Contour approximation through a polygon

Figure 2.19. Effect of the quality of triangulation on the shape of the object in the computer memory

Figure 2.20. Reconstruction of an object using triangles (left) and contour association (right)

Figure 2.21. Need for supports for complex parts (depending on the process used)

Figure 2.22. Two-step layer transformation

Figure 2.23. Examples of possible displacements that introduce different memories/deformations according to the space considered (interactions between displacements)

Figure 2.24. Actors/users of 3D printing

Figure 2.25. The Fab-Lab Charter (from Creative Commons [GOT 16, MIT 12])

Figure 2.26. Flow of energy and matter in additive manufacturing (with the risk components represented by triangles)

Figure 2.27. Evolution of the number of additive manufacturing patents with two possible options: linear and exponential trends [UK 13]

Figure 2.28. Relative evolution of the number of Google hits on the term 3D Printing

Figure 2.29. Evolution of the price of 3D Systems’ shares (exponential curve with an “Internet bubble” peak in 2014)

Figure 2.30. Evolution of the price of Stratasys’ shares (linear curve with an “Internet bubble” peak in 2014, followed by a large decrease)

Figure 2.31. Additive manufacturing job offers in the United States, according to Wanted Analytics [WAN 14]

Figure 2.32. Jobs in the manufacturing sector in the United States as a function of time

Figure 2.33. Estimation of the parts of the market in percentage of the primary materials used in additive manufacturing

Figure 2.34. Traditional “linear” innovation

Figure 2.35. Kline and Rosenberg’s model

Figure 2.36. Problem of the increased price of R&D in the particular field of pharmacy (the number of marketing authorizations would increase slightly (blue dots) while the cost of R&D increases sensitively in an exponential way (red dots). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing1.zip

Figure 2.37. Evolution of creativity with scholastic education

Figure 2.38. Germany’s position in additive manufacturing

Figure 2.39. “Word cloud” from the Lorraine Fab Living Lab® in Nancy (Photo credit: Laboratoire ERPI / ENSGSI, University of Lorraine, 2014)

3 Processes, Machines and Materials

Figure 3.1. Position of additive manufacturing in the priorities of emerging technologies (only the domains concerned with additive manufacturing are presented) (according to [OEC 16])

Figure 3.2. Different additive manufacturing processes

Figure 3.3. Initial system for creating an object by laser stereolithography [AND 94]

Figure 3.4. Monophoton absorption process

Figure 3.5. Different stages of additive manufacturing

Figure 3.6. Example of the interest of additive manufacturing in creating complex objects: 3D mesh

Figure 3.7. Micro-stereolithography [BER 11]

Figure 3.8. Optical assembly using an overhead projector

Figure 3.9. Radical chain polymerization mechanism

Figure 3.10. Polymerization through spatial proximity (hv represents the photon’s energy, where v is the radiation frequency and h is the Planck constant)

Figure 3.11. Kinetic curve of polymerization

Figure 3.12. Polymerization of a monomer by radical reaction (a: 50,000 lancers, b: 1,000,000, c: 2,750,000).

Figure 3.13. Improvement of the spatial resolution due to the spread of oxygen

Figure 3.14. Examples of acrylic monomers that can be used to create parts through photo-polymerization

Figure 3.15. Other examples of monomer formulas that can be used to create parts through photo-polymerization

Figure 3.16. Illustration of a photochemical initiation process in the case of benzophenone

Figure 3.17. Example of ionic polymerization

Figure 3.18. Ceramic part after sintering (photograph generously provided by 3DCeram)

Figure 3.19. Nearly the first steps: “Manual” additive manufacturing with melted polymers (Photo credit: Laurent Dupont, ERPI Laboratory, ENSGSI, Lorraine University, France, 2015 - www.lf2l.fr)

Figure 3.20. Principle of the FDM or FFF process (wire fusion) according to Castel [CAS 14]

Figure 3.21. “Orca” 3D printers with melted wires (Photo credit: GSI Clic Clac and Laurent Dupont ERPI Laboratory, ENSGSI, Lorraine University, France, 2015 – www.lf2l.fr and Morel and Leroux [MOR 16])

Figure 3.22. Creation of parts using pastes; the case of ceramics

Figure 3.23. Physicochemical aspects involved in the process

Figure 3.24. Principle of the SDL (selective deposition lamination) process; the user starts with a sheet (A), then a “glue” in the area corresponding to the surface defined to the corresponding dimension (B), then addition of a new sheet, pressing and gluing, for example, through infrared heading (C), deposition of a new layer of glue (D) and gradual creation of the object (E)

Figure 3.25. Processing using glued and cut sheets (selective deposition lamination) according to 3D Printing Industry [3DP 15]

Figure 3.26. Interest of the strato-conception process

Figure 3.27. Parts created with the 3DP process (photographs generously provided by 3D Systems)

Figure 3.28. Example of photochemical reticulation (formation of a cycle containing four carbon atoms)

Figure 3.29. Use of a gel–polymer process

Figure 3.30. Polymerization of charged resins in sheets

Figure 3.31. Possible influence of the solubility of the materials on the shape of the final part from the latent image to a revelation of the object as a function of dissolution time (with the unforeseen dissolution of the treated areas)

Figure 3.32. Process involving insolubility of a film polymer: example of creation

Figure 3.33. Schema of the principle of a sheet stereolithography machine

Figure 3.34. Selective laser sintering (SLS/DMLS)

Figure 3.35. Set of pipes created by Fives

Figure 3.36. Principle of fusion using laser diodes

Figure 3.37. Apollonian stacking

Figure 3.38. Structural defects introduced by the process

Figure 3.39. Conditions of “super-hydrophobia”

Figure 3.40. Structural heterogeneities introduced by the process where each treated area has a fusion/solidification gradient with an effect of the object’s superior heights on those below

Figure 3.41. Localized deposition of matter and fusion by laser: LMD or CLAD process (Figures 3.41(a) and (c) were generously provided by BeAM)

Figure 3.42. Example of a metallic part created with the DED process

Figure 3.43. “Virtuous” approach of innovation in additive manufacturing

Figure 3.44. Metallic powders market (exponential curve)

Figure 3.45. Manufacturing processes with metallic powdered materials

Figure 3.46. Improvements foreseen for processes-materials in additive manufacturing

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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To Laurent and Denis, who allowed me

to dedicate myself to additive manufacturing.

Series Editor

Jean-Charles Pomerol

From Additive Manufacturing to 3D/4D Printing 1

From Concepts to Achievements

Jean-Claude André

First published 2017 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUKwww.iste.co.uk

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USAwww.wiley.com

The rights of Jean-Claude André to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017950122

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-78630-119-2

Acknowledgments

Sincere thanks to 3A, BeAm, 3DCeram, 3D Systems, Fives, Nanoscribe, Poietis, Prodways, XtreeE, Alex (alias Alexandre Martel, co-founder of 3D Natives.com) and Laurent Dupont, head of the Lorraine Fab Living Lab® for their effective cooperation, and particularly for graciously providing certain images.

Prototype part (3DCeram, 2017), reproduction of the Église de Bonsecours in Nancy (LRGP, 1994) and metallic part (3A – Applications Additives Avancées, 2017)

Foreword

The evocative expression “3D printing” has been overtaken in everyday speech by the expression generally preferred by scientists and engineers, “additive manufacturing”. In both cases, it is a matter of manufacturing objects in successive layers, and soon every workshop and every school will have a 3D printer and engage in additive manufacturing. Self-service workshops known as fab-labs already offer users the possibility to create their own objects. However, the adventure is not over, as “4D” is coming up over the horizon with materials that evolve over time, not to mention “bio-printing”, which aims to create organs to be used to repair the living. Furthermore, the 3D printing of tomorrow, which will be performed without layers, threatens to make the term “additive manufacturing” obsolete, thereby making it possible to return to the initial concept of 3D printing. Whatever the case may be, we are faced with not only a very active and booming world, but also a complex world that calls on numerous skills in physics, engineering, chemistry of materials and mechanics with a resolutely multidisciplinary and convergent approach.

To understand the origin of the ideas in additive manufacturing/3D printing, learn about the current state of what is known and explore the developments to come, what could be better than to ask one of the inventors of the technology and one of the first French patent holders in the field, Jean-Claude André, to share his knowledge with us? This led to the idea of this 3-volume edition that I am pleased to present; a work that is both erudite and prospective, as its intention is to start at the genesis of the ideas that led to additive manufacturing to anticipate the impact and future of still “additive” technologies and, beyond this, to encourage reflection on the interactions between science and society of today and tomorrow.

If the first patents date back to 1984, an era where lasers, photo-materials and computer-aided design had already been mastered, was the idea of additive manufacturing completely disruptive as would be said today. What was creative was to put all of this knowledge together to come to something entirely new. Nevertheless, approval for the concept of additive manufacturing came rather quickly. It is on this basis that other additive methodologies, currently many of them with very specific niches, could be developed. These range from prototype and industrial parts to art, variable spatial scales – from the decameter to the nanometer –, from the inert to the living, from industrial organizations to very delocalized forms of manufacturing, etc.

On the basis of these works with varied applicative and societal spectrums, some of which are in the process of becoming stabilized, others to be invented, the principles of additive manufacturing can serve as an example, even as a “laboratory” to better understand how the interactions between research and society can (and must) develop, whether this is through new scientific concepts and the associated concepts of creativity, interdisciplinary scientific and technological operations, the popularization of public research, links with society in terms of the creation of new markets and jobs, and also forms of responsibility and ethics.

Throughout these three volumes, the author would like to invite you to reflect on the circuits between the applications that pose new scientific questions and prior research which opens the door to new applications or new products. The more we progress in the field of new niches, the more previously unasked scientific questions are considered, questions whose answers (if they exist) are supported and encouraged by public authorities and industry, which are gaining awareness of an immense industrial and/or medical market, as is the case for bio-printing. From dream to reality, scientists are often in the position to anticipate the length of the path; however, a dynamic is created. This leads to cultural changes and changes in practices, particularly concerning the importance of creativity, sharing enthusiasm for research, openness with others, the multiplying (and sometimes inhibiting) effect of public actors, on the one hand, and the economic world, on the other, as this work illustrates wonderfully.

This saga of additive manufacturing, told by one of its inventors, teaches us that creativity alone does not suffice; it is necessary to have a good dose of perseverance as well, and it is, of course, necessary to keep moving after the first failures. In addition, this shows us that sometimes the research structures and the environment are not entirely receptive to innovation, even when success comes relatively quickly. Jean-Claude André also explains with great enthusiasm how we give shape to an idea to feed our intuition, which in turn increases creativity. On the whole, these three volumes provide a wealth of information on additive manufacturing, and additionally, they illustrate and encourage veritable reflection on the task of a researcher and research structures, as well as the role of creativity in research, and finally, they invite us to rethink and reinforce the relations between science and society.

Jean-Charles POMEROLPresident of the Incubateur AGORANOV and the ISTE Editions Scientific Committee

Preface

“We have too often forgotten that specialists are created from amateurs, just as soldiers are made from civilians”. [LAT 07]

“In France, strangely enough, it is not those used to sailing the seas, the specialists of the real and tangible, who are asked for advice guiding the flagship, but the members of a caste who stay at port and who, for the most part, have only purely theoretic knowledge of the sea”. [BEI 12]

“Technology has taken on a new breadth and organization. Here, I am searching for its specific structure, and I have noticed that it exists as a system, in other words, as an organized whole”. [ELL 04]

“Those in the organization who have ideas to do things otherwise or better are divided into two categories: those who do not dare and those who dare. Those who do not dare understand very well the risks and the importance of new ideas, but they are paralyzed by risk taking and the fear of displeasing. Having never tried anything, they have not known failure and are thus unharmed by reproach […], they are quitters. Those who dare, the innovators, move forward by challenging conventional ideas, organizations, and sometimes procedures. They stir up fears and a lack of understanding and are truly criticized…”. [PHI 12]

“Science has largely renounced an interdisciplinary vision allowing the merits of different results to be faced”. [THO 83]

“Theory is when everything is known and nothing works. Practice is when everything works and no one knows why. Here, we have united theory and practices: nothing works… and no one knows why!”. [EIN 07]

“These creatures of man [machines] are exacting. They are now reacting on their creators, making them like themselves. They want well-trained humans; they are gradually wiping out the differences between men, fitting them into their own orderly functioning, into the uniformity of their own regimes”. [VAL 57]

“Speaking of discipline is designating the scientific activity as a particular form of the division of labor in the social world”. [FAB 06]

“The imagination is brilliant in that it produces images that enlarge reality and really invent it”. [GUÉ 15]

“In cultural terms, no enterprise is built with dreams alone and none without. Action, if it is to be successful, is by necessity guided by practical circumstances. But the goal of any action is defined, implicitly or explicitly, by the deep nature of the human being, his dreams, his vision of life, his culture. The dynamics of life, the challenge of risk and uncertainty, today require from us a new creative effort leading to the reconstruction and to the re-conquest of the notion of progress, which the philosophies and the ideologies of certainty have shuttered almost to the point of destruction”. [GIA 90]

“Researching is inventing the world, it is setting new rules of functioning for an ephemeral world. Not like the tyrants who also invent a new world for themselves, but impose it upon others. The researcher does not recreate the world, but rather unravels it to make it. He/She imagines one, then compares it with the real world to clarify it and not to exhaust it. Researching is an endless quest”. [ROS 01]

Figure 1.From additive manufacturing to 3D/4D printing

This book (in three volumes) is the result of a demand that has been repeated countless times for different reasons, notably among these, of the oversight and the reminder of the oversight to cite a French school that in 1984 succeeded to patent the first additive manufacturing process, stereolithography, several weeks before the Americans (who were working on the same subject, without either party knowing it). However, at the same time, thirty or so years later, it is a history lesson that can be told about a process concept, tossed out in France, without any malice of course, by “clairvoyant hierarchists”, the explosion of the research team who felt their future was blocked and an American technical-economic development which has today led to several books and more than 50,000 scientific publications on additive manufacturing, because consequent applicative markets exist with profitable enterprises (and also because there is an immense attraction field around this subject that conditions the actions of a great number of researchers).

So why have we entitled these three volumes “From Additive Manufacturing to 3D/4D Printing”? First, it was about locally bringing material and/or energy to perform a transformation (e.g. from a powder to a solid or from a liquid to a solid). The expression “additive” then takes on its true meaning. But for a short time now, researchers have been developing (or working on) new processes that allow this change to be avoided through the additions mentioned at the start of this paragraph. It thus becomes possible to create an object in one go. Moreover, the use of so-called “smart” materials authorizes the introduction of a complementary parameter, i.e. time or functionality. The 4D aspect is thereby introduced.

The first volume on additive manufacturing is strongly linked to the existence of an effective economic market, one that is already significant, stemming from technological research in the engineering sciences connected to an essential component, that of materials (and of manipulating them to prepare them for manufacturing). It will take several decades for 3D technology to emerge and find its place as a robust technology for manufacturing objects in quite diverse domains. This situation, linked from the start to a strong attractiveness on the part of industrial R and R&D services, has allowed for “field” experimentation with competent users who are more and more demanding in terms of manufacturing qualities (without seeking in this preface to define what this quality, a true portmanteau, represents). Mastery by users, on the one hand, and competition between the bearers of knowledge pertaining to different 3D printing knowledge, on the other, are translated into new demands to be satisfied. In this framework, this demand has in fact made up one of the driving forces of incremental research, a “technology pull” described in Volume 2 (at least as much as is known (or published)).

A solution is good if and only if the concept, its demonstration with the right people, a culture of industrial innovation, and time and finances effectively come together. Maybe at that time, in 1984, there was a closed system of opinion and self-centered management that had not even thought of a possible debate on futuristic technological openings. This conformity to a manufacturing follower style of thinking was more and more often considered to be obsolete. But there was also, beyond socio-economic milieus, an incredible viscosity with many scientists: the most common attitude was not openness to other explicative schemata, but in the majority of cases, the ignorance and/or refusal to accept their existence. Tricks that only imperfectly fit into our ethics as researchers (at the time) must be made and likely developed.

According to estimation methods, the revenue from additive manufacturing lies somewhere between 5 and 40 billion euros (we could think that this is an estimation of the number of protesters in a claim by the police or trade unions!). Some speak of a revolution and others imagine senseless promises (which, according to Audétat [AUD 15], could put every emerging sector in danger); in short, things are booming at present with seven main stabilized technologies and a new kind of governance (Jeremy Rifkin’s “makers”). This appreciative placement of the normalizers into categories is indeed rather artificial. Beyond a recent manufacturing technique that associates computer science and matter, 3D printing, with cheaper and cheaper home machines (down to a few hundred euros), constitutes a paradigm shift that impacts product design (which can even be defined, thanks to “open-source” systems), creation (from heavy industry to one’s “garage”), consumption and the business models that result from them (from market activity, a new handicraft and DIY (Do-It-Yourself) to counterfeiting).

In fact, the progression rates are always in the double figures (between 20 and 40% per year), which leads some to believe that the additive manufacturing processes will continue to evolve for a long time to become a widespread technology, as they increasingly occupy ever-new applicative niches, quashing the other manufacturing methods that made up the skeleton of 20th Century industrial manufacturing. But what do tens of billions of euros per year represent for the world relative to France’s “small” debt amounting to 2 trillion euros? It is therefore difficult to project a future which leads to a possible hegemony of additive manufacturing; besides, it would be more interesting to explore how intelligent synergies can be implemented with technology that emerged long before 1984. Yet, as is resurfaced in Volume 2, there are spaces, still relatively empty, where an attempt is made to challenge the very concept of adding material to processes.

The early 21st Century is marked by the “hegemonic” presence of the digital transition with the technological and practical complements of additive manufacturing processes likely to affect Western society in a quick and profound way. “In the face of radical innovation markets, where the first arrivers can acquire decisive, dominant positions and make the passage of other markets and the economic actors in place disappear, keeping a distance and watching things happen can lead to considerable social and economic costs” [FRA 17]. To go beyond this already uncertain space and become involved in disruptive innovations implies taking risks, thus accepting potential failure, facing their possible negative consequences, and being capable of learning all the lessons this teaches. “If we do not proactively incorporate innovation, this will end up being imposed all the same, in an even more disruptive manner” [FRA 17]. In short, it may be useful to anticipate.

In roughly a century, the number of researchers in Europe has gone from a few thousand to a few million, and despite some disturbances, this trend is continuing. Research activities have been the subject of reassuring discourse on the researcher’s independence, on the one hand, and on the other, of a certain programming of research with the aim of achieving goals: security (before the fall of the “Iron Curtain”, for example) and economic developments (from mass production with ECSC projects to information and communication sciences and technologies) participating in different forms of competition from France and the European Union.

On this basis, the stereotypical image of the scientist, responsible for the truth and good, is still part of the idealized image, which often positions him/her very highly in relation to a social reality of which he/she only has an imperfect mastery. The will to achieve the best “research efficiency” has led to the promotion of rather mono-disciplinary processes that are easier to manage from “peers”, referents of a discipline. On the one hand, in-depth scientific study is maintained by actors from the same field provided that the guarantee of excellence is defined and respected; on the other, for the State, it is easier to realize international comparisons discipline after discipline. Indeed, and this is necessary to remember, without really noticing it, we have gone from a limited worldwide scientific elite to mass research (with tens of thousands of scientific journals) which represents a characteristic that is not discussed by developed nations: research must indeed allow society to respond to the great challenges that loom today: employment, progress, security, global warming, health and quality of life, sustainable development, etc.

Without seeking to speak of two worlds exploring different paradigms, one of in-depth study, the other of responding to social demand (even its anticipation), for this aim would be too limited, rather we look at evolutions translated by a research program that takes account of the different and sometimes antagonistic imperatives (see Volumes 2 and 3). This situation actually shows, at least in part, that the researcher is an element of society who is not independent, even if forms of “grand isolation” have long protected him. But, in the European Charter for Researchers signed by France at the CNRS (National Center for Scientific Research) in 2005, a reminder is given that “Researchers should focus their research for the good of mankind and to expand the frontiers of scientific knowledge, while enjoying the freedom of thought and expression, and the freedom to identify methods by which problems are solved, according to recognised ethical principles and practices.”

Without this having been noticed by most of the research actors financed by the State, even if the notion of good is not easily defined (in any case, it does not simply mean the absence of evil), this sentence is a reminder of the role of research centers as a social (or societal) actor, implying new approaches like functioning through interdisciplinary projects and strategic reflections negotiated by stakeholders, stemming from a new prospective work. Considering their importance for the development of citizens’ quality of life, research associated with technology is an element that is really starting to be discussed. Indeed, it has participated in the “natural” evolution of things and technological progress has long allowed man to be free from a number of material constraints. In this framework, the rhythm of implementing research results has been greatly modified and complicated, thanks to a more and more frequent coming-and-going between “manufacturing” and research, and thanks to a hybridization of technologies as well as, to a lesser extent, modes of research action (added value from the ability to interact). To work in the new economy of knowledge with greater partnership, there is a need for better reflection on creativity, innovation, and the societal impact of scientific and technological activities. So then, in today’s context of growing co-constructed and contractual research actions, must/can we break away from the “researcher’s temptation of innocence”, of the consoling illusion of “neutral” science, or of the simple transfer of responsibility to the deciders/financers? It will be understood that these are somewhat the stakes of the current evolutions/revolutions applicable to additive manufacturing, and particularly to its future.

With the concept of informed matter, there must be a possibility to modify the shape of objects in time (4D printing), to print living matter (bio-printing), etc. It is thus conceivable to come closer to life by flirting with its possible prolongation! This questioning, like 3D printing pushed to its limits (nanomanufacturing, micro-fluidics, electronics and robotics) associated with other domains, does not correspond to an economic market present today, but instead, if researchers, breaking with the traditions of incremental innovation, succeed (thanks to a bit of creativity and epistemic exploration), immense markets (relative to the “modest” market today amounting to 10 billion euros per year) should open up. The illustrative example of bio-printing which could correspond to a market worth several hundred billion euros per year is a great demonstration of the stakes linked to research concerning initial findings, presented in Volume 3.

If it is necessary to put some of this enthusiasm into perspective, the “classic” additive manufacturing technologies, which have already successfully demonstrated their numerous capacities of industrial development, offer application fields, some of which are very recent and possible, thanks, in particular, to disciplinary research, enabling existing manufacturing processes to be improved. This concentration on a clearly identified objective, process–material optimization, has limited more creative research leading to weaker programming and support for “divergent” researchers, whose numbers, for various reasons, are rather limited in the world of research. Nevertheless, these new applications called 4D printing, bio-printing, 5D printing, etc. result from more complex interdisciplinary activities that, if they succeed, could open markets, no longer in the 4-digit range (billions of euros around the world), but in all likelihood in the 5- or 6-digit range!

There are thus (at least) two types of challenge in additive manufacturing, one is the realization of 3D pieces which contribute a (the most) crucial input relative to the more traditional manufacturing techniques (prototyping, foundry, soldering, etc.) and the other is more prospective on openings in new fields with renewed approaches (and with the associated difficulties). For this reason, with the publisher (ISTE), there was a wish to present the 3D domain in three parts, one with validated scientific and technological bases (certainly with potential redundancies relative to other works on this subject) and the others based on a field of possibilities that offers new epistemological questions, terrible risk-taking, but considerable stakes.

In the first three volumes, it was actually about writing two open “scenarios” that were slowly constructed within a framework, but without a very strict preliminary plan, the scenarios in which the elements were to be introduced and discussed would be spread in an a priori graded manner. Each chapter has some degree of autonomy, which can be translated by possible repetitions (as few as possible, however), with a “history” that is progressively fed thanks to the in-depth reading of hundreds (thousands?) of publications, numerous times meandering through and delving into beautiful ideas and scientific meetings for debates, sometimes with success. The gray literature has been a vital source for what is happening in the field at times, which explains the numerous references to the websites in some chapters.

In Volumes 1 and 2, the reader is sensitively placed within the “summary table of disciplines” published in 1829 by Auguste Comte with an “institutional” organization for scientific disciplines, enabling incremental research and development in additive manufacturing. In Volume 3, the idea is to place the reader in a less programmable mode of functioning, with a recursive, systematic and self-organizing character of knowledge, a better willfulness in processes, which sets it apart from the first two, yet it is nevertheless complementary (because it is still constructed using what is known). However, a bit of naivety and/or ignorance may allow for progress to be made in the domain by tackling new paths of creation from a small amount of scientific and technical knowledge in a less “professional” manner, but full of enthusiasm towards a new world to be explored.

An intentional artifact (linked to the engineer and/or designer’s work) may be considered a means of connecting an “internal” environment, the substance, the functioning, and the organization of the artifact itself and an external environment, the surroundings in which it is implemented. If the two environments are compatible, the artifact responds to the specifications. As underlined by H.A. Simon [SIM 04] in another framework, the knowledge of an artifact as an additive manufacturing machine “benefits from an advantage on the knowledge of nature, for it is based on valid, previous foundations whose ends will be perverted with a certain dose of new willingness to give projects intelligibility and openings on society.” This notion can also be found within the facts in the three works, but with different interdisciplinary openings.

In Volume 3, for the researcher who studies the behaviors associated with the intrusion of temporal aspects and functionality in additive manufacturing, the systems operate for sufficiently long, entirely determined times. But, like “self-organization” phenomena, they can become very off-balance and sensitive to factors considered to be negligible near equilibrium. This is the intrinsic activity of the increasingly complex system, with an increasingly nonlinear behavior, which determines how it is possible to describe its relationship to the environment, which thus generates the type of intelligibility that will be pertinent to understand its possible stories. It is thus not only a matter of an applicative field with its constraints, but also of a theoretical domain to be approached and interrogated in order to resolve the end/means equation in a robust way so as to achieve it.

It will be understood that the epistemological foundations of the reflections in Volume 3 are based on the complexity paradigm, where interdisciplinarity is projected as one of the means of study. The disciplinary approach is too often divided, fragmentary and linear, hence a master idea aiming to know how to percolate through disciplinary borders so that the complexity paradigm can truly spread, notably because the recomposition of thought categories can no longer be based on borders and disciplinary subjects, but on boundary subjects based on the creative, the divergent, who, having no fear of recursiveness, hope to legitimately respond to the great risks society must face.

This change in delivering research for a more systematic approach does not hope to be the indicator of a field of scientific disciplines that, hoping to keep its power, loses its authority, even if current societal issues still cannot handle constructive forms of subordination well. It aims for a real, responsible integration of activities open towards society, bearers of meaning, allowing new research in additive manufacturing to be made to emerge as credible scientific evidence of movements that are materializing.

The evocation of different attractors of disruptive innovation in 3D manufacturing is the focus of Volume 3, in addition to its scientific and technical aspects. The author uses his experiences in this volume to recreate a bit of the history of new additive manufacturing processes, which could, in case of success, invade our daily lives in some years. It is in the spirit of creating a history, and interiorizing it by trying with the time and means available to re-establish them with a personal vision, with the risk of committing mistakes, of having failed with a promising idea. But this is the price to pay.

In the three volumes on the subject of additive manufacturing, it is shown that in relation to almost every problem, there is in fact a creative avant-garde with low inertia: this is carried out by groups of divergent researchers working in practice on the problem at hand. Then there are all the followers, who will structure the “paradigm” and engage it only in forms of conservatism authorizing research to improve processes or materials (“programmable” research). It will take years, even decades, for this paradigm to change positions – often with shoves (linked to the work of the creative by following information provided by the avant-garde). “Paths must be transformed into roads, the ground leveled, etc., so that the landscape will transform significantly until it becomes the main group’s parking place” was written by L. Fleck in 1935. Could this context, in terms of research, be adapted to economic development? These characteristics of considering time, and its management, are the elements to be taken into consideration in a process of spatial and temporal transformation of matter that displays significant advantages.

Thus, beyond scientific aspects, indispensible techniques will be discussed to examine how the edifice of additive manufacturing was and is being built through its cultural filters and filters of understanding and interpretation. Anticipating the future of the field of additive manufacturing in the larger sense, to be in a position to prepare ourselves, is considered one of the keys for the long-term durability and competition of companies. This imperative to think of the future, to add to this divergent thought to create new devices for creating objects with the adapted material, devices that are functional, adaptive, “smart”, etc., today seems even more significant considering the instability of the environment, the speed of evolution and the generalization of uncertainty. In such a context, research locations must be “offerers” of concepts, of their demonstration to anticipate the productive industrial future, not to mention the technological, economic and governance systems in which, on shorter and shorter reference times, companies evolve (undergoing nonlinear dynamics, splits and breaks). This mission is not only meant for individual researchers, but also for everything around them: research units, their administration and also (and above all else) the proactivity of economic milieus.

In terms of tomorrow and the future, can we not foresee new means of creating objects? At present, we have mastered synthesis, the way in which the objects are constructed. But we could also ask ourselves if it wouldn’t be possible to develop systems in which we could give objects an intentionality, thus giving it the choice to look for itself for what changes it needs to make, thus moving onto self-organization with the selection of necessary elements that it would extract from a “bank” for the edification of the final object. This would go beyond the 4D printing that tackles the functional and evolutionary assembly of materials that should be able to come together to create an upgradeable object and that could be made easier through “programmable matter”: “Programmable materials and objects that are themselves created would thus make assembly factors and heavy installation procedures superfluous… Robotization, the heart of progress in 20th Century productivity, could thus be integrated into the products themselves, with, as can be imagined, some ethical problems to be taken into consideration” [FRA 17]. Let us thus dream together of this future. The process attempted in these volumes therefore aims to try to question a present (it is impossible to know if this present will likely be able to achieve all its goals) and to determine the conceptual elements that could lead to an original future with access to new applicative niches by exploiting revisited paradigms.

Beyond the exhaustion of the reserves and consequences, it is also the way in which we understand scientific policy to be carried out by taking into consideration different world actors that should evolve to stimulate this nascent domain. In the reflection these books are aiming to create in its readers, it will likely be a matter of proposing changes to be undergone, which correspond to the conceptual displacement of the economy allowed by technology towards a new economy of creativity making a better effort to consider social, economic, organizational, geopolitical, even emerging environmental constraints. It is a form of “design thinking” that is thus to be considered. A reflection on the processes to help the integration of societal data, far from its disciplinary culture, would probably also be projectable (if only on the organizational aspects). In the end, it would be a matter of demonstration, through changes negotiated with the responsible authorities (some of whom are mute), leading to better exploration of the complexity, which can be done well, if not better, maybe with less equipment, but otherwise in a context of social and/or socio-economic demand that it would be advantageous to anticipate, if not follow. The paradigm shift would then take place thanks to scientific initiatives, which are marginal today, which remain aporetic in the paradigm in crisis, and which should be muted in a new scientific era, less framed, applied to 3D printing.

These three volumes can serve to think about the future in the domain that remains exciting for the author after more than 30 years since his 1984 patent, so that we can again find its place concerning its abilities of industrial creation and development in an ever more competitive environment. 3D, 4D, even 5D technologies constitute a path of promotion (among others that stem from the author’s competence) of this desire for renewal.

NOTES.–

– For these three volumes, the search for the greatest possible number of specific or general visions concerning the subject of additive manufacturing, which can help the reader, has led to the presentation of the bibliography chapter by chapter and in alphabetical order. In fact, it was almost impossible to classify the bibliography through the numbering of entries.

– Some repetitions in the chapters of these three volumes may exist in an attempt to give them certain coherence and to provide them some degree of autonomy.

Jean-Claude ANDRÉResearch Director at CNRSAugust 2017

Bibliography

[AUD 15] AUDÉTAT M., Sciences et technologies émergentes: pourquoi tant de promesses?, Herrmann, Paris, 2015.

[BEI 12] BEIGBEDER C., Puisque c’est impossible, faisons-le, J.C. Lattès, Paris, 2012.

[EIN 07] EINSTEIN A., quoted by Debonneuil M., L’espoir économique: vers la révolution du quaternaire, Bourin, Paris, 2007.

[ELL 04] ELLUL J., Le système technicien, Le cherche midi, Paris, 2004.

[FAB 06] FABIANI J.L., “A quoi sert la notion de discipline?” in BOUTIER J., PASSERON J.C., REVEL J. (eds), Qu’est-ce qu’une discipline?, EHESS, Paris, 2006.

[FRA 17] FRANCE STRATÉGIE, “2017/2027 – Répondre à l’innovation disruptive – Actions critiques”, available at: http://www.strategie.gouv.fr/publications/20172027-repondre-linnovation-disruptive-actions-critiques, 2017.

[GIA 90] GIARINI O., STAHEL W.R., Les limites du certain: affronter les risques dans une nouvelle économie de service, Presses Polytechniques et Universitaires Romandes, Lausanne, 1990.

[GUÉ 15] GUÉRIN M., La croyance de A à Z; un des plus grands mystères de la philosophie, Encre marine, Paris, 2015.

[LAT 07] LATOUR B., L’espoir de Pandore; pour une version réaliste de l’activité scientifique, La Découverte, Paris, 2007.

[PHI 12] PHILIPPE J., “L’innovation managériale, comment innover dans l’univers bancaire?”, in EUROGROUP CONSULTING, L’art du management de L’innovation dans le service public, Eurogroup, Paris, 2012.

[ROS 01] ROSE J., Profession quasi-chercheur, L’Harmattan, Paris, 2001.

[SIM 04] SIMON H.A., Les sciences de l’artificiel, Folio-Essais, Paris, 2004.

[THO 83] THOM R., Paraboles et catastrophes, Champs Science, Paris, 1983.

[VAL 57] VALÉRY P., Œuvres complètes, La Pléiade, Paris, 1957.

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