From Additive Manufacturing to 3D/4D Printing 3 E-Book

Jean-Claude Andre

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 713

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

With a turnover of some 5-15 billion EUR / year, the additive manufacturing has industrial niches bearers thanks to processes and materials more and more optimized. While some niches still exist on the application of additive techniques in traditional fields (from jewelery to food for example), several trends emerge, using new concepts: collective production, realization of objects at once (without addition Of material), micro-fluidic, 4D printing exploiting programmable materials and materials, bio-printing, etc. There are both opportunities for new markets, promises not envisaged less than 10 years ago, but difficulties in reaching them.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title

Copyright

Acknowledgments

Foreword

Preface

Bibliography

Introduction

I.1. Introduction

I.2. Bibliography

PART 1: Programmable Smart/Intelligent Matter and 4D Printing

Introduction to Part 1

I.1. Bibliography

1 Programmable Matter or Smart Matter, Stimulated Organization and 4D Printing

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Natural (spontaneous) self-organization

1.3. “Smart” matter

1.4. A transition to 4D printing: swimming robots

1.5. 4D Printing

1.6. Conclusion

1.7. Bibliography

PART 2: Live “Smart” Matter and (Bio-printing)

Introduction to Part 2

I.1. Introduction

I.2. Background

I.3. Bibliography

2 Bio-printing Technologies

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Tissue complexity

2.3. Bio-printing technologies

2.4. Comment: 4D bio-printing

2.5. Other applications

2.6. Conclusion

2.7. Appendix: 3D printing for biological applications

2.8. Bibliography

3 Some Examples of 3D Bio-printed Tissues

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Work on cartilage

3.3. Skin bio-printing

3.4. Bone

3.5. Bio-printing and cancer

3.6. General Conclusion

3.7. Bibliography

4 Ethical Issues and Responsible Parties

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Reflection on the acceptance of bio-printing

4.3. Ethics and bio-printing

4.4. Governing bio-printing research: mastering convergence

4.5. Conclusion

4.6. Bibliography

5 Questions of Epistemology and Modeling

5.1. Introduction

5.2. The PE approach (seen by a possible divergent, somewhat of an HE) [AND 16]

5.3. The HE approach

5.4. Complexity and bio-printing

5.5. Return to complexity

5.6. Bases of reflection on modeling

5.7. Conclusion

5.8. Bibliography

Conclusion

Postface

Tomorrow and the Future?

Strong trends

Research and socioeconomic relationships

Extreme scenarios

Questions asked for additive manufacturing

Bibliography

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

PART 1: Programmable Smart/Intelligent Matter and 4D Printing

Table I.1. Various phases of the Hype cycle

1 Programmable Matter or Smart Matter, Stimulated Organization and 4D Printing

Table 1.1. Various types of smart matter and associated mechanisms

Table 1.2. Differences between the materials used in 3D and 4D printing

Table 1.3. Various forms of propulsion of swimming robots

Table 1.4. Speeds of movements obtained by Li et al. [LI 16a]

Table 1.5. Several examples of applied smart matter in additive manufacturing

Table 1.6. Elements to bring under control for development of the 4D process

2 Bio-printing Technologies

Table 2.1. Comparison between bio-printing techniques

Table 2.2. Application of extrusion systems to bio-printing (BP)

Table 2.3. Comparisons of the various bio-printing techniques applied to research on cancer (from [KNO 15])

Table 2.4. Specific constraints linked to bio-printing

Table 2.5. Requisite properties for materials used in bio-printing

Table 2.6. Material used to bio-printed organs

Table 2.7. Families of materials used in bio-printing

Table 2.8. 3D methods and bio-printing materials

Table 2.9. Materials used with their origin and their significance

Table 2.10. Bio-printing technologies used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries, with their year of entry to market estimated by MADEELI

Table 2.11. Comparative elements between bio-printing and bio-bots

3 Some Examples of 3D Bio-printed Tissues

Table 3.1. Composition of hyaline cartilage

Table 3.2. Growth factors in cartilage bio-printing

Table 3.3. Matrix-living environment interactions in cartilage bio-printing (ECM: Extracellular matrix)

4 Ethical Issues and Responsible Parties

Table 4.1. Significant absence of intergenerational disparity in responses

Table 4.2. Difference between the “general” population and the university environment in the responses to the survey

Table 4.3. Some options concerning “peaceful coexistence”

Table 4.4. Promises of NBIC convergence Bio-printing (BP)

Table 4.5. Place of N, B, I, C components in scientific and technological activities today

Table 4.6. To challenge practices to explore NBIC and BP convergences

5 Questions of Epistemology and Modeling

Table 5.1. Differences between analytical and systematic approaches

Table 5.2. Cellular growth simulations software

Table 5.3. Some questions posed for modeling

Table 5.4. Qualities expected from the different partners in the project

Table 5.5. Difficulties and dissymetries in interdisciplinary investment

Postface

Table 1. “Roadmap” proposed to the EU to avoid being a “shining second” in additive manufacturing.

Table 2. Developing fields in additive manufacturing according to the scenario (from light: insignificant to dark: significant)

List of Illustrations

Preface

Figure 1. From additive manufacturing to 3D/4D printing

Introduction

Figure I.1. A medium- to long-term view of additive manufacturing. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

PART 1: Programmable Smart/Intelligent Matter and 4D Printing

Figure I.1. Hype diagram and 3D technologies. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure I.2. Possible applications for 4D printing methods. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure I.3. Possible applications (which are potentially positive) for 4D printing methods. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure I.4. Transition from science fiction to innovation. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

1 Programmable Matter or Smart Matter, Stimulated Organization and 4D Printing

Figure 1.1. Development of the number of publications on the subject “programmable matter” (University of Lorraine, France)

Figure 1.2. Osmotic productions by Leduc (copy from [LED 10]; see also [THU 80, EAS 09])

Figure 1.3. Self-similarity – fractal pyramid produced in the 1990s [DIO 92/93]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.4. The principle of using “smart” matter

Figure 1.5. Smart matter and supramolecular systems. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.6. Distortion induced by the light of a photo retractable polymer cylinder. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.7. Photomechanics of polymers. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.8. Azobenzene polymers

Figure 1.9. Sizes of two isomers [DEL 07]. The conversion from Trans to Cis operates by ultraviolet means (300–400 nm), returning to waves which are visible (being between 400 and 500 nm)

Figure 1.10. Effect of irradiation on a polymer film containing azobenzene groups: a) before irradiation; b) immediately after irradiation according to Mahimwalla et al. [MAH 13]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.11. Distortions of a light-induced polymer film. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.12. Bimetallic element subject to light irradiation. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.13. Distortions of a light-induced polymer film according to Zhang et al. [ZHA 15]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.14. Reversible systems having volume changes

Figure 1.15. Principle of thermically induced reversible distortions. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.16. Another example of polymers sensitive to given stimuli and validation by additive manufacturing. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.17. Effect of a mechanical constraint on the chemical conversion of a spiropyrane-based polymer. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.18. The anisotropy of the material creates a curvature during the temperature change (we could have obtained the same phenomenon with the swelling of bilayer threads charged with cellulose). Complex morphology (here a flower) is generated with developments in the forms of objects. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.19. Distortions induced by muscle cells. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.20. Distortion of fluid induced by surfactants. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.21. Possibility of guiding the movement of a drop on the surface. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.22. Formula developed for surfactants

Figure 1.23. Effect of an electric field (left) on the shape of an alloy droplet

Figure 1.24. Power–mass relationship of shape-memory alloys (SMA) versus motors according to Patoor [PAT 06]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.25. Principle of robot-swimmer movement (various types: translation (T); rotation (R) and circular movement (CM)). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.26. Application of swimming robots to additive manufacturing, for example, light-induced polymerization. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.27. Principle of operation of photochemical motor. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.28. Relationship between photochemical motor and its flagellum. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.29. Creation of order through disorder (general concept according to [LEI 16], citing Tibbits and Olson). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.30. Hydraulic actuator. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.31. 4D printing publications (curve: exponential through given optimal points)

Figure 1.32. Distortions from movable voxels (with the consent of the organization Nervous System; http://nervo.us)

Figure 1.33. Reversible sculpture toy [CDI 17]

Figure 1.34. Experimental set-up of the MIT [MIT 13]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.35. Example of 4D printing using cubes [SUS 14]

Figure 1.36. Collective approach to interdependent movements in object production and movements which may be concerted

Figure 1.37. Robot-origami moving a given object (from the start to reaching the objective). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.38a. Principle of operation of a given thermomechanical origami. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.38b. RF antenna produced by additive manufacturing and multi-materials producing origami to achieve a 3D structure (with the permission of M.M. Tenzeris). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.39. Development of PDMS membranes in the presence of water per the initial template produced as flat (with the permission of Benoît Roman)

Figure 1.40. Approximate drawing of an “Octobot”. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.41. Actuator thermically agitated by a shape-memory polymer (image supplied by Kevin Ge [KEV 16]). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 1.42. Desired transition from a sphere to a cube. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

PART 2: Live “Smart” Matter and (Bio-printing)

Figure I.1. Hype representation and 3D technologies. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure I.2. Time lags in the various targets for additive manufacturing

Figure I.3. Development of the number of bio-printing publications (Library, University of Lorraine)

Figure I.4. Particular targets for tissue repair

Figure I.5. The demand for transplants in the USA and linear trends according to [BAJ 14]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure I.6. Historic approach to bio-printing. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure I.7. Position of bio-printing at the interface of other disciplines (IT: Tissue Engineering and RM Regenerative Medicine). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure I.8. Traditional flow chart adapted to bio-printing. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure I.9. Biomanufacturing (B: Biology; Eng: Engineering; P: Physics; C: Chemistry; IT: IT, AM: Applied mathematics)

Figure I.10. Use of bio-printing for tests (tissue medicines). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure I.11. Maturity of applied projects within bio-printing. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

2 Bio-printing Technologies

Figure 2.1. Principle of bio-printing

Figure 2.2. General use principle (“virtuous circle”) of bio-printing. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.3. Biomechanics of tissues

Figure 2.4. Complex tissue structures. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.5. Significant characteristics which a tissue must possess

Figure 2.6. Elements of scale to consider (the example of the tendon)

Figure 2.7. Stem cells and cellular differentiation (hierarchy). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.8. Association between support and deposition of cells in bio-printing. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.9. Principle of bio-printing with time changes for printed living materials [AND 17a]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.10. Heterogeneous bio-printing enabling the target of biological properties with different compatibilities (in the top figure, inspired by SmallLab [SMA 15], cells are aerosolized and projected onto the surface coverage area in the process. In the bottom figure, an example, according to [HE 09, BAJ 14], of immobilization of living cells within a microcapsule is shown). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.11. Principle of bio-printing (applied to the skin). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.12. Steps for preparing cell samples by seeding three-dimensional structures as a culture medium. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.13. Process of cell growth proposed by Morimoto and Takeuchi [MOR 13]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.14. Sequential process by Wang et al. [WAN 14]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.15. Programming so as to produce a layer by creating porosities. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.16. General flow chart for the production of a porous support system

Figure 2.17. Bio-printing flow chart

Figure 2.18. Processes to produce bio-printing depositions (with the kind permission of Professor Atala). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.19. Cell-by-cell depositions with a laser assistance process (image kindly supplied by Poietis)

Figure 2.20. Example of complex production linking cell deposition, the scaffold and the transfer of matter and energy. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.21. The need to enable the transfer of nutriments to printed cells: a) 2D; b) “Actual” situation with 3D transport; c) desired situation in bio-printing. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.22. Various technologies for 3D printing of the skin (BP) and their distributions (the darker shades being the epidermal region with keratinocytes, and the clearer shades with fibroblasts; A: BP with microvalve and pre-cross-linking with sodium hydroxide; B: BP laser; C: BP with microvalves; D: BP with microvalves; E: BP with microvalves; A: pre-cross-linking with thrombin during printing; C, D, E: pre-cross-linking with sodium bicarbonate during printing). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.23. Criteria to satisfy for the choice of material supports

Figure 2.24. Use of hydrogels in bio-printing and some conversion methods

Figure 2.25. Cells used in bio-printing operate through their potential for both differentiation and growth. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.26. Materials–processes coupling within bio-printing [GUÉ 17]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.27. Creation of free spaces for cell growth. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.28. Example of means of realization of 4D bio-printing. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.29. Research into cancer and bio-printing

Figure 2.30. Inherent elements for the production of a bio-bot

Figure 2.31. Movement induced by muscle excitations. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 2.32. Winged Microrobot – the body is produced by additive manufacturing (reproduced with the permission of P.S. Sreetharan)

Figure 2.33. Over ten years, the American additive manufacturing market in dental fixing has tripled [SMA 15]

3 Some Examples of 3D Bio-printed Tissues

Figure 3.1. Publications with the two keywords: cartilage and 3D printing

Figure 3.2. Different types of collagen according to Bernard Mazières (CHU in Toulouse, France). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 3.3. Heterogeneities in cartilage. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 3.4. Cartilage bio-printing (according to [BHA 15]). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 3.5. Roadmap of cartilage bio-printing

Figure 3.6. Materials and cartilage bio-printing (according to [MOK 16]). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 3.7. Publications with the two keywords: Skin and 3D Printing

Figure 3.8. Epidermis. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 3.9. Anatomopathological cross-section of normal skin [FUT 17]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 3.10. Principle of bio-printing (applied to skin). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 3.11. Bio-print of keratinocytes (image generously provided by Poietis) – see Figure 3.8 for comparison with reality. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 3.12. Bio-printing methods usable for bio-printing skin

Figure 3.13. Concept of manufacturing artificial skin. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 3.14. Repairing a burn (drawing inspired by [WAK 15]). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 3.15. Publications with the two keywords: bone and 3D printing

Figure 3.16. Cross-section of a long bone. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 3.17. One of the interests of the hydroxyapatite–poly-caprolactone couple: elasticity. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 3.18. Some elements to consider for bio-printing. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

4 Ethical Issues and Responsible Parties

Figure 4.1. The fields of ethics

Figure 4.2. Apocalyptic vision of one application of bio-printing to “enhance” humans (according to Marithé http://marithe.over-blog.com/article-28754085.html)

Figure 4.3. Reductionism “benefits/risks”

Figure 4.4. Responses to the survey (dark blue: very favorable; red: favorable; green: rather unfavorable; purple: unfavorable; light blue: no response). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 4.5. Bio-printing, a path towards immortality?

Figure 4.6. Emerging domains in additive manufacturing

Figure 4.7. Incremental/reductive process in NBIC “convergence”. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 4.8. NBIC and BP convergences and interdisciplinary approach. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/anddre/printing3.zip

Figure 4.9. Publications concerning the subject “NBIC convergence” for “ethical” aspects

Figure 4.10. Division of publications in the field of bio-printing by scientific journals. 1: Biology and medicine; 2: biomaterials and materials; 3: physics and chemistry; 4: engineering and technology (including bio-manufacturing); 5: miscellaneous. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/anddre/printing3.zip

Figure 4.11. Scientific approaches: cause–effect relations surrounding complexity. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 4.12. Laboratization of the world. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 4.13. Recommendations necessary for exploration of NBIC and BP convergences

5 Questions of Epistemology and Modeling

Figure 5.1. Proof of concept output in bio-printing. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.2. Interdependent difficulties of complete bio-printing modeling

Figure 5.3. Basis of reflection for modeling

Figure 5.4. Fields of expertise (the Gaussian approximations represent scientific acquisitions resulting from PE work)

Figure 5.5. Complex system

Figure 5.6. Bifurcation in a fork

Figure 5.7. Schematic representation of a landscape of attractors. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.8. Bifurcations in a biological system. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.9. Internal and external interactions between spatial domains (starting basic elements: nucleotides, amino acids, sugars, fatty acids; biomolecules: DNA, RNA, proteins, polysaccharides, lipids; supramolecular structures: membranes, ribosomes; organelles: nucleus, mitochondria). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.10. Control model used in automation. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.11. Search for an optimum (only assumed) through successive changes in independent variables: alternating path with unidirectional search for the local optimum. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.12. Formal operational models (only representing part of a complex system). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.13. Spatial scale models. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.14. Interrelations between spatial scales. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.15. Autonomous dynamic systems. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.16. The question of modeling. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.17. Principle of variation – stabilization. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.18. Principle of a self-organizing system. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.19. Visualization of deterministic chaos: the chaotic trajectory of a fluid in a deterministic flux [SAA 96]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.20. Stages of the systematic process. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.21. Model principle: each cell interacts with its environment to die, proliferate, move, etc. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.22. Bacteria in the center feeding on glucose; left: beginning; center: intermediate situation; right: situation when all the glucose has been consumed (with permission from Pascal Ballet). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.23. Approximate drawings of simulations performed by Kupiec [KUP 08] and by Merks and Koolwijk [MER 09]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.24. Learning loops [ENA 16]

Figure 5.25. Mutualization of knowledge [BAL 10]. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.26. Vision of action harmony between PE and HE. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/andre/printing3.zip

Figure 5.27. The “virtuous” circle of the systemic approach

Postface

Figure. Poietis’ bio-printing machine (2017)

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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Series EditorJean-Charles Pomerol

From Additive Manufacturing to 3D/4D Printing 3

Breakthrough Innovations: Programmable Material, 4D Printing and Bio-printing

Jean-Claude André

First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd

27-37 St George’s Road

London SW19 4EU

UK

www.iste.co.uk

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

111 River Street

Hoboken, NJ 07030

USA

www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2018

The rights of Jean-Claude André to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017954665

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-78630-232-8

Acknowledgments

Sincere thanks to 3A, BeAm, 3DCeram, 3D Systems, Fives, Nanoscribe, Poietis, Prodways, XtreeE, Alex (alias Alexandre Martel, co-founder of 3D Natives.com) and Laurent Dupont, head of the Lorraine Fab Living Lab® for their effective cooperation, and particularly for graciously providing certain images.

Prototype part (3DCeram, 2017), reproduction of the Église de Bonsecours in Nancy (LRGP, 1994) and metallic part (3A – Applications Additives Avancées, 2017)

Foreword

The evocative expression “3D printing” has been overtaken in everyday speech by the expression generally preferred by scientists and engineers, “additive manufacturing”. In both cases, it is a matter of manufacturing objects in successive layers, and soon every workshop and every school will have a 3D printer and engage in additive manufacturing. Self-service workshops known as fab-labs already offer users the possibility to create their own objects. However, the adventure is not over, as “4D” is coming up over the horizon with materials that evolve over time, not to mention “bio-printing”, which aims to create organs to be used to repair the living. Furthermore, the 3D printing of tomorrow, which will be performed without layers, threatens to make the term “additive manufacturing” obsolete, thereby making it possible to return to the initial concept of 3D printing. Whatever the case may be, we are faced with not only a very active and booming world, but also a complex world that calls on numerous skills in physics, engineering, chemistry of materials and mechanics with a resolutely multidisciplinary and convergent approach.

To understand the origin of the ideas in additive manufacturing/3D printing, learn about the current state of what is known and explore the developments to come, what could be better than to ask one of the inventors of the technology and one of the first French patent holders in the field, Jean-Claude André, to share his knowledge with us? This led to the idea of this 3-volume edition that I am pleased to present; a work that is both erudite and prospective, as its intention is to start at the genesis of the ideas that led to additive manufacturing to anticipate the impact and future of still “additive” technologies and, beyond this, to encourage reflection on the interactions between science and society of today and tomorrow.

If the first patents date back to 1984, an era where lasers, photo-materials and computer-aided design had already been mastered, was the idea of additive manufacturing completely disruptive as would be said today. What was creative was to put all of this knowledge together to come to something entirely new. Nevertheless, approval for the concept of additive manufacturing came rather quickly. It is on this basis that other additive methodologies, currently many of them with very specific niches, could be developed. These range from prototype and industrial parts to art, variable spatial scales – from the decameter to the nanometer –, from the inert to the living, from industrial organizations to very delocalized forms of manufacturing, etc.

On the basis of these works with varied applicative and societal spectrums, some of which are in the process of becoming stabilized, others to be invented, the principles of additive manufacturing can serve as an example, even as a “laboratory” to better understand how the interactions between research and society can (and must) develop, whether this is through new scientific concepts and the associated concepts of creativity, interdisciplinary scientific and technological operations, the popularization of public research, links with society in terms of the creation of new markets and jobs, and also forms of responsibility and ethics.

Throughout these three volumes, the author would like to invite you to reflect on the circuits between the applications that pose new scientific questions and prior research which opens the door to new applications or new products. The more we progress in the field of new niches, the more previously unasked scientific questions are considered, questions whose answers (if they exist) are supported and encouraged by public authorities and industry, which are gaining awareness of an immense industrial and/or medical market, as is the case for bio-printing. From dream to reality, scientists are often in the position to anticipate the length of the path; however, a dynamic is created. This leads to cultural changes and changes in practices, particularly concerning the importance of creativity, sharing enthusiasm for research, openness with others, the multiplying (and sometimes inhibiting) effect of public actors, on the one hand, and the economic world, on the other, as this work illustrates wonderfully.

This saga of additive manufacturing, told by one of its inventors, teaches us that creativity alone does not suffice; it is necessary to have a good dose of perseverance as well, and it is, of course, necessary to keep moving after the first failures. In addition, this shows us that sometimes the research structures and the environment are not entirely receptive to innovation, even when success comes relatively quickly.

Jean-Claude André also explains with great enthusiasm how we give shape to an idea to feed our intuition, which in turn increases creativity. On the whole, these three volumes provide a wealth of information on additive manufacturing, and additionally, they illustrate and encourage veritable reflection on the task of a researcher and research structures, as well as the role of creativity in research, and finally, they invite us to rethink and reinforce the relations between science and society.

Jean-Charles POMEROLPresident of the Incubateur AGORANOV and the ISTE Editions Scientific Committee

Preface

“We have too often forgotten that specialists are created from amateurs, just as soldiers are made from civilians”. [LAT 07]

“In France, strangely enough, it is not those used to sailing the seas, the specialists of the real and tangible, who are asked for advice guiding the flagship, but the members of a caste who stay at port and who, for the most part, have only purely theoretic knowledge of the sea”. [BEI 12]

“Technology has taken on a new breadth and organization. Here, I am searching for its specific structure, and I have noticed that it exists as a system, in other words, as an organized whole”. [ELL 04]

“Those in the organization who have ideas to do things otherwise or better are divided into two categories: those who do not dare and those who dare. Those who do not dare understand very well the risks and the importance of new ideas, but they are paralyzed by risk taking and the fear of displeasing. Having never tried anything, they have not known failure and are thus unharmed by reproach […], they are quitters. Those who dare, the innovators, move forward by challenging conventional ideas, organizations, and sometimes procedures. They stir up fears and a lack of understanding and are truly criticized…”. [PHI 12]

“Science has largely renounced an interdisciplinary vision allowing the merits of different results to be faced”. [THO 83]

“Theory is when everything is known and nothing works. Practice is when everything works and no one knows why. Here, we have united theory and practices: nothing works… and no one knows why!”. [EIN 07]

“These creatures of man [machines] are exacting. They are now reacting on their creators, making them like themselves. They want well-trained humans; they are gradually wiping out the differences between men, fitting them into their own orderly functioning, into the uniformity of their own regimes”. [VAL 57]

“Speaking of discipline is designating the scientific activity as a particular form of the division of labor in the social world”. [FAB 06]

“The imagination is brilliant in that it produces images that enlarge reality and really invent it”. [GUÉ 15]

“In cultural terms, no enterprise is built with dreams alone and none without. Action, if it is to be successful, is by necessity guided by practical circumstances. But the goal of any action is defined, implicitly or explicitly, by the deep nature of the human being, his dreams, his vision of life, his culture. The dynamics of life, the challenge of risk and uncertainty, today require from us a new creative effort leading to the reconstruction and to the re-conquest of the notion of progress, which the philosophies and the ideologies of certainty have shuttered almost to the point of destruction”. [GIA 90]

“Researching is inventing the world, it is setting new rules of functioning for an ephemeral world. Not like the tyrants who also invent a new world for themselves, but impose it upon others. The researcher does not recreate the world, but rather unravels it to make it. He/She imagines one, then compares it with the real world to clarify it and not to exhaust it. Researching is an endless quest”. [ROS 01]

Figure 1.From additive manufacturing to 3D/4D printing

This book (in three volumes) is the result of a demand that has been repeated countless times for different reasons, notably among these, of the oversight and the reminder of the oversight to cite a French school that in 1984 succeeded to patent the first additive manufacturing process, stereolithography, several weeks before the Americans (who were working on the same subject, without either party knowing it). However, at the same time, thirty or so years later, it is a history lesson that can be told about a process concept, tossed out in France, without any malice of course, by “clairvoyant hierarchists”, the explosion of the research team who felt their future was blocked and an American technical-economic development which has today led to several books and more than 50,000 scientific publications on additive manufacturing, because consequent applicative markets exist with profitable enterprises (and also because there is an immense attraction field around this subject that conditions the actions of a great number of researchers).

So why have we entitled these three volumes “From Additive Manufacturing to 3D/4D Printing”? First, it was about locally bringing material and/or energy to perform a transformation (e.g. from a powder to a solid or from a liquid to a solid). The expression “additive” then takes on its true meaning. But for a short time now, researchers have been developing (or working on) new processes that allow this change to be avoided through the additions mentioned at the start of this paragraph. It thus becomes possible to create an object in one go. Moreover, the use of so-called “smart” materials authorizes the introduction of a complementary parameter, i.e. time or functionality. The 4D aspect is thereby introduced.

The first volume on additive manufacturing is strongly linked to the existence of an effective economic market, one that is already significant, stemming from technological research in the engineering sciences connected to an essential component, that of materials (and of manipulating them to prepare them for manufacturing). It will take several decades for 3D technology to emerge and find its place as a robust technology for manufacturing objects in quite diverse domains. This situation, linked from the start to a strong attractiveness on the part of industrial R and R&D services, has allowed for “field” experimentation with competent users who are more and more demanding in terms of manufacturing qualities (without seeking in this preface to define what this quality, a true portmanteau, represents). Mastery by users, on the one hand, and competition between the bearers of knowledge pertaining to different 3D printing knowledge, on the other, are translated into new demands to be satisfied. In this framework, this demand has in fact made up one of the driving forces of incremental research, a “technology pull” described in Volume 2 (at least as much as is known (or published)).

A solution is good if and only if the concept, its demonstration with the right people, a culture of industrial innovation, and time and finances effectively come together. Maybe at that time, in 1984, there was a closed system of opinion and selfcentered management that had not even thought of a possible debate on futuristic technological openings. This conformity to a manufacturing follower style of thinking was more and more often considered to be obsolete. But there was also, beyond socio-economic milieus, an incredible viscosity with many scientists: the most common attitude was not openness to other explicative schemata, but in the majority of cases, the ignorance and/or refusal to accept their existence. Tricks that only imperfectly fit into our ethics as researchers (at the time) must be made and likely developed.

According to estimation methods, the revenue from additive manufacturing lies somewhere between 5 and 40 billion euros (we could think that this is an estimation of the number of protesters in a claim by the police or trade unions!). Some speak of a revolution and others imagine senseless promises (which, according to Audétat [AUD 15], could put every emerging sector in danger); in short, things are booming at present with seven main stabilized technologies and a new kind of governance (Jeremy Rifkin’s “makers”). This appreciative placement of the normalizers into categories is indeed rather artificial. Beyond a recent manufacturing technique that associates computer science and matter, 3D printing, with cheaper and cheaper home machines (down to a few hundred euros), constitutes a paradigm shift that impacts product design (which can even be defined, thanks to “open-source” systems), creation (from heavy industry to one’s “garage”), consumption and the business models that result from them (from market activity, a new handicraft and DIY (Do-It-Yourself) to counterfeiting).

In fact, the progression rates are always in the double figures (between 20 and 40% per year), which leads some to believe that the additive manufacturing processes will continue to evolve for a long time to become a widespread technology, as they increasingly occupy ever-new applicative niches, quashing the other manufacturing methods that made up the skeleton of 20th Century industrial manufacturing. But what do tens of billions of euros per year represent for the world relative to France’s “small” debt amounting to 2 trillion euros? It is therefore difficult to project a future which leads to a possible hegemony of additive manufacturing; besides, it would be more interesting to explore how intelligent synergies can be implemented with technology that emerged long before 1984. Yet, as is resurfaced in Volume 2, there are spaces, still relatively empty, where an attempt is made to challenge the very concept of adding material to processes.

The early 21st Century is marked by the “hegemonic” presence of the digital transition with the technological and practical complements of additive manufacturing processes likely to affect Western society in a quick and profound way. “In the face of radical innovation markets, where the first arrivers can acquire decisive, dominant positions and make the passage of other markets and the economic actors in place disappear, keeping a distance and watching things happen can lead to considerable social and economic costs” [FRA 17]. To go beyond this already uncertain space and become involved in disruptive innovations implies taking risks, thus accepting potential failure, facing their possible negative consequences, and being capable of learning all the lessons this teaches. “If we do not proactively incorporate innovation, this will end up being imposed all the same, in an even more disruptive manner” [FRA 17]. In short, it may be useful to anticipate.

In roughly a century, the number of researchers in Europe has gone from a few thousand to a few million, and despite some disturbances, this trend is continuing. Research activities have been the subject of reassuring discourse on the researcher’s independence, on the one hand, and on the other, of a certain programming of research with the aim of achieving goals: security (before the fall of the “Iron Curtain”, for example) and economic developments (from mass production with ECSC projects to information and communication sciences and technologies) participating in different forms of competition from France and the European Union.

On this basis, the stereotypical image of the scientist, responsible for the truth and good, is still part of the idealized image, which often positions him/her very highly in relation to a social reality of which he/she only has an imperfect mastery. The will to achieve the best “research efficiency” has led to the promotion of rather mono-disciplinary processes that are easier to manage from “peers”, referents of a discipline. On the one hand, in-depth scientific study is maintained by actors from the same field provided that the guarantee of excellence is defined and respected; on the other, for the State, it is easier to realize international comparisons discipline after discipline. Indeed, and this is necessary to remember, without really noticing it, we have gone from a limited worldwide scientific elite to mass research (with tens of thousands of scientific journals) which represents a characteristic that is not discussed by developed nations: research must indeed allow society to respond to the great challenges that loom today: employment, progress, security, global warming, health and quality of life, sustainable development, etc.

Without seeking to speak of two worlds exploring different paradigms, one of in-depth study, the other of responding to social demand (even its anticipation), for this aim would be too limited, rather we look at evolutions translated by a research program that takes account of the different and sometimes antagonistic imperatives (see Volumes 2 and 3). This situation actually shows, at least in part, that the researcher is an element of society who is not independent, even if forms of “grand isolation” have long protected him. But, in the European Charter for Researchers signed by France at the CNRS (National Center for Scientific Research) in 2005, a reminder is given that “Researchers should focus their research for the good of mankind and to expand the frontiers of scientific knowledge, while enjoying the freedom of thought and expression, and the freedom to identify methods by which problems are solved, according to recognised ethical principles and practices.”

Without this having been noticed by most of the research actors financed by the State, even if the notion of good is not easily defined (in any case, it does not simply mean the absence of evil), this sentence is a reminder of the role of research centers as a social (or societal) actor, implying new approaches like functioning through interdisciplinary projects and strategic reflections negotiated by stakeholders, stemming from a new prospective work. Considering their importance for the development of citizens’ quality of life, research associated with technology is an element that is really starting to be discussed. Indeed, it has participated in the “natural” evolution of things and technological progress has long allowed man to be free from a number of material constraints. In this framework, the rhythm of implementing research results has been greatly modified and complicated, thanks to a more and more frequent coming-and-going between “manufacturing” and research, and thanks to a hybridization of technologies as well as, to a lesser extent, modes of research action (added value from the ability to interact). To work in the new economy of knowledge with greater partnership, there is a need for better reflection on creativity, innovation, and the societal impact of scientific and technological activities. So then, in today’s context of growing co-constructed and contractual research actions, must/can we break away from the “researcher’s temptation of innocence”, of the consoling illusion of “neutral” science, or of the simple transfer of responsibility to the deciders/financers? It will be understood that these are somewhat the stakes of the current evolutions/revolutions applicable to additive manufacturing, and particularly to its future.

With the concept of informed matter, there must be a possibility to modify the shape of objects in time (4D printing), to print living matter (bio-printing), etc. It is thus conceivable to come closer to life by flirting with its possible prolongation! This questioning, like 3D printing pushed to its limits (nanomanufacturing, micro-fluidics, electronics and robotics) associated with other domains, does not correspond to an economic market present today, but instead, if researchers, breaking with the traditions of incremental innovation, succeed (thanks to a bit of creativity and epistemic exploration), immense markets (relative to the “modest” market today amounting to 10 billion euros per year) should open up. The illustrative example of bio-printing which could correspond to a market worth several hundred billion euros per year is a great demonstration of the stakes linked to research concerning initial findings, presented in Volume 3.

If it is necessary to put some of this enthusiasm into perspective, the “classic” additive manufacturing technologies, which have already successfully demonstrated their numerous capacities of industrial development, offer application fields, some of which are very recent and possible, thanks, in particular, to disciplinary research, enabling existing manufacturing processes to be improved. This concentration on a clearly identified objective, process–material optimization, has limited more creative research leading to weaker programming and support for “divergent” researchers, whose numbers, for various reasons, are rather limited in the world of research. Nevertheless, these new applications called 4D printing, bio-printing, 5D printing, etc. result from more complex interdisciplinary activities that, if they succeed, could open markets, no longer in the 4-digit range (billions of euros around the world), but in all likelihood in the 5- or 6-digit range!

There are thus (at least) two types of challenge in additive manufacturing, one is the realization of 3D pieces which contribute a (the most) crucial input relative to the more traditional manufacturing techniques (prototyping, foundry, soldering, etc.) and the other is more prospective on openings in new fields with renewed approaches (and with the associated difficulties). For this reason, with the publisher (ISTE), there was a wish to present the 3D domain in three parts, one with validated scientific and technological bases (certainly with potential redundancies relative to other works on this subject) and the others based on a field of possibilities that offers new epistemological questions, terrible risk-taking, but considerable stakes.

In the first three volumes, it was actually about writing two open “scenarios” that were slowly constructed within a framework, but without a very strict preliminary plan, the scenarios in which the elements were to be introduced and discussed would be spread in an a priori graded manner. Each chapter has some degree of autonomy, which can be translated by possible repetitions (as few as possible, however), with a “history” that is progressively fed thanks to the in-depth reading of hundreds (thousands?) of publications, numerous times meandering through and delving into beautiful ideas and scientific meetings for debates, sometimes with success. The gray literature has been a vital source for what is happening in the field at times, which explains the numerous references to the websites in some chapters.

In Volumes 1 and 2, the reader is sensitively placed within the “summary table of disciplines” published in 1829 by Auguste Comte with an “institutional” organization for scientific disciplines, enabling incremental research and development in additive manufacturing. In Volume 3, the idea is to place the reader in a less programmable mode of functioning, with a recursive, systematic and self-organizing character of knowledge, a better willfulness in processes, which sets it apart from the first two, yet it is nevertheless complementary (because it is still constructed using what is known). However, a bit of naivety and/or ignorance may allow for progress to be made in the domain by tackling new paths of creation from a small amount of scientific and technical knowledge in a less “professional” manner, but full of enthusiasm towards a new world to be explored.

An intentional artifact (linked to the engineer and/or designer’s work) may be considered a means of connecting an “internal” environment, the substance, the functioning, and the organization of the artifact itself and an external environment, the surroundings in which it is implemented. If the two environments are compatible, the artifact responds to the specifications. As underlined by H.A. Simon [SIM 04] in another framework, the knowledge of an artifact as an additive manufacturing machine “benefits from an advantage on the knowledge of nature, for it is based on valid, previous foundations whose ends will be perverted with a certain dose of new willingness to give projects intelligibility and openings on society.” This notion can also be found within the facts in the three works, but with different interdisciplinary openings.

In Volume 3, for the researcher who studies the behaviors associated with the intrusion of temporal aspects and functionality in additive manufacturing, the systems operate for sufficiently long, entirely determined times. But, like “self-organization” phenomena, they can become very off-balance and sensitive to factors considered to be negligible near equilibrium. This is the intrinsic activity of the increasingly complex system, with an increasingly nonlinear behavior, which determines how it is possible to describe its relationship to the environment, which thus generates the type of intelligibility that will be pertinent to understand its possible stories. It is thus not only a matter of an applicative field with its constraints, but also of a theoretical domain to be approached and interrogated in order to resolve the end/means equation in a robust way so as to achieve it.

It will be understood that the epistemological foundations of the reflections in Volume 3 are based on the complexity paradigm, where interdisciplinarity is projected as one of the means of study. The disciplinary approach is too often divided, fragmentary and linear, hence a master idea aiming to know how to percolate through disciplinary borders so that the complexity paradigm can truly spread, notably because the recomposition of thought categories can no longer be based on borders and disciplinary subjects, but on boundary subjects based on the creative, the divergent, who, having no fear of recursiveness, hope to legitimately respond to the great risks society must face.

This change in delivering research for a more systematic approach does not hope to be the indicator of a field of scientific disciplines that, hoping to keep its power, loses its authority, even if current societal issues still cannot handle constructive forms of subordination well. It aims for a real, responsible integration of activities open towards society, bearers of meaning, allowing new research in additive manufacturing to be made to emerge as credible scientific evidence of movements that are materializing.

The evocation of different attractors of disruptive innovation in 3D manufacturing is the focus of Volume 3, in addition to its scientific and technical aspects. The author uses his experiences in this volume to recreate a bit of the history of new additive manufacturing processes, which could, in case of success, invade our daily lives in some years. It is in the spirit of creating a history, and interiorizing it by trying with the time and means available to re-establish them with a personal vision, with the risk of committing mistakes, of having failed with a promising idea. But this is the price to pay.

In the three volumes on the subject of additive manufacturing, it is shown that in relation to almost every problem, there is in fact a creative avant-garde with low inertia: this is carried out by groups of divergent researchers working in practice on the problem at hand. Then there are all the followers, who will structure the “paradigm” and engage it only in forms of conservatism authorizing research to improve processes or materials (“programmable” research). It will take years, even decades, for this paradigm to change positions – often with shoves (linked to the work of the creative by following information provided by the avant-garde). “Paths must be transformed into roads, the ground leveled, etc., so that the landscape will transform significantly until it becomes the main group’s parking place” was written by L. Fleck in 1935. Could this context, in terms of research, be adapted to economic development? These characteristics of considering time, and its management, are the elements to be taken into consideration in a process of spatial and temporal transformation of matter that displays significant advantages.

Thus, beyond scientific aspects, indispensible techniques will be discussed to examine how the edifice of additive manufacturing was and is being built through its cultural filters and filters of understanding and interpretation. Anticipating the future of the field of additive manufacturing in the larger sense, to be in a position to prepare ourselves, is considered one of the keys for the long-term durability and competition of companies. This imperative to think of the future, to add to this divergent thought to create new devices for creating objects with the adapted material, devices that are functional, adaptive, “smart”, etc., today seems even more significant considering the instability of the environment, the speed of evolution and the generalization of uncertainty. In such a context, research locations must be “offerers” of concepts, of their demonstration to anticipate the productive industrial future, not to mention the technological, economic and governance systems in which, on shorter and shorter reference times, companies evolve (undergoing nonlinear dynamics, splits and breaks). This mission is not only meant for individual researchers, but also for everything around them: research units, their administration and also (and above all else) the proactivity of economic milieus.

In terms of tomorrow and the future, can we not foresee new means of creating objects? At present, we have mastered synthesis, the way in which the objects are constructed. But we could also ask ourselves if it wouldn’t be possible to develop systems in which we could give objects an intentionality, thus giving it the choice to look for itself for what changes it needs to make, thus moving onto self-organization with the selection of necessary elements that it would extract from a “bank” for the edification of the final object. This would go beyond the 4D printing that tackles the functional and evolutionary assembly of materials that should be able to come together to create an upgradeable object and that could be made easier through “programmable matter”: “Programmable materials and objects that are themselves created would thus make assembly factors and heavy installation procedures superfluous… Robotization, the heart of progress in 20th Century productivity, could thus be integrated into the products themselves, with, as can be imagined, some ethical problems to be taken into consideration” [FRA 17]. Let us thus dream together of this future. The process attempted in these volumes therefore aims to try to question a present (it is impossible to know if this present will likely be able to achieve all its goals) and to determine the conceptual elements that could lead to an original future with access to new applicative niches by exploiting revisited paradigms.

Beyond the exhaustion of the reserves and consequences, it is also the way in which we understand scientific policy to be carried out by taking into consideration different world actors that should evolve to stimulate this nascent domain. In the reflection these books are aiming to create in its readers, it will likely be a matter of proposing changes to be undergone, which correspond to the conceptual displacement of the economy allowed by technology towards a new economy of creativity making a better effort to consider social, economic, organizational, geopolitical, even emerging environmental constraints. It is a form of “design thinking” that is thus to be considered. A reflection on the processes to help the integration of societal data, far from its disciplinary culture, would probably also be projectable (if only on the organizational aspects). In the end, it would be a matter of demonstration, through changes negotiated with the responsible authorities (some of whom are mute), leading to better exploration of the complexity, which can be done well, if not better, maybe with less equipment, but otherwise in a context of social and/or socio-economic demand that it would be advantageous to anticipate, if not follow. The paradigm shift would then take place thanks to scientific initiatives, which are marginal today, which remain aporetic in the paradigm in crisis, and which should be muted in a new scientific era, less framed, applied to 3D printing.