Frontiers of Textile Materials E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
The book "Frontiers and Textile Materials will deal with the important materials that can be utilized for value-addition and functionalization of textile materials. The topics covered in this book includes the materials like enzymes, polymers, etc. that are utilized for conventional textile processing and the advanced materials like nanoparticles which are expected to change the horizons of textiles. The futuristic techniques for textile processing like plasma are also discussed.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020
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Table of Contents
Cover
Preface
1 Introduction to Textiles and Finishing Materials
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Polymers
1.3 Nanomaterials
1.4 Enzymes
1.5 Plasma and Radiations for Textiles
1.6 Flexible Electronics
References
2 Polymers for Textile Production
2.1 Polymers
2.2 History of Polymer
2.3 Classification of Polymers
2.4 Polymerization
2.5 Polymers in Textile Fibers
2.6 Polymers in Textile Processing
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 Advances in Polymer Coating for Functional Finishing of Textiles
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Polymer Coating Methods
3.3 New Technologies in Polymer Coatings
3.4 Coating Materials
3.5 New Functionalities of Polymer Coatings
3.6 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
4 Functional Finishing of Textiles with β-Cyclodextrin
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Properties of Cyclodextrins
4.3 Chemical Modification of Cyclodextrins
4.4 Methods for Attachment of β-CD on Textiles
4.5 Functional Properties Obtained by Attachment of β-CD on Textiles
4.6 Conclusion
References
5 Synthesis of Nanomaterials and Their Applications in Textile Industry
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Synthesis of Nanomaterials
5.3 Synthesis of Nano-Fiber Based Hydrogels (NFHGs)
5.4 Application of Nano Textiles
5.5 Conclusion
References
6 Modification of Textiles via Nanomaterials and Their Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Nanotextiles and Its Properties
6.3 Modification of Textiles via Nanoparticles
6.4 Applications
6.5 Conclusion
References
7 UV Protection via Nanomaterials
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Zinc Oxide Particle (ZnO) Physical Properties
7.3 UV Protective Applications
7.4 Applications as UV Absorber and Sunscreen
7.5 Nano-ZnO-TiO
2
Finishing
7.6 Evaluation of UV Protection Finishes
7.7 Conclusions
References
8 Synthesis, Characterization, and Application of Modified Textile Nanomaterials
8.1 Introduction of Textile Nanomaterials
8.2 Synthesis of Textiles Nanomaterials
8.3 Characterization
8.4 Application of Textiles Nanomaterials
8.5 Current Trends and Future Prospects
8.6 Conclusion
References
9 Biomaterials-Based Nanogenerator: Futuristic Solution for Integration Into Smart Textiles
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biomaterial-Based Piezoelectric Nanogenerator
9.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
10 Textiles in Solar Cell Applications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Basic Principle and Types of Solar Cells
10.3 Textiles in Solar Cells
10.4 Conclusion
References
11 Multifunctionalizations of Textile Materials Highlighted by Unconventional Dyeings
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Functionalization of Textile Materials: Functionalization Techniques
11.3 PAN: Functionalization/Multifunctionalization by Chemical Treatments
11.4 Multi-Functionalization of Acrylic Fiber by Grafting with Polyfunctional Agents
11.5 Polyethylene Terephthalate: Functionalization Ways
11.6 Cotton: Multifunctionalization Ways
11.7 Conclusions
References
12 Advanced Dyeing or Functional Finishing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mechanism of Dyeing by Phase Separation
12.3 Advanced Dyeing and Finishing Techniques
12.4 Applications of Ultrasonics in Textiles
12.5 Conclusions
References
13 Plasma and Other Irradiation Technologies Application in Textile
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Plasma Treatment of Textile
13.3 Optical Properties of Plasma
13.4 Improvement in Hydrophobic Attribute
13.5 Improvement in Liquid Absorbency and Coloration
13.6 Plasma Treatment of Protein Fiber
13.7 UV Irradiation
13.8 Laser Irradiation
13.9 Electron Beam Irradiation
13.10 Summary
References
14 Bio-Mordants in Conjunction With Sustainable Radiation Tools for Modification of Dyeing of Natural Fibers
14.1 Natural Dyes
14.2 Health and Environmental Aspects
14.3 Isolation Process
14.4 Role of US and MW in Isolation
14.5 Fabric Chemistry
14.6 Shade Development Process
14.7 Arjun
14.8 Neem
14.9 Coconut
14.10 Harmal
14.11 Recent Advances
Acknowledgments
References
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Properties of Kevlar and Nomex fibers [23].
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Different polymers for textile coating.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Antimicrobial agents and drugs used as β-CD inclusion complexes o...
Table 4.2 Applications of β-CD for improvement of dyeing and printing of te...
Table 4.3 β-CD grafted fibers and nanofibers used for wastewater treatment.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Antimicrobial activities of doped and un-doped samples.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Antimicrobial efficiency of Ag loaded cotton fabrics.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 New functional groups in PAN-M.
Table 11.2 Characteristics of acid dyes used for dyeing of functionalized...
Table 11.3 Characteristics of the reactive dyes used in the dyeing of fun...
Table 11.4 Functional groups in PET after functionalization with basic re...
Table 11.5 The values of lightness difference (dL*) for virgin/recycled P...
Table 11.6 Dyeing protocol.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Data for dyeing cotton with vat dye (shade 1%, M:L::1:8, hydrosu...
Table 12.2 Data for dyeing polyester with disperse dye (shade 1%, M:L::1:8,...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Comparison of conventional textile process with plasma process [...
Table 13.2 Water absorbency time in plasma treated samples for different ti...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Free radical polymerization.
Figure 2.2 Ionic polymerization.
Figure 2.3 Coordination polymerization.
Figure 2.4 Polycondensation polymerization.
Figure 2.5 Polyaddition polymerization.
Figure 2.6 Ring-opening polymerization.
Figure 2.7 Structure of cellulose polymer.
Figure 2.8 Structure of keratin.
Figure 2.9 Structure of fibroin.
Figure 2.10 Formation of polyethylene from ethylene monomer.
Figure 2.11 Branched-chain PE.
Figure 2.12 Straight chain PE.
Figure 2.13 Polymerization of polypropylene.
Figure 2.14 Isotactic PP.
Figure 2.15 Syndiotactic PP.
Figure 2.16 Atactic PP.
Figure 2.17 Polymerization of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).
Figure 2.18 Polymerization of vinyl chloride polymer.
Figure 2.19 Formation of vinyl chloride.
Figure 2.20 Formation of vinylidene chloride.
Figure 2.21 Preparation of Nomex fiber.
Figure 2.22 Preparation of Kevlar fiber.
Figure 2.23 Aliphatic polyester.
Figure 2.24 Aromatic polyester.
Figure 2.25 Formation of ethylene glycol.
Figure 2.26 Formation of dimethyl terephthalate.
Figure 2.27 Formation of PET polymer from terephthalic acid.
Figure 2.28 Formation of PET polymer from dimethyl terephthalate.
Figure 2.29 Molecular configuration of Spandex fiber.
Figure 2.30 Chemical structure of polyurethane fiber.
Figure 2.31 Polymerization of PVA.
Figure 2.32 Starch polymer chain.
Figure 2.33 Chemical structure of sodium alginate.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Dip coating and forces applied to the substrate during shrinkag...
Figure 3.2 Transfer coating (reprinted from E. Shim
et al.
[18] with permi...
Figure 3.3 Kiss roll coating (reprinted from A.K. Patra
et al.
2015 [19] ...
Figure 3.4 Gravure roll coating (reprinted from Vivek Subramanian
et al.
...
Figure 3.5 Slot die coating (reprinted from E. Shim
et al.
[2] with permis...
Figure 3.6 Powder coating
Figure 3.7 Different angle positions of the blade (reprinted from M. Joshi...
Figure 3.8 Examples of blade profiles (schematic) (reprinted from M. Joshi...
Figure 3.9 Knife over roll coating (reprinted from Åkerfeldt, M [17]).
Figure 3.10 Air knife coating knife over roll coating (reprinted from Meir...
Figure 3.11 Floating knife or knife over air (reprinted from M. Joshi
et a
...
Figure 3.12 Knife over blanket (reprinted from M. Joshi
et al.
[25] with p...
Figure 3.13 Knife over roll (reprinted from B. Roth
et al.
[22] with perm...
Figure 3.14 Principle of plasma processing (reprinted from Joshi, A. S.
e
...
Figure 3.15 Scheme of different coating strategies for textile substrates ...
Figure 3.16 Scheme of textile substrate functionalized by supercritical ca...
Figure 3.17 Schematic diagram of polymerization of vinyl chloride to produ...
Figure 3.18 Structural formula of acrylic monomers (reprinted from Sastri,...
Figure 3.19 Structural formula of urethane.
Figure 3.20 Fabrication of the e-textiles and e-fabric (reprinted from Son...
Figure 3.21 Water-solvent synthesis of AMHMPA by two steps and the prepara...
Figure 3.22 Schematic illustration of the fabrication of superhydrophobic ...
Figure 3.23 Sketch of the preparation of superhydrophobic PES fabrics incl...
Figure 3.24 Schematic of the synthesis route for the antibacterial and bac...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Chemical structures of cyclodextrins.
Figure 4.2 Representation of a β-cyclodextrin molecule [2].
Figure 4.3 Schematic representation of different types of inclusion comple...
Figure 4.4 Chemical structures of monochlorotriazinyl-β-CD (1), and acryla...
Figure 4.5 Mechanism of attachment of CD to cellulose using epichlorohydri...
Figure 4.6 Schematic representation of Wool-BTCA-CD reaction [26].
Figure 4.7 Mechanism of crosslinking of CD to cotton in the presence of BT...
Figure 4.8 Synhtesis and application of polyaminocarboxylic acid for attach...
Figure 4.9 Crosslinking of β-CD on cotton using DMDHEU [47].
Figure 4.10 Attachment of β-CD to PP fiber using plasma treatment and HDI ...
Figure 4.11 Possible reactions between cellulose, β-CD, and glyoxal [50]....
Figure 4.12 Procedure of the reaction between cyanuric chloride and β-cycl...
Figure 4.13 Fixation process of MCT-β-CD on cotton [9, 55].
Figure 4.14 Chemical structure of Invasan RCD [59].
Figure 4.15 Grafting of MCT-β-CD on wool fiber [61].
Figure 4.16 Schematic illustration of the grafting of β-CD onto wool fiber...
Figure 4.17 Mechanism of grafting Tetradecakis-(2,6-O-allyl)-β-CD on cotto...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Synthetic scheme for the preparation of chitosan derivatives (w...
Figure 5.2 Schematic representation for the synthesis of PEG capped silver...
Figure 5.3 SEM micrograph of PEG-Tx capped AgNPs at concentrations of (a) ...
Figure 5.4 Schematic diagram of the surface-modified TiO
2
–AgNPs (with perm...
Figure 5.5 Schematic representation of photo-catalytic activities of polye...
Figure 5.6 Schematic diagram for (a) the modification processes, and (b) t...
Figure 5.7 SEM images of fiber mats of PVA/Cs/CsIA after electrospinning f...
Figure 5.8 SEM images of fiber mats of PVA/Cs/TCs after electrospinning fr...
Figure 5.9 Antibacterial activity bulk chitosan (a), bulk chitosan treated...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Various properties of nanotextiles.
Figure 6.2 Conventional method of preparing nanofibers with nanoparticles....
Figure 6.3 Antibacterial efficiency of different fabric samples against
St
...
Figure 6.4 Mechanism of coating silver on bamboo pulp fibers modified with...
Figure 6.5 Nano cross-linking of wool protein chains with nano ZnO. Reprin...
Figure 6.6 SEM images of (a) untreated wool fabric and (b, c, d) wool fabr...
Figure 6.7 Flow chart showing the experimental procedures for study of ant...
Figure 6.8 Advantages of nanosono-synthesis on textiles. Reprinted with pe...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 TiO
2
based sunscreen for skin [13].
Figure 7.2 Mechanism of UV protection by TiO
2
nanoparticle coated textiles...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Schematic of electro-spinning.
Figure 8.2 (a) Schematic diagram of transmission electron microscopy (b) T...
Figure 8.3 (a) Schematic diagram of atomic force microscopy. (b) nanofiber...
Figure 8.4 Schematic diagram of scanning electron microscopy. (a) Electros...
Figure 8.5 Schematic diagram of scanning tunneling microscopy and highly o...
Figure 8.6 (a) UV-Vis spectroscopy of silver nanoparticles of different sh...
Figure 8.7 Schematic diagram of Raman spectroscopy and Shift in the Raman ...
Figure 8.8 Schematic diagram of energy dispersive spectroscopy and SEM ima...
Figure 8.9 Schematic view of XPS. (a) Positively charged woven cotton fabr...
Figure 8.10 (a) Schematic diagram of particle size analyzer. (b) Size dist...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 (A) Output (a) voltage, (b) voltage and power corresponding to ...
Figure 9.2 Schematic of fabrication of ESMBPNG from ESM [28].
Figure 9.3 (a, b) Resultant volt in both direct and converse circuits. (c)...
Figure 9.4 Output voltage generated from (a) blowing air through mouth and...
Figure 9.5 (a) Cross-section wise picture of the silk film (1) kept in bet...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Schematic of fiber shaped perovskite solar cells (a), SEM imag...
Figure 10.2 Photovoltaic performance of textiles based flexible perovskite...
Figure 10.3 Flexibility and stability of textiles based perovskite solar c...
Figure 10.4 SEM images of ZnO nano-obelisk grown on steel wire. Reproduced...
Figure 10.5 SEM image (a) of ZnO-obelisk and (b) digital image of textiles...
Figure 10.6 Photographs of CF (a), COP/PANI/CF (b), CVP/PANI/CF (c), and E...
Figure 10.7 Photovoltaic performance of textiles based dye sensitized sola...
Figure 10.8 Photograph of Ni (left), PPy/Ni (right) coated textile fabrics...
Figure 10.9 Photovoltaic performance of PPy/Ni coated fabric based dye sen...
Figure 10.10 Schematic of e-textiles based dye sensitized solar cell (a), ...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Chemical structure of polyacrylonitrile fiber (PAN-M) syntheti...
Figure 11.2 Conversion of CN groups in new functional groups.
Figure 11.3 FTIR spectra for control sample (1), PAN-M functionalized with...
Figure 11.4 FTIR spectra for control sample (1), PAN-M functionalized with...
Figure 11.5 FTIR spectra for control sample (1), PAN-M functionalized with...
Figure 11.6 FTIR spectra for control sample (1), PAN-M functionalized with...
Figure 11.7 Scheme for the protonation of functionalized PAN-M and for dye...
Figure 11.8 The chemical structure of the two polyfunctional agents: chito...
Figure 11.9 Scheme of PAN-M multifunctionalized with chitosan.
Figure 11.10 Spectra FTIR for recycled PET (a) and virgin PET (b) without ...
Figure 11.11 Chemical structures of dyes used for functionalized PET dyein...
Figure 11.12 The chemical structures of the polyols.
Figure 11.13 SEM images of PVA grafted on PET.
Figure 11.14 Results of different analyses: XRD (a), TGA (b), DSC (c), and...
Figure 11.15 Scheme of grafting MCT-β-CD on PET.
Figure 11.16 Scheme of PET multifunctionation by plasma pretreatment follo...
Figure 11.17 Morphological aspects of multifunctionalized samples by plasm...
Figure 11.18 Chemical structure of C.I. Acid Blue 220 dye.
Figure 11.19 K/S values for PET 100% (a) and PET/cotton (50/50%) (b) graft...
Figure 11.20 FTIR spectra for multifunctionalized cotton sample.
Figure 11.21 K/S values for cotton grafted with Tetronic 701 + chitosan + ...
Figure 11.22 Diagram of the trialkyl chitosan production by reductive meth...
Figure 11.23 Diagram of the trimethyl chitosan production by direct alkyla...
Figure 11.24 Diagram of the triethyl chitosan production by direct alkylat...
Figure 11.25 Triethyl chitosan grafting on cellulose from cotton.
Figure 11.26 Chemical structures of dyes used in the dyeing of cotton graf...
Figure 11.27 K/S values after dyeing with C.I. Acid Red 88 (a) and C.I. Ba...
Figure 11.28 Scheme for cotton multifunctionalized with a tetrol and chito...
Figure 11.29 Cotton functionalization with a tetrol and MCT-β-CD.
Figure 11.30 Cotton multifunctionalization with Tetronic 701, chitosan, an...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 (a) Effect of dyeing temperature on the color strength of dyed...
Figure 12.2 (a) Effects of dyeing time on the color strength of dyed wool ...
Figure 12.3 Dye uptake of DB 56 in the presence and absence of the ultraso...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 OES spectrum of He plasma and intensity of He atomic line at 7...
Figure 13.2 OES spectrum of He/oxygen plasma and intensity of He line at 7...
Figure 13.3 Effect of plasma discharge voltage on emission intensity of (a...
Figure 13.4 Transformation of hydrophilic cotton to hydrophobic by plasma ...
Figure 13.5 Negative mass spectrum of untreated cotton (Color notation: Re...
Figure 13.6 Negative mass spectrum of fluorocarbon plasma treated cotton (...
Guide
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Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener ([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Frontiers of Textile Materials
Polymers, Nanomaterials, Enzymes, and Advanced Modification Techniques
Edited by
Mohd Shabbir, Shakeel Ahmed and Javed N. Sheikh
This edition first published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-62037-2
Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
Humans have been using textiles since prehistoric times. Although initially used only to protect the body from environmental changes, those with high scientific knowledge and awareness are now focusing on multidimensional applications of textiles. To meet the needs of modern mankind, various modifications have already been implemented on textiles, ranging from simple coloration to advanced energy applications, and researchers are continuously exploring new frontiers in this field. Advancing conventional techniques with green and sustainable products that replace the harmful compounds in textile processing and the quest for advanced materials for functionalization of textiles are currently very much underway. All these developments have motivated us to compile this reference book with the help of eminent authors from around the world with expertise in textiles-related research areas.
The 14 chapters of Frontiers of Textile Materials: Polymers, Nanomaterials, Enzymes, and Advanced Modification Techniques cover various research areas dealing with modification of textile materials. Following an introductory chapter on materials (polymers, nanomaterials, enzymes, etc.) for textile modification, the initial chapters are devoted to the construction and functional finishing of textile materials using polymers. The first few chapters explore nanomaterials for the textile industry, fabrication and characterization of nanomaterials, application on textiles and functionalities achieved on them. Two of the chapters focus on flexible electronics dealing with the incorporation of nanogenerators and solar cells into the matrix of textiles to design wearables. Further chapters discuss advanced dyeing and dyeing materials (biomordants, plasma and radiations) for sustainable and eco-friendly coloration.
This book contains informative chapters from authors specializing in fields encompassing materials, dyeing, functional finishing and flexible electronics. Thus, the editors hope that students, researchers and academicians of various fields, such as textiles chemistry and dyeing, chemical engineering, environmental science, and materials science, will find this book to be of great interest and useful in their curriculum. We expect this book will definitely be helpful in inspiring new ideas in textiles research, leading to interdisciplinary research collaborations.
At this time, we would like to thank those who have been supportive of this book in any way. We acknowledge the great efforts of the eminent authors without whom this book would have been unimaginable. We also appreciate the support of the publisher in showing interest in the compilation of such a reference book.
Mohd Shabbir
Shakeel Ahmed
Javed N Sheikh
January 2020
1Introduction to Textiles and Finishing Materials
Mohd Shabbir1* and Javed N. Sheikh2†
1Department of Chemistry, NIET, Greater Noida, UP, India
2Department of Textile Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India
Abstract
Textile is one of the basic needs of the human being, and the modern human being has a lot of choices for their clothing. Textiles have various characteristics depending on the fibers they are made from, such as wool, silk, cotton, viscose, nylon, polyester, etc. and the finishing applied on them via materials such as finishing chemicals, nanoparticles, polymers, enzymes, etc. Thus, so many materials are available which can be utilized in the development of functional and smart textiles. In the era of technology (miniaturization of this world), flexible electronics based on textiles are gaining momentum. The chapter presents the emerging materials in the field of textiles with a major focus on the functionalization of textiles. In the next chapters of this book, all these are reviewed in great detail.
Keywords: Textiles, viscose, polyester, polymers, nanomaterials
1.1 Introduction
The textile industry is of great importance to the economies of every country in terms of trade, employment, investment, and revenue. Simultaneously, the chemical processes associated with textile production generate a lot of waste, greenhouse gases, and consume a large amount of water [1]. Innovative research and developments are very much needed for the textile industry to minimize waste production and maximize clothing production simultaneously. A series of steps are involved from textiles manufacturing to finishing and dyeing, need the attention of textile chemists as well as environmentalists. Technological advancements for functional finishing have emerged in recent years. Textile materials from the natural origin such as cotton, wool, and silk are prone to microbes, so antimicrobial finishing technologies are developed via application of polymers, nanomaterials, and dyes [2, 3].
This chapter overviews the advanced structural and finishing materials for textiles. All textiles fibers are polymers e.g. silk and wool are proteins made up of polymeric chains of amino acids, cotton is made up of glucose monomeric units and synthetic fibers Nylon and polyesters are the synthetic polymers. Chitosan, sericin, and tannins are a few examples of natural polymers used for functional finishing of textiles. Nanomaterials are considered as both present and future of every technological advancement including textiles. Various conventional methods of finishing have been replaced with new and technologically advanced techniques. In the next chapters of this book, all these aspects of the textiles industry are reviewed in great detail.
1.2 Polymers
Textiles and polymers are the interconnected materials and all textiles fibers are polymers. Apart from this, polymers play an important role in textile processing and are utilized for various applications like sizing agents, thickeners for textile printing, finishing chemicals, coating chemicals, etc. As far as applications of polymers in finishing are concerned, they are widely utilized in various finishing treatments ranging from softening finish, stiffening finish, repellent finishes, antimicrobial finishes, flame retardant finishes, and abrasion-resistant finish. The conventional silicones are widely consumed polymers in textile finishing. Silicone softeners show various advantages over other types of softeners and the proper chemistry of silicones can be selected to fine-tune the properties of finished textile materials. Fluorochemicals supported on acrylic backbones are used for imparting water repellent finishing to textile materials. Starch, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl acetates are used for imparting stiffness.
With the development of technical textiles, the demand for functional textiles is increased which resulted in the development of functional finishes for textiles. The properties of polymers were tailor-made by selecting the suitable monomers and such polymers were utilized in the functional finishing of textiles. Textile coating and lamination have opened a new area of modification of textiles which has further enhanced the scope of polymers in textile finishing. The polymers like polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), acrylic polymers, silicones, fluoro-polymers, rubbers (both natural and synthetic) find applications in the functional coating of textiles. The resultant film of a coated polymer can also be suitably modified using the various layers of a coating or by addition of fillers. The coating has an added advantage of higher add-on of functional chemical on fabric which can show enhanced functionalities as compared to low add-on involved in the conventional padding-based finishing process.
The increase in awareness regarding health and hygiene and the requirement of protection against pathogenic microbes resulted in development of various polymers, which can act as antimicrobial finishes for textiles. Such polymers include natural polymers like chitosan, sericin and tannins, synthetic polymers like quaternized polymers, polymers with N-halamine moieties, biguanide-based polymers, and conjugated polymers such as polypyrrole and polyaniline.
Chitosan is an interesting functional biopolymer, which is widely researched for its applications in textile finishing. The various reports regarding application of chitosan and its derivatives in antimicrobial finishing, flame retardant finishing, and multifunctional finishing are available in the literature.
Smart textile and apparels are developed in recent times and led to the development of stimuli-sensitive polymers (SSPs), which show a reversible transformation from one state to another as a response to various stimuli from the environment [4]. The stimulus includes temperature, electric field, pH, light, pressure, sound, etc. Shape memory polymer is another important class of polymers, which can be integrated into textile substrates to obtain thermal and moisture control, self-adaptability of shape, shape retention, and smart wettability [5]. Even though smart polymers are available for textile applications, their integration/application in/on textiles is a big challenge. A continuous research in this area is expected to solve the technical issues in the application of such smart materials on textiles.
1.3 Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are defined as the materials of size in the range 1–100 nm. Nanomaterials are expected to have a higher efficiency than bulk materials owing to their larger surface area–mass ratio. Size and shape are the primary characteristics of nanomaterials responsible for the efficacies of the functional properties imparted by them. Designing of nanomaterials is widely studied under nanotechnology. The way of synthesis or fabrication methods and the reducing or stabilizing agents determine the shape and size of nanomaterials which lead to their specific characteristics [6]. Today nanotechnology plays an important role in almost every aspect of life, having a wide range of applications such as biomedical, environmental, and textiles. The demand for high-quality textiles is highly increased nowadays with the rising population and developed clothing sense of human being, and the textile industry is highly pressurized to manufacture the best quality textiles [7]. Nanoscience and nanotechnology play an important role not only for textile functionalization but also for the remediation of textile effluent to keep water ecosystem clean. Both metal (Ag, Au, Cu, etc.) and metal oxide (ZnO, TiO2, etc.) nanomaterials had been explored toward textile functionalization in recent past. Some of these nanoparticles like silver, gold, zinc oxide, and titanium dioxide are widely studied for imparting antimicrobial, self-cleaning, hydrophobic, and UV protection abilities to textiles [8–10].
Various fabrication and application processes on textile materials have been developed to get optimum benefits from nanoparticles. Eco-friendly fabrication of nanoparticles was also reported via in situ synthesis and simultaneous application on textiles using various plant extracts as reducing and stabilizing agents. Fabrication methods, characterization of nanomaterials, and application on textiles are discussed in detail in the coming chapters of this book.
1.4 Enzymes
Textile chemical processing is water-intensive and generates large quantities of effluent, which necessitates the shifting to more eco-friendly enzymatic processes. Some of the enzymes are commercially exploited, which offers numerous advantages in textile chemical processes. Although some technical issues were witnessed for complete shifting to enzyme-based processes, the ongoing collaborative research in the field of biotechnology and textile processing might answer such issues. The ideologies of Green Chemistry [11] are truly followed by enzyme technology which being sustainable and hence can be a prudent choice.
In the quest of the development of eco-friendly chemicals and processes for chemical processing of textiles, the increased interest has been shown by the research community in the exploration of new products through industrial biotechnology [12–15]. This resulted in the replacement of harsh chemicals and the development of some new alternatives providing a reduction in manufacturing cost and ecological problems. Enzymes are widely utilized in textile chemical processing including pre-treatments for removal of impurities, denim finishing like bio-washing, and also in the treatment of the effluents arising from textile industries. The rate of enzymatic reactions is dependent on various factors including pH, temperature, concentrations of enzyme and substrate, and presence of any activators or inhibitors/retarder [16]. Enzymes are ideal for chemical reactions because of their specificity for the substrate as per the reaction [17].
Some of the dominant processes where enzymatic technology is already established are pre-treatments of denim, bio-washing of denim, desizing, scouring and bio-polishing of cotton. Denim is a popular textile substrate among the people of all age groups. The denim garments with faded–abraded look are widely demanded, which were traditionally produced using washing with pumice stones which can cause deterioration of treated garment along with the machine damages [18, 19]. Such issues can be solved by the use of a variety of cellulases, working at broad temperature ranges and pH, which can be used alone or in combination with other enzymes [20–22]. Two critical issues are associated with bio-washing of denim like degradation of cotton fiber in case of uncontrolled treatment and indigo back-staining/re-deposition on the uncolored back side of denim [23]. These issues can be solved by controlling the bio-washing to the surface and the selection of proper cellulase. The efficient after-wash using soap, soda, peroxide, and optical brightening agent is generally done to remove the back-staining [24].
Bio-polishing is another important finishing process, which reduces hairiness by removing the protruding micro hairs of cotton and pilling of cellulose fabric leading to velvety, slicker feel, and brighter color [25]. This can also be achieved by using cellulase, which can hydrolyze cellulosic micro-fibrils [22, 26–29]. Agitation is an important factor, which facilitates the cellulolytic attack, which necessitates the use of textile machineries capable of producing agitation, like jet dyeing machines [26, 27, 30, 31]. Both bio-washing and bio-polishing involve two important aspects, viz. removal of fibrils and their suspension in aqueous treatment media thus preventing redeposition on the fabric. The accurate control of parameters, suitable agitation, the use of suitable dispersing agents/anti-redeposition agents based on polyvinylpyrrolidone and acrylates are therefore necessary to prevent redeposition of fuzz on fabric and achieve efficient bio-polishing.
Apart from the actual application of enzymes in finishing, several enzymes like amylase, pectinase, catalase, and glucose oxidase are used in preparatory processes. Even though these are not directly used in finishing, these are used to remove impurities from the fabric, which also affects the efficiency of further coloration and finishing processes.
The functional finishing of textiles is an upcoming area where enzymes can be explored. Laccase-mediated grafting of polyphenols on textile fibers for functionalization is reported widely in the literature. Immobilization of enzymes, use of advanced techniques like ultrasound, and combined textile processes using a mixture of enzymes are the latest developments in the area of enzymatic textile processing.
1.5 Plasma and Radiations for Textiles
Plasma is considered to be the fourth state of matter and can be utilized for activation, cleaning, surface deposition and functionalization of textiles. Applications of radiations are widely researched for the performance enhancement of various processes used in textile processing. Natural dyeing of textiles goes through various steps from the extraction of dyes to the application on textile materials. The first step starts from extraction, which is of high importance in term of getting the higher quantity of dyeing compounds in the extracts which ultimately affects the color strength of dyed textiles. Dyers usually go for aqueous extraction, which needs higher time and energy. Researchers nowadays are focusing to find efficient and innovative techniques to obtain natural dye compounds, which could provide better yield, minimize extraction time and solvent consumption [32]. Microwave-assisted and ultrasound-assisted extraction techniques already have been utilized and proved to be highly efficient. Microwave energy is considered more efficient for heating as it provides uniform heating in a reaction mixture unlike the ordinary methods of heating. It enables the heating of all particles at the same time with its easy penetration property into the particles of the matter and thus the solution is regularly heated to quickly attain the high temperature [33]. Microwave-assisted extraction was carried on Eucalyptus robusta leaves to get an optimal yield of total phenolic compounds and results were in accordance to prove it as a good eco-friendly alternative to conventional extraction [34]. Response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN) modelling were applied in association with microwave-assisted extraction of dyeing compounds from pomegranate rind and application of microwave irradiation method proved to be a rapid and improved technique for dye extraction with improved yield and significantly reduced extraction time [35]. Plasma and radiations further have been utilized for improving dye absorptivity, disinfestation and imparting other functionalities on textiles [36–39]. Drábková et al. [40] studied the influence of gamma radiations for disinfestation of paper and textiles (silk and cotton), but their results suggested some structural changes in cellulosic and proteinaceous materials due to the treatment. Fabrics of polyester and polyamide were treated with atmospheric pressure plasma to successfully improve the wettability of fabrics after plasma treatment, while dryability was not improved significantly [41]. Samanta et al. [42] improved water and oil absorbency of textile substrates by treating them with atmospheric pressure cold plasma. Several studies were discussed about non-thermal plasma treatment of textiles for various functional characteristics by Morent et al. [43].
1.6 Flexible Electronics
Miniaturization of things is leading to the development of countless tiny devices in our daily life use. Textiles can be a matrix to install them on clothing to function for various application areas from fashion and functional clothing to healthcare and interior design. Conducting yarns and fibers are very much popular in today’s research for integrating electronic devices in textiles. Materials such as conjugated polymers (e.g., polypyrrole (PPy), polyaniline (PANI), and poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)), carbon nanotubes, graphene, etc., have been explored for this purpose of making the smart textiles. A lot of research has been focused for the envisaged functionalities, such as sensing, data processing and storage, as well as energy harvesting, e.g., by using the piezoelectric, thermoelectric, triboelectric, or photovoltaic effect and a lot to be explored in future. Processing and development of conducting yarns and textiles are well discussed in a review paper by Lund et al. [44]. In one of the studies, cotton was turned into conducting textiles with high porosity and excellent toughness by coating metal oxide on the cotton and subsequent pyrolysis [45]. Various formulations and inks have also been developed to make conducting fibers. Islam et al. [46] reported a simple, low cost, and highly scalable fabrication method of functional Carbon Black ink from dry charcoal, and it was then coated on cotton by pad–dry–cure method to get durable electrically and thermally conductive cotton E-textiles. In another study, a dense and thin layer of polypyrrole (PPy) was deposited onto the fabric surface by an improved in situ polymerization method. Some woven and knitted fabrics were then transformed into conductive electrodes of high electrical conductivity without compromising their breathability, flexibility, and comfortability [47]. Ye et al. [48] reported a scalable dip-coating strategy to construct conductive silk fibers (CSFs). Natural silk fibers were coated by a tailor-made carbon nanotube (CNT) paint without destroying the internal structure of the fibers. The CSFs developed possess characteristics such as high mechanical performance, super-hydrophobicity, solvent resistance, and thermal sensitivity. Polyurethane-coated Ni–Ti alloy fiber-based pressure sensors were fabricated for real-time sitting posture correction and tested for durability aspects in terms of washing and sit-down numbers [49].
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