Fuel Cell Systems Explained E-Book

Andrew L. Dicks

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 941

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

Since publication of the first edition of Fuel Cell Systems Explained, three compelling drivers have supported the continuing development of fuel cell technology. These are: the need to maintain energy security in an energy-hungry world, the desire to move towards zero-emission vehicles and power plants, and the mitigation of climate change by lowering of CO₂ emissions. New fuel cell materials, enhanced stack performance and increased lifetimes are leading to the emergence of the first truly commercial systems in applications that range from fork-lift trucks to power sources for mobile phone towers. Leading vehicle manufacturers have embraced the use of electric drive-trains and now see hydrogen fuel cells complementing advanced battery technology in zero-emission vehicles. After many decades of laboratory development, a global but fragile fuel cell industry is bringing the first commercial products to market. 

This thoroughly revised edition includes several new sections devoted to, for example, fuel cell characterisation, improved materials for low-temperature hydrogen and liquid-fuelled systems, and real-world technology implementation.  

Assuming no prior knowledge of fuel cell technology, the third edition comprehensively brings together all of the key topics encompassed in this diverse field. Practitioners, researchers and students in electrical, power, chemical and automotive engineering will continue to benefit from this essential guide to the principles, design and implementation of fuel cell systems.

Leseprobe

Fuel Cell Systems Explained

Third Edition

Andrew L. Dicks

Griffith UniversityBrisbane, Australia

David A. J. Rand

CSIRO EnergyMelbourne, Australia

This edition first published 2018© 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Edition HistoryJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd (1e, 2000); John Wiley & Sons Ltd (2e, 2003)

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The right of Andrew L. Dicks and David A. J. Rand to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Dicks, Andrew L., author. | Rand, David A. J., 1942– author.Title: Fuel cell systems explained / Andrew L. Dicks, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia, David A. J. Rand, CSIRO Energy, Melbourne, Australia.Description: Third edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index. |Identifiers: LCCN 2017054489 (print) | LCCN 2017058097 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118706978 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118706961 (epub) | ISBN 9781118613528 (cloth)Subjects: LCSH: Fuel cells.Classification: LCC TK2931 (ebook) | LCC TK2931 .L37 2017 (print) | DDC 621.31/2429–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017054489

Cover design by WileyCover images: Top Image: © Iain Masterton/Alamy Stock Photo; Bottom Image: Courtesy of FuelCell Energy, Inc.

Brief Biographies

Andrew L. Dicks

Andrew L. Dicks, PhD, CChem, FRSC, was educated in England and graduated from Loughborough University before starting a career in the corporate laboratories of the UK gas industry. His first research projects focused on heterogeneous catalysts in gas‐making processes, for which he was awarded a doctorate in 1981. In the mid‐1980s, BG appointed Andrew to lead a research effort on fuel cells that was directed predominantly towards molten carbonate and solid oxide systems. The team pioneered the application of process modelling to fuel‐cell systems, especially those that featured internal reforming. This work, which was supported by the European Commission during the 1990s, involved collaboration with leading fuel‐cell developers throughout Europe and North America. In 1994, Andrew was jointly awarded the Sir Henry Jones (London) Medal of the Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers for his studies on high‐temperature systems. He also took an interest in proton‐exchange membrane fuel cells and became the chair of a project at the University of Victoria, British Columbia, in which Ballard Power Systems was the industrial partner. In 2001, he was awarded a Senior Research Fellowship at the University of Queensland, Australia, that enabled further pursuit of his interest in catalysis and the application of nanomaterials in fuel‐cell systems. Since moving to Australia, he has continued to promote hydrogen and fuel‐cell technology, as director of the CSIRO National Hydrogen Materials Alliance and as a director of the Australian Institute of Energy. He is now consulted on energy and clean technology issues by governments and funding agencies worldwide.

David A. J. Rand

David A. J. Rand, AM, BA, MA, PhD, ScD, FTSE, was educated at the University of Cambridge where, after graduation, he conducted research on low‐temperature fuel cells. In 1969, he joined the Australian government’s CSIRO laboratories in Melbourne. After further exploration of fuel‐cell mechanisms and then electrochemical studies of mineral beneficiation, he formed the CSIRO Novel Battery Technologies Group in the late 1970s and remained its leader until 2003. He was one of the six scientists who established the US‐based Advanced Lead–Acid Battery Consortium in 1992 and served as its manager in 1994. He is the co‐inventor of the UltraBatteryTM, which finds service in hybrid electric vehicle and renewable energy storage applications. As a chief research scientist, he fulfilled the role of CSIRO’s scientific advisor on hydrogen and renewable energy until his retirement in 2008. He remains active within the organisation as an Honorary Research Fellow and has served as the chief energy scientist of the World Solar Challenge since its inception in 1987. He was awarded the Faraday Medal by the Royal Society of Chemistry (United Kingdom) in 1991, the UNESCO Gaston Planté Medal by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in 1996 and the R.H. Stokes Medal by the Royal Australian Chemical Institute in 2006. He was elected a fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering in 1998 and became a member of the Order of Australia in 2013 for service to science and technological development in the field of energy storage.

Preface

Since publication of the first edition of Fuel Cell Systems Explained, three compelling drivers have supported the continuing development of fuel‐cell technology, namely:

The need to maintain energy security in an energy‐hungry world.

The desire to reduce urban air pollution from vehicles.

The mitigation of climate change by lowering anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide.

New materials for fuel cells, together with improvements in the performance and lifetimes of stacks, are underpinning the emergence of the first truly commercial systems in applications that range from forklift trucks to power sources for mobile phone towers. Leading vehicle manufacturers have embraced the use of electric drivetrains and now see hydrogen fuel cells complementing the new battery technologies that have also emerged over the past few years. After many decades of laboratory development, a global — but fragile — fuel‐cell industry is bringing the first products to market.

To assist those who are unfamiliar with fuel‐cell electrochemistry, Chapter 1 of this third edition has been expanded to include a more detailed account of the evolution of the fuel cell and its accompanying terminology. In the following chapters, extensive revision of the preceding publication has removed material that is no longer relevant to the understanding of modern fuel‐cell systems and has also introduced the latest research findings and technological advances. For example, there are now sections devoted to fuel‐cell characterization, new materials for low‐temperature hydrogen and liquid‐fuelled systems, and a review of system commercialization. Separate chapters on fuel processing and hydrogen storage have been introduced to emphasize how hydrogen may gain importance both in future transport systems and in providing the means for storing renewable energy.

The objective of each chapter is to encourage the reader to explore the subject in more depth. For this reason, references have been included as footnotes when it is necessary to substantiate or reinforce the text. To stimulate further interest, however, some recommended further reading may be given at the end of a chapter.

There are now several books and electronic resources available to engineers and scientists new to fuel‐cell systems. The third edition of Fuel Cell Systems Explained does not intend to compete with specialist texts that can easily be accessed via the Internet. Rather, it is expected that the book will continue to provide an introduction and overview for students and teachers at universities and technical schools and act as a primer for postgraduate researchers who have chosen to enter this field of technology. Indeed, it is hoped that all readers — be they practitioners, researchers and students in electrical, power, chemical and automotive engineering disciplines — will continue to benefit from this essential guide to the principles, design and implementation of fuel‐cell systems.

December 2017

Andrew L. Dicks, Brisbane, AustraliaDavid A. J. Rand, Melbourne, Australia

Acknowledgments

As emphasized throughout this publication, the research and development of fuel cells is highly interdisciplinary in that it encompasses many aspects of science and engineering. This fact is reflected in the number and diversity of companies and organizations that have willingly provided advice and information or given permission to use their images in the third edition of Fuel Cell Systems Explained. Accordingly, the authors are indebted to the following contributors:

Avantica plc (formerly BG Technology Ltd), UK

Ballard Power Systems Inc., USA

CNR ITAE, Italy

Coregas, Australia

Cygnus Atratus, UK

Daimler AG, Germany

Doosan Fuel Cell, USA

Eaton Corporation, USA

Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Germany

Fuel Cell Energy, USA

Horizon Fuel Cells, Singapore

Hydrogenics Corporation, Canada

Hyundai Motor Company, Australia Pty Ltd

Intelligent Energy, UK

International Fuel Cells, USA

ITM Power, UK

Johnsons Matthey plc, UK

Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Japan

Kyocera, Japan

NDC Power, USA

Osaka Gas, Japan

Proton Energy Systems, USA

Proton Motor Systems, GmbH, Germany

Redflow Ltd, Australia

Serenergy, Denmark

Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation, USA

In addition, the authors acknowledge the work of James Larminie, who instigated the first edition of this book, as well as the assistance of others engaged in the advancement of fuel cells, namely, John Appleby (Texas A&M University, USA), Nigel Brandon and David Hart (Imperial College, UK), John Andrews (RMIT University, Australia), Evan Gray (Griffith University, Australia), Ian Gregg (Consultant, Australia) and Chris Hodrien (University of Warwick, UK).

The authors also wish to express their thanks for the support and encouragement given by family, friends and colleagues during the course of this project.

Acronyms and Initialisms

ABPBI

phosphoric acid doped poly(2,5‐benzimidazole)

AC

alternating current

ADP

adenosine 5’‐triphosphate

AEM

alkaline‐electrolyte membrane

AEMFC

alkaline‐electrolyte membrane fuel cell

AES

air‐electrode supported

AFC

alkaline fuel cell

AMFC

anion‐exchange membrane fuel cell

ANL

Argonne National Laboratory

APEMFC

alkaline proton‐exchange membrane fuel cell

APU

auxiliary power unit

ASR

area specific resistance

BCN

Dutch Fuel Cell Corporation

BG

British Gas

BIMEVOX

bismuth metal vanadium oxide (Bi

4

V

2

O

11

)

BOP

balance‐of‐plant

BPS

Ballard Power Systems

BSF

Boudouard Safety Factor

CAN bus

Controller Area Network

CBM

coal‐bed methane

CCS

carbon capture and storage

CFCL

Ceramic Fuel Cells Ltd

CGO

cerium–gadolinium oxide (same as GDC)

CHP

combined heat and power

CLC

chemical looping combustion

CNR

Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (Italy)

CNT

carbon nanotube

CODH‐1

carbon monoxide dehydrogenase

CPE

constant phase element

CPO

catalytic partial oxidation

CRG

catalytic rich gas

CSG

coal‐seam gas

CSIRO

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

CSO

cerium‐samarium oxide (same as SDC)

CSZ

calcia‐stabilized zirconia

CV

cyclic voltammetry

CVD

chemical vapour deposition

DBFC

direct borohydride fuel cell

DC

direct current

DCFC

direct carbon fuel cell

DEFC

direct ethanol fuel cell

DEGFC

direct ethylene glycol fuel cell

DFAFC

direct formic acid fuel cell (also formic acid fuel cell, FAFC)

DFT

density functional theory

DG

distributed generator

DIR

direct internal reforming

DIVRR

directly irradiated, volumetric receiver–reactor

DLFC

direct liquid fuel cell

DMFC

direct methanol fuel cell

DOE

Department of Energy (United States)

DPFC

direct propanol fuel cell

DPFC(2)

direct propan‐2‐ol fuel cell

DSSC

dye‐sensitized solar cell

EC

evaporatively cooled

ECN

Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands

EFOY

Energy for You

EIS

electrochemical impedance spectroscopy

EPFL

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology

EU

European Union

EVD

electrochemical vapour deposition

EW

membrane equivalent weight

FCE

Fuel Cell Energy Inc.

FCES

Fuel Cell Energy Solutions GmbH

FCV

fuel cell vehicle

FRA

frequency response analyser

FT

Fischer–Tropsch

GDC

gadolinium‐doped ceria/gadolinia‐doped ceria (same as CGO)

GDL

gas‐diffusion layer

GE

General Electric

GHG

greenhouse gas

GM

General Motors

GPS

Global Positioning System

GTL

gas‐to‐liquid

GTO

gate turn‐off (thyristor)

HAZID

hazard identification

HAZOP

hazard and operability study

HCNG

hydrogen‐compressed natural gas

HDS

hydrodesulfurization

HEMFC

hydroxide‐exchange polymer membrane fuel cell

HEV

hybrid electric vehicle

HHV

higher heating value

HOR

hydrogen oxidation reaction

HPE

high‐pressure proton‐exchange membrane electrolyser

IBFC

indirect borohydride fuel cell

ICE

internal combustion engine

ICEV

internal combustion engine vehicle

IFC

International Fuel Cells

IGBT

insulated‐gate bipolar transistor

IHI

Ishikawajima‐Harima Heavy Industries Co., Ltd

IHP

inner Helmholtz plane

IIR

indirect internal reforming (also known as ‘integrated reforming’)

ITM

ion transport membrane, also refers to company ITM Power

IT‐SOFC

intermediate‐temperature solid oxide fuel cell

IUPAC

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

KEPCO

Korea Electric Power Corporation

KIST

Korea Institute of Science and Technology

LAMOX

lanthanum molybdate (La

2

Mo

2

O

9

)

LCA

life‐cycle assessment (also known as ‘life‐cycle analysis’ and ‘cradle‐to‐grave analysis’)

LCOE

levelized cost of electricity

LH

2

liquid hydrogen

LHV

lower heating value

LNG

liquefied natural gas

LPG

liquefied petroleum gas

LSCF

lanthanum strontium cobaltite ferrite

LSCV

strontium‐doped lanthanum vanadate

LSGM

lanthanum gallate (LaSrGaMgO

3

)

LSM

strontium‐doped lanthanum manganite

LT‐SOFC

low‐temperature solid oxide fuel cell

MCFC

molten carbonate fuel cell

MCR

microchannel reactor

MEA

membrane–electrode assembly

MEMS

microelectromechanical systems

METI

Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (Japan)

MFC

microbial fuel cell

MFF

mass flow factor

MHPS

Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems

MIEC

mixed ionic–electronic conductor (oxides)

MOF

metal–organic framework

MOSFET

metal‐oxide‐semiconductor field‐effect transistor

MPMDMS

(3‐mercaptopropyl)methyldimethoxysilane

MRFC

mixed‐reactant fuel cell

MSW

municipal solid waste

MTBF

mean time between failures

MWCNT

multiwalled carbon nanotube

NADP

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

NASA

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NCPO

non‐catalytic partial oxidation

NEDO

New Energy Development Organization (Japan)

NOMO

Notice of Market Opportunities

NTP

normal temperature and pressure

OCV

open‐circuit voltage

OEM

original equipment manufacturer

OER

oxygen evolution reaction

OHP

outer Helmholtz plane

ORR

oxygen reduction reaction

P2G

power‐to‐gas

P3MT

poly(3‐methylthiophene)

PAFC

phosphoric acid fuel cell

PANI

polyaniline

PAR

photosynthetically active radiation

PBI

polybenzimidazole

PBSS

poly(benzylsulfonic acid)siloxane

PC

phthalocyanine

PCT

pressure composition isotherm

PEC

photoelectrochemical cell

PEMFC

proton‐exchange membrane fuel cell (also called ‘polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell’ and same as SPEFC and SPFC)

PET

polyethylene terephthalate

PF

power factor, also PFC power factor correction

PFD

process flow diagram

PFSA

perfluorinated sulfonic acid

plc

programmable logic controller

POX

partial oxidation

PPA

polyphosphoric acid

PPBP

poly(1,4‐phenylene), poly(4 phenoxybenzoyl‐1,4‐phenylene)

Ppy

polypyrrole

PROX

preferential oxidation

PrOx

preferential oxidation reactor

PSA

pressure swing adsorption

PTFE

polytetrafluoroethylene

PV

photovoltaic

PWM

pulse width modulation

QA

quaternary ammonium

RDE

rotating disc electrode

RFB

redox flow battery

RH

relative humidity

RHE

reversible hydrogen electrode

RRDE

rotating ring‐disc electrode

RSF

rotational speed factor

SATP

standard ambient temperature and pressure

SCG

simulated coal gas

SCT‐CPO

short contact time catalytic partial oxidation

SDC

samarium‐doped ceria/samaria‐doped ceria (same as CSO)

SECA

Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance

SFCM

standard cubic foot per minute

SHE

standard hydrogen electrode

SI

International System of Units (French: Système international d’unités)

SLM

standard litre per minute

SMR

steam reforming reaction

SNG

substitute natural gas (also synthetic natural gas)

SOFC

solid oxide fuel cell

m‐SPAEEN‐60

sulfonated poly(arylene ether ether nitrile)

SPEEK

sulfonated polyether ether ketone

SPEFC

solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell (same as PEMFC)

SPFC

solid polymer fuel cell (same as PEMFC)

SPOF

single point of failure

STP

standard temperature and pressure

SWPC

Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation

TAA

tetraazaannulene

THT

tetrahydrothiophene

TMPP

tetramethoxyphenylporphyrin

TPP

tetraphenylporphyrin

TPTZ

2, 4, 6‐tris(2‐pyridyl)‐1,3,5‐triazine

TTW

tank‐to‐wheel

UCC

Union Carbide Corporation

UK

United Kingdom

ULP

unleaded petrol

UPS

uninterruptible power system; also uninterruptible power supply

URFC

unitized regenerative fuel cell

USA

United States of America

USB

universal serial bus

UTC

United Technologies Corporation

UV

ultraviolet

WGS

water–gas shift

WTT

well‐to‐tank

WTW

well‐to‐wheels

XPS

X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy

Symbols and Units

Subunits

Multiple units

d

deci

10

−1

k

kilo

10

3

c

centi

10

−2

M

mega

10

6

m

milli

10

−3

G

giga

10

9

μ

micro

10

−6

T

tera

10

12

n

nano

10

−9

P

peta

10

15

A

ampere

A

electrode area (cm

2

), also coefficient in natural logarithm form of the Tafel equation

Ah

ampere hour

a

chemical activity; also coefficient in base 10 logarithm form of the Tafel equation

a

x

chemical activity of species

x

atm

atmosphere (=101.325 kPa)

B

exergy (J)

ΔB

change in exergy (J)

bbl

barrel of oil: 35 imperial gallons (159.113 L), or 42 US gallons (158.987 L)

bar

unit of pressure (=100 kPa)

bhp

brake horsepower (=745.7 W)

C

constant in various equations; also coulomb (=1A s), the unit of electric charge

°C

degree Celsius

C

P

specific heat capacity at constant pressure (J kg

−1

 K

−1

)

C

V

specific heat capacity at constant volume (J kg

−1

 K

−1

)

molar heat capacity at constant pressure (J mol

−1

 K

−1

)

molar heat capacity at constant volume (J mol

−1

 K

−1

)

cm

centimetre

D

m

diffusion coefficient (m

2

 s

−1

)

d

separation of charge layers in a capacitor (mm)

E

electrode potential (V)

E

°

standard electrode potential (V)

E

r

reversible electrode potential (V)

standard reversible electrode potential (V)

EW

(membrane) equivalent weight

e

−

electron, or the charge on one electron (=1.602 × 10

−19

coulombs)

ΔE

act

activation overpotential (V)

F

farad, unit of electrical capacitance (s

4

 A

2

 m

−2

 kg

−1

)

F

Faraday constant (=96 458 coulombs mol

−1

)

ft

foot (linear measurement = 305 mm)

G

Gibbs free energy (J)

ΔG

change in Gibbs free energy (J)

ΔG

°

change in standard Gibbs free energy (J)

standard Gibbs free energy of formation (J)

change in standard Gibbs free energy of formation (J)

molar Gibbs free energy (J mol

−1

)

change in molar Gibbs free energy (J mol

−1

)

change in standard molar Gibbs free energy (J mol

−1

)

change in molar Gibbs free energy of formation (J mol

−1

)

change in standard molar Gibbs free energy of formation (J mol

−1

)

g

gram

g

acceleration due to gravity (m s

−2

)

H

enthalpy (J)

ΔH

change in enthalpy (J)

ΔH

°

change in standard enthalpy (J)

standard enthalpy of formation (J)

change in standard enthalpy (heat) of formation (J)

molar enthalpy (J mol

−1

)

change in molar enthalpy (J mol

−1

)

change in standard molar enthalpy (J mol

−1

)

change molar enthalpy of formation (J mol

−1

)

change in standard molar enthalpy of formation (J mol

−1

)

h

hour

resistive loss in electrolyte (Ω)

total resistive loss in electrodes (Ω)

I

current (A)

i

current density, i.e., current per unit area (usually expressed in mA cm

−2

)

i

c

crossover current (A)

i

l

limiting current density (usually expressed in mA cm

−2

)

i

o

exchange‐current density (usually expressed in mA cm

−2

)

J

joule (=1 W s)

K

kelvin (used as a measure of absolute temperature)

L

litre

MFF

mass flow factor (kg s

−1

 K

1/2

 bar

−1

)

m

metre

m&c.dotab;

mass flow rate, e.g., of gas (kg s

−1

) or of a liquid (ml min

−1

)

m

x

mass of substance

x

(g)

mEq

milliequivalent (weight) (mg L

−1

)

mol

mole, i.e., mass of 6.022 × 10

23

elementary units (atoms, molecules, etc.) of a substance

N

newton (unit of force = 1 kg m s

−2

)

N

rotor speed of fan (revolutions per minute)

N

A

Avogadro’s number, 6.022140857 × 10

23

N‐m

3

normal cubic metre of gas (i.e., that measured at NTP)

n

number of units (electrons, atoms, molecules) involved in a chemical or electrochemical reaction; also number of cells in fuel‐cell stack

n

i

number of units or moles of species

i

molar flow rate of species

x

(mol s

−1

)

P

pressure (in Pa, or bar)

P

e

power (W), only used when context is clear that pressure is not under discussion

P

°

standard pressure (=100 kPa)

P

SAT

saturated vapour pressure

P

x

partial pressure of species

x

Pa

pascal (1 Pa = 1 N m

−2

 = 9.869 × 10

−6

 atm)

ppb

parts per billion

pH

numerical scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution

ppm

parts per million

R