Functional Foods and Dietary Supplements E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1022

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

Functional foods are foods which contain bioactive components, either from plant or animal sources, which can have health benefits for the consumer over and above their nutritional value. Foods which have antioxidant or cancer-combating components are in high demand from health conscious consumers: much has been made of the health-giving qualities of fruits and vegetables in particular. Conversely, foods which have been processed are suffering an image crisis, with many consumers indiscriminately assuming that any kind of processing robs food of its “natural goodness”. To date, there has been little examination of the actual effects – whether positive or negative – of various types of food processing upon functional foods.

This book highlights the effects of food processing on the active ingredients of a wide range of functional food materials, with a particular focus on foods of Asian origin. Asian foods, particularly herbs, are becoming increasingly accepted and demanded globally, with many Western consumers starting to recognize and seek out their health-giving properties. This book focuses on the extraction of ingredients which from materials which in the West are seen as “alternative” - such as flour from soybeans instead of wheat, or bran and starch from rice – but which have long histories in Asian cultures. It also highlight the incorporation of those bioactive compounds in foods and the enhancement of their bioavailability.

Functional Foods and Dietary Supplements: Processing Effects and Health Benefits will be required reading for those working in companies, research institutions and universities that are active in the areas of food processing and agri-food environment. Food scientists and engineers will value the new data and research findings contained in the book, while environmentalists, food regulatory agencies and other food industry personnel involved in functional food production or development will find it a very useful source of information.

Leseprobe

Functional Foods and Dietary Supplements

Processing Effects and Health Benefits

Edited by

Athapol Noomhorm, Imran Ahmad and Anil Kumar Anal

Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

This edition first published 2014 © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, LtdRegistered office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial offices 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, USA

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Noomhorm, Athapol, 1952–  Functional foods and dietary supplements : processing effects and health benefits / Athapol Noomhorm, Imran Ahmad, and Anil Anal.   pages cm  Includes index.  ISBN 978-1-118-22787-9 (cloth) 1. Functional foods. 2. Dietary supplements--Therapeutic use. 3. Natural foods--Health aspects. I. Ahmad, Imran, 1974– II. Anal, Anil. III. Title.  QP144.F85N66 2013  613.2--dc23 2013024204

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Cover images: ©iStockphoto/dianne555 and iStockphoto/filo Cover design by Meaden Creative

CONTENTS

Cover

List of Contributors

Preface

I: Fundamentals of Functional Food Processing

1: Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals and Probiotics as Functional Food Components

1.1 Functional food

1.2 Nutraceuticals

1.3 Functional food market

1.4 Probiotics

1.5 Prebiotics

1.6 Probiotic market

References

2: Bioactive Components in Foods

2.1 Proteins

2.2 Carbohydrate

2.3 Lipids

2.4 Phenols

2.5 Flavonoids

2.6 Anthocyanins

2.7 Glucosinolates

References

II: Major Sources of Functional Foods

3: Processing Effects on Functional Components in Cereals and Grains

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Functional components in cereals and grains

3.3 Processing of cereals and grains and its effect on the functional components

3.4 Conclusion

References

4: Tropical Fruits

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Mango

4.3 Guava

4.4 Pomegranate

4.5 Summary and future trends

References

5: Bioactive Compounds in Meat and their Functions

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Bioactive peptides

5.3

L

-Carnitine

5.4 Coenzyme Q10

5.5 Carnosine

5.6 Taurine

5.7 Creatine

5.8 Glutathione

5.9 Lipoic acid

5.10 Opioids

5.11 Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)

5.12 Omega-3 PUFA

5.13 Conclusion

References

6: Bioactive Materials Derived from Seafood and Seafood Processing By-products

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Bioactive materials derived from seafood and seafood processing by-product

6.3 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

7: Food Processing By-products as Sources of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

7.1 Introduction

7.2 By-products of plant food processing

7.3 By-products of processing fruits, vegetables and other crops

7.4 By-products of oil extraction from plant materials

7.5 By-products of processing fish and marine products

References

8: Functionality of Non-starch Polysaccharides (NSPs)

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Novel NSPs of Asian and Oceania origins

8.3 Modification of physical and functional properties of NSPs

8.4 Polysaccharides and human health

8.5 Interactions of NSPs with other food components

8.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

9: Resistant Starch: Properties, Preparations and Applications in Functional Foods

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Starch, composition and its structure

9.3 Classification of starch

9.4 Types and structure of RS

9.5 Factors affecting RS content and its digestibility by enzymes

9.6 Production of RS

9.7 Physiological benefit of RS

9.8 Functionality of RS in food applications

9.9 Conclusion

References

10: Isoflavones – Extraction and Bioavailability

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Isoflavones: occurrence, biosynthesis, form and structures

10.3 Isoflavones: dietary intakes and supplements

10.4 Isoflavones: changing chemistry in soy foods

10.5 Isoflavones: extraction and analytical methods

10.6 Isoflavones: metabolism and bioavailability

10.7 Isoflavones: health benefits

References

III: Processing Effects on the Functional Components during Product Development

11: Thermal and Non-thermal Processing of Functional Foods

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Thermal processing

11.3 Novel thermal processing

11.4 Minimal thermal and non-thermal processing

11.5 High hydrostatic pressure processing

11.6 Radiation processing

11.7 Pulsed electric field processing

11.8 Conclusions and future trends

References

12: Changes of Properties and Functional Components of Extruded Foods

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Snacks

12.3 Protein-rich extruded foods

12.4 Fibre-rich extruded foods

12.5 Changes to polyphenolic compounds, vitamins and other functional components during food extrusion

12.6 Noodle, pasta and pasta-like product

12.7 Summary

References

13: Recent Advances in Applications of Encapsulation Technology for the Bioprotection of Phytonutrients in Complex Food Systems

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Encapsulation technology in complex food systems

13.3 Encapsulation techniques

13.4 Encapsulation in polymer systems

13.5 Controlled release of bioactive compounds from complex food systems

References

14: The Effect of Irradiation on Bioactive Compounds in Plant and Plant Products

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Food irradiation

14.3 Chemical effects of food irradiation

14.4 Application of gamma irradiation and its effect on bioactive compounds

References

15: Nanoparticles and Nanoemulsions

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Nanotechnology in foods: nanoparticles versus nanoemulsions

15.3 Designing nanoemulsions

15.4 Applications of nanoparticles and nanoemulsions

15.5 Potential health effects and risks

15.6 Conclusions

References

IV: Health Benefits and Bioavailability of Functional Foods

16: Pharmacology and Health Benefits of Bioactive Food Sources

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Herbs and other food sources for the treatment of ailments

16.3 Health benefits of specific bioactive compounds

16.4 Polyherbal formulations

16.5 Standardization of the formulations

16.6 How to get medicinal effects without actually eating medicines?

References

17: Potential Cardio-protective Effects of Functional Foods

17.1 Introduction

17.2 The protective effect of diet in CVD

17.3 Functional foods with health-related properties

17.4 Bioactive dietary compounds with cardio-protective potentials

17.5 Dietary patterns and reduced risk of chronic diseases

17.6 Conclusion

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1

Table 1.2

Table 1.3

Table 1.4

Table 1.5

Chapter 2

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 2.4

Table 2.5

Table 2.6

Table 2.7

Table 2.8

Table 2.9

Table 2.10

Chapter 3

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Table 3.3

Table 3.4

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Chapter 6

Table 6.1

Chapter 8

Table 8.1

Chapter 9

Table 9.1

Chapter 2

Table 10.1

Table 10.2

Table 10.3

Table 10.4

Chapter 11

Table 11.1

Table 11.2

Table 11.3

Table 11.4

Table 11.5

Table 11.6

Chapter 12

Table 12.1

Table 12.2

Table 12.3

Table 12.4

Table 12.5

Chapter 14

Table 14.1

Table 14.2

Table 14.3

Table 14.4

Chapter 15

Table 15.1

Chapter 17

Table 17.1

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

Part

Chapter

Pages

vii

viii

ix

x

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

256

257

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

265

266

267

268

269

270

271

272

273

274

275

276

277

278

279

280

281

282

283

284

285

286

287

288

289

290

291

292

293

294

295

296

297

298

299

300

301

302

303

304

305

306

307

308

309

310

311

312

313

314

315

316

317

318

319

320

321

322

323

324

325

326

327

328

329

330

331

332

333

334

335

336

337

338

339

340

341

342

343

344

345

346

347

348

349

350

351

352

353

354

355

356

357

358

359

360

361

362

363

364

365

366

367

368

369

370

371

372

373

374

375

376

377

378

379

380

381

382

383

384

385

386

387

388

389

390

391

392

393

394

395

396

397

398

399

400

401

402

403

404

405

406

407

408

409

410

411

412

413

414

415

416

417

418

419

420

421

422

423

424

425

426

427

428

429

430

431

432

433

434

435

436

437

438

439

440

441

442

443

444

445

446

447

448

449

450

451

452

453

454

455

456

457

458

459

460

461

462

463

464

465

466

467

468

469

470

471

472

473

474

475

476

477

478

479

480

481

482

483

484

485

486

487

488

489

490

491

492

493

494

495

496

497

498

499

500

List of Contributors

Imran Ahmad, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Eman M. Alissa, Faculty of Medicine, King AbdulAziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Nina Karla M. Alparce, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Anil Kumar Anal, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Khoomtong Atcharaporn, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Gordon A. Ferns, Division of Medical Education, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Sussex, UK

Kelvin K. T. Goh, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

Jiraporn Sripinyowanich Jongyingcharoen, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok, Thailand

J. Jerish Joyner, Indian Institute of Crop Processing Technology, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu, India

Mandeep Kaur, Amity Institute of Food Technology, Amity University, Noida, India

Se-Kwon Kim, Marine Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Pukyong National University, Busan, Republic of Korea

Maushmi S. Kumar, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Pharmacy and Technology Management, SVKM’S NMIMS (Deemed-to-be University), Mumbai, India

Ramesh Kumar, Massey University (Singapore), Singapore

Kishore K. Kumaree, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Buddhi Lamsal, Food Science and Human Nutrition Department, Iowa State University, USA

Sung Je Lee, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand

Shruti Mishra, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Nantarat Na Nakornpanom, Faculty of Agricultural Product Innovation and Technology, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand

Taslima Ayesha Aktar Nasrin, Postharvest Technology Section, Horticulture Research Centre, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh

Athapol Noomhorm, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Ratih Pangestuti, Marine Bioprocess Research Center, Pukyong National University, Busan, Republic of Korea and Research and Development Center for Marine and Fisheries Product Processing Technology, Ministry of Marine and Fisheries, Petamburan VI, Jakarta, Indonesia

Vilai Rungsardthong, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand

H. K. Sharma, Food Engineering and Technology Department, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology (Deemed-to-be-University), Punjab, India

Porntip Sirisoontaralak, Faculty of Agricultural Product Innovation and Technology, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand

Anges Teo, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

Mridula Thapa, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Pananun Thawunporn, Charoen Pokphand Foods (CPF), Thailand Alisha Tuladhar, Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Punchira Vongsawasdi, Department of Microbiology, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand

Shen-Siung Wong, Massey University (Singapore), Singapore

Binod K. Yadav, Indian Institute of Crop Processing Technology, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu, India

Preface

Growing evidence supports the observation that functional foods containing physiologically active components, either from plant or animal sources, may enhance health. Health-conscious consumers are increasingly seeking out functional foods in an effort to improve their own health and well-being. Publishing in functional foods is mostly limited to the health benefits of functional foods, such as their antioxidant and anticancer activities. In fact, identification of the suitable extraction or processing techniques for these functional components is imperative in maximizing their beneficial activities. For instance, most functional plants or herbs should be dried and ground to facilitate the extraction process. In order to extract curcuminoids, which are the major antioxidant compounds in turmeric, different drying methods have been found to affect the extracted content of curcuminoids. Among hot air, vacuum, infrared, infrared-convection, infrared-vacuum and fluidized bed drying methods, significantly the highest curcuminoid content was obtained from infrared-vacuum drying. This is an example of how processing affects the physiologically active components of functional foods.

This book, therefore, is written with the aim of highlighting the processing effects on active ingredients in various functional food materials, such as turmeric, pomegranate, drumstick leaves, jackfruit seeds, brown rice, etc. The book will be of interest to food scientists and the food industry, particularly those who are working on products for which health claims are being made.

The first section of the book introduces some of the fundamentals of functional ingredients; definitions and classification; prebiotics and probiotics, biochemical pathways; critical steps in processing the functional food; product developments and industrial trends. The second part focuses on the major sources of functional foods. Here the emphasis is again on the impact of processing, for example the effect of drying temperature on the activity of isoflavones from soybeans and the changes in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) from germinated brown rice, etc. In the third part, the challenges faced during the extraction, processing and application of functional ingredients are addressed. Dedicated chapters cover various techniques such as extrusion, drying, thermal and non-thermal processing as well improvements to processes like, encapsulation, among others.

One of the objectives of writing this book was to compile the available evidence on the health benefits and disease prevention claims for functional foods. This is a major challenge faced by the industry today. The chapters included in the fourth section address the pharmacology of bioactive compounds and their cardioprotective effects.

Finally, we have tried to make the book interesting to people from varied scientific and clinical backgrounds with the assumption that the readers will have a basic knowledge of nutrition and food processing. We, therefore, hope that the book will be of use to those interested in dietary supplements and the development of products that have a beneficial health claim.

Athapol Noomhorm Imran Ahmad Anil Kumar AnalEditors

IFundamentals of Functional Food Processing

1Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals and Probiotics as Functional Food Components

Athapol Noomhorm, Anil Kumar Anal and Imran Ahmad

Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

1.1 Functional food

Eating food is no longer limited to just satisfying the appetite or providing basic nutrition. Consumers are driven by many issues related to health concerns, the negative effects of unhealthy food and a desire to have a healthier lifestyle, which have significantly changed modern attitudes towards food habits. Functional food can thus be summarized as the complete package of fundamental needs plus additional food ingredients that can play an important role in decreasing health risks and also improving health. The modern thirst for a healthy life through food was visualised 2500 years ago by Hippocrates in his famous doctrine ‘Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food’.

The term ‘functional food’ was first used by the Japanese in the mid 1980s. But in the past decade the market has expanded to the United States, northern Europe and central European countries (Menrad, 2003). Functional foods fall into two broad categories: plant origin and animal origin.

1.1.1 Functional components from plant origin

A plant-based diet can help to cure chronic diseases, especially cancer. A review conducted in 1992 showed that the risk of cancer among people consuming fruits and vegetables is only half that of those consuming lesser amounts of these foods (Block et al., 1992). This proves that plant-based foods have some components that act against such lethal diseases. Such chemicals were classified by Steinmetz and Potter (1991) as phytochemicals. They identified a few such active plant components.

Oats

Oats is the most studied dietary supplement that is capable of lowering cholesterol as it contains β-glucan. The food with the highest amount of β-glucan was reported in oats (Wood and Beer, 1998; Manthey et al., 1999). Decreasing the level of low density cholesterol (LDL) can reduce the chances of coronary heart disease (CHD). Researchers have also shown that the hypocholesterolaemic effect of β-glucan can result in a 20–30% reduction of LDL-cholesterol, hence the chance of getting heart problems also decreases.

Flax seed

The use of flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) as a suitable additive in functional food has become more widespread because of its potential health benefits, such as reducing the risk of heart disease (cardiovascular disease, CVD) (Bloedon and Szapary, 2004), diabetes (Haliga et al., 2009) and also in cancer. Phipps et al. (1993) have shown that the daily intake of 10 g of flaxseed can elicit several hormones which can reduce the risk of breast cancer. The health qualities of flaxseeds are mainly due to the presence of high omega-3 fatty acids; almost 57% of its oil is α-linoleic acid (ω-3). As well as this it contains a high amount of dietary fibre (both soluble and insoluble), proteins and antioxidants such as lignan. The presence of phenolic compounds in flaxseed such as lignan, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) and ferulic acid gives flax seed its antioxidant properties (Kasote et al., 2011).

Garlic

This has been widely quoted as a plant with medicinal properties. The medicinal components of garlic have been shown to inhibit tumour genesis. It has also the potential to reduce the risk of cancer (Dorant et al., 1993) by protecting against carcinogenic agents. The main factor contributing to this are its sulfur constituents, which can suppress tumour formation in breast, colon, skin or lung cancer (Amagase and Milner, 1993). It has been reported that garlic has ten different types of natural sugars. Garlic can help reduce blood sugar levels (Sheela et al., 1995; Augusti and Sheela, 1996). It has been suggested that it is the best source of the nucleic acid adenosine, a building block of DNA and RNA (Blackwood and Fulder, 1987). Nearly 33 different sulfur compounds, enzymes, 17 amino acids and minerals have been reported in garlic (Newall et al., 1996).

Fibre is also added to food products to help maintain a healthy digestive tract, for example Yugao Bijin from Tokyo Tanabe Co. is a fibre enriched pasta, and Caluche is a snack product from Nissin Foods that is rich in fibre.

1.1.2 Functional components from animal resources

A vast number of components naturally present in animal sources are potentially beneficial to health.

Fish oil

Omega-3 fatty acids are a major component of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) from fish oil. Omega-3 has many health benefits. It has been found that a daily intake of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) up to 0.5–0.7 g decreases the chances of CHD (Kris-Etherton, Harris and Appel, 2002). Omega-3 supplements can be taken if our everyday food is deficient in omega-3. Omega-3 FA also has beneficial effects in rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory diseases such as asthma (Reisman et al. (2006), cystic fibrosis and bowel diseases. A high DHA content in the body can help decrease the risk of Alzheimer's disease.

Dairy products

Dairy products are undoubtedly a good source of functional components, one major ingredient being calcium, a nutrient required to prevent osteoporosis and possibly also colon cancer. Milk has potential probiotic components which are a good source of food for the beneficial microbial flora inside the gut. The term probiotics was defined by Gibson and Roberfroid (1995) as ‘non-digestible food that beneficially affect the host by selectively stimulating the growth of gut microbial flora’. These may include different dietary fibres, starches, sugars that do not get absorbed directly, sugar alcohols and oligosaccharides (Gibson et al., 1996).

1.1.3 Examples of functional foods widely popular in the market

The development of drinks as functional foods has grown widely in and is an easy way to satisfy consumer demand for these foods. Most of these drinks contain dissolved fibres, minerals and vitamins. For example, Pocari Sweet Stevia from Ootsuka, is a sport drink that contains a glucose substitute sweetener (a glycoside from the Stevia plant); and Fibi, a soft drink from Coca-Cola, contains a high amount of fibre, is mainly focused on improving the digestive system.

The first probiotic product launched in market was Yakult from Yakult Honsha, a probiotic yoghurt drink, which contains Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. The health benefits related to these probiotic products are increased digestive control, inhibition of pathogenic flora, immune power stimulation, reduced risk of tumour genesis, production of vitamins (especially B vitamins) and generation of bacteriocins (Potter, 1990; Sanders et al., 1991). For example, Yoplait's low-fat yoghurt Yo-Plus, with probiotic bacteria (Bifidobacterium lactis) mixed with probiotic (inulin) provides a perfect symbiotic combination, and a live active natural cheese product launched by Kraft contains probiotic strains Lactobacillus lactis for better digestive health.

1.2 Nutraceuticals

Nutraceuticals are a type of dietary supplement that delivers a concentrated form of a biologically active component from a food, presented in a non-food matrix, to enhance health in dosages that exceed those that could be obtained from regular food (Zeisel, 1999). A nutraceutical is a product isolated or purified from foods that is generally sold in medicinal forms not usually associated with food. A nutraceutical is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic diseases (DeFelice, 1992).

The term ‘nutraceuticals’ was first coined by the Foundation for the Innovation in Medicine.

The actual boundary between functional food and nutraceuticals is not clear. It can be explained with the help of a simple example: if a phytochemical extract with medicinal value is included in a food product, i.e. 200 mg of the extract needs to be incorporated into 1 litre of orange juice, we get a new functional food. The same 200 mg extract can be marketed in the form of a capsule as a new nutraceutical.

A major source of nutraceuticals is omega-3 fatty acids (PUFA) from fish oils. These contain high amounts of eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), categories of fatty acids that have a protective effect against cardiovascular disease and inflammatory disease and also affect other chronic diseases. Fish oil mainly prohibits the end-organ effects of tumour-derived lipolytic and proteolytic factors, influencing the action of many receptors as well as enzymes which function during cellular signalling.

The non-essential amino acid arginine has received much attention as it has efficient immune stimulation properties. Arginine was also effective in some clinical conditions in improving the cellular immune system, increasing phagocytosis and the proper maintenance of T cells. Arginine enhances the suppressed immune response of individuals that have injury diseases, surgical trauma or malnutrition (Kirk and Barbul, 1990; Evoy et al., 1998).

Table 1.1 lists functional components extracts and the effects of applying them in medicinal form, so that their consumption becomes easier.

Table 1.1 Functional component extracts and the effect of applying them in medicinal form

1.3 Functional food market

Research indicates that there is an estimated global market for functional foods of US$33 billion (Hilliam, 2000c). Functional foods account for 2% of the US food market. Another competing market is Japan, which focuses mainly on health claims. The concept of ‘functional foods’ was first introduced by Japan in 1984 (Hosoya, 1998), and between 1988 and 1998 (Heasman and Mellentin, 2001) the number of functional food products reached nearly 1700, with an estimated turnover of US$14 billion in 1999 (Hilliam, 2000). Within the European market, functional foods have a monetary value of US$4–8 billion (Hilliam, 2000). Figure 1.1 illustrates the main categories of functional foods in Germany.

Figure 1.1 Innovations in the food and drinks market in Germany. Source: Anonymous, 2001

Functional benefits may provide added value to consumers but cannot outweigh the sensory properties of foods. By purchasing functional foods in general consumers may achieve a modern and positive impression of themselves. These products provide consumers with an alternative way to achieve a healthy lifestyle that differs from conventional healthy diets defined by nutrition experts. In general, the attitude both to functional foods and to their consumers is positive, so such a concept represents a sustainable trend in a multi-niche market (see Table 1.2).

Table 1.2 Some commercial examples of probiotic products

Brand/trade name

Description

Producer

Actimel

Probiotic drinking yogurt with

L. casei Imunitass

® cultures

Danone, France

Activia

Creamy yogurt containing

Bifidus ActiRegularis

®,

Danone, France

Gefilus

A wide range of LGG products

Valio, Finnland

Hellus

Dairy products containing

Lactobacillus fermentum ME-3

Tallinna Piimatööstuse AS, Estonia

Jovita Probiotisch

Blend of cereals, fruit and probiotic yogurt

H&J Bruggen, Germany

Pohadka

Yogurt milk with probiotic cultures

Valašské Meziříčí Dairy, Czech Republic

ProViva

Refreshing natural fruit drink and yogurt in many different flavours containing

Lactobacillus plantarum

Skåne mejerier, Sweden

Rela

Yogurts, cultured milks and juices with

L. reuteri

Ingman Foods, Finland

Revital Active

Yogurt and drink yogurt with probiotics

Olma, Czech Republic

Snack Fibra

Snacks and bars with natural fibers and extra minerals and vitamins

Celigüeta, Spain

SOYosa

Range of products based on soy and oats and includes a refreshing drink and a probiotic yogurt-like soy–oat product

Bioferme, Finland

Soytreat

Kefir type product with six probiotics

Lifeway, USA

Yakult

Milk drink containing

Lactobacillus casei

Shirota

Yakult, Japan

Yosa

Yogurt-like oat product flavoured with natural fruits and berries containing probiotic bacteria (

Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium lactis

)

Bioferme, Finland

Vitality

Yogurt with pre- and probiotics and omega-3

Müller, Germany

Vifit

Drink yogurts with LGG, vitamins and minerals

Campina, the Netherlands

Source:

Siró

et al.

, 2008. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier B. V.

1.4 Probiotics

The market of functional food is growing through the continuous development of technology. Functional food with added probiotic has gained the attention of many researchers. The use of probiotics in combination with prebiotic has been very effective against several chronic diseases. Probiotics have been defined as the ingested live bacteria which are responsible for providing a healthy life. The gut microflora plays an important role in maintaining stable health and disease protection (Steer et al., 2000). The metabolic activity of the gut flora provides up to 50% of the energy required by the host body's gut wall through the fermentation of carbohydrates into organic acids (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 Targets throughout the gastrointestinal tract for functional food ingredients. (a) Pre- and probiotics inhibit pathogenic bacteria at various sites, from Helicobacteria pylori in the gastric mucosa to Salmonella sp. and Clostridia sp. in the intestine. (b) Multiple ingredients alter the rate and extent of digestion of nutrients. (c) The absorption of nutrients and anti-nutritional factors throughout the stomach and intestine is affected by the presence, form and activity of functional-food components. (d) Pre- and probiotics modify the barrier functions of the intestinal epithelium. (e) Nutrients, from vitamins and minerals to probiotics, interact with and enhance the functions of gastrointestinal immune cells and, via systemic communication, the entire body's immune system. (f) Pre- and probiotics modulate the overall ecology of the gut microflora. (g) Fermentation products of fibers or non-digestible oligosaccharides and other components from the microflora not only nourish the intestine but also improve the differentiation, maturation and overall health of colonic cells. Source: German et al., 1999. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

1.4.1 Role of probiotics

Probiotics and prebiotics provide an alternate source for the management of different intestinal disorders. It was demonstrated that the bacterial count in the faecal matter of children is more than in adults, with high amounts of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. Disorders such as gastroenteritis unbalance the biochemical environment of the gut, but the intake of probiotic functional food can stabilize the colonic microflora and also help in their maintenance against the adverse effect of antibiotics. Figure 1.3 shows a recent study of the probiotic mechanism on health enhancement.

Figure 1.3 Some probiotic mechanisms that induce several beneficial host responses. Most effects consist of (1) Exclusion and competing with pathogen to epithelial cells adhesion, (2) innate immune stimulation, (3) competition for nutrients and prebiotic products, (4) production of antimicrobial substances and thereby pathogen antagonism, (5) protection of intestinal barrier integrity and (6) regulation of anti-inflammatory cytokine and inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine production. IEC, intestinal epithelium cells; DC, dendritic cell; IL, interleukin; M, intestinal M cell. Source: Saad et al., 2013. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

The major contributions associated with the work of probiotics on human health are proper colonic function and increased metabolism. They are also responsible for the enhancing the expression of short chain fatty acids, the increase in faecal weight, decreased colon pH, reduced release of nitrogenous material from the body and reductive enzymes (Bournet, Brouns, Tashiro and Duvillier, 2002; Forchielli and Walker, 2005; Qiang, YongLie and QianBing, 2009). Table 1.3 shows some contributions of probiotics.

Table 1.3 The contributions of probiotics

Disease type

Contribution by the probiotics

Reference

Intestinal flora

Inhibits the growth of pathogenic species like

S. dysenteriae, S. typhosa and E. coli

and this results in reduced diarrhoea and vomiting

Asahara

et al.

, 2001

Lactose intolerance

Lactose supplement could help in the digestion of lactose by helping in its fermentation.

Jiang and Savaiano, 1997

Immuno-modulatory effects of probiotics

Administrating probiotics has proven the activity on Payers's patches, NK cell activity, enhance of IgA production in intestine, development of GALT (gut-associated lymphoid tissue)

Palma

et al.

, 2006; Hosono

et al.

, 2003; Hoentjen

et al.

, 2005; Nakamura

et al.

, 2004; Pierre

et al.

, 1997

Preventing cancer

Recent research showed that butyric acid production by the fermentation of probiotics plays a lead role in cancer prevention. This acid helps in the chemo- prevention of carcinogenesis, and also against colon cancer by the promotion of differentiation of cell Another breakthrough is that propionate has an anti-inflammatory effect on colon cancer cells In another study, probiotics showed the inhibition of colon tumor forming azoxymethane by the probiotics in association with prebiotics (inulin)

Femia

et al.

, 2002; Pool-Zobel, 2005; Munjal

et al.

, 2009; Verghese

et al.

, 2002; Kim

et al.

, 1982

Lipid metabolism

Probiotics have been proven to show a positive effect on the hepatic lipd metabolism. Experiment of RTS has shown a decrease in cholesterol and triglycerides levels by 15% and 50% respectively due to the suppression of lipogenic enzyme activity

Delzenne

et al.

, 2002; Fiordaliso

et al.

, 1995; Delzenne and Kok, 2001; Williams and Jackson, 2002

1.5 Prebiotics

Prebiotics are foods that are beneficial but cannot be digested by the host's metabolism and can help in the growth and other activities of beneficial bacteria residing in the human gut. This indirectly improves the host's health (Gibson and Roberfroid, 1995).

Widely used prebiotics are inulin, fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS), lactulose and galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS). They improve the composition of the gut microbiota to give enhanced numbers of beneficial bacteria. Though there is no fixed recommendation for the daily intake of prebiotics, one study has shown that 4–20 g/day gives good results (K.M. Tuohy et al., unpublished data). Research data on inulin or FOS intake suggest that 4 g/day is needed to increase Bifidobacteria (Roberfroid et al., 1995).

1.5.1 Sources of prebiotic

Prebiotics are mainly obtained from plant sources and algae polysaccharides. The extraction is carried out either by a chemical process which hydrolyses the polysaccharides or by an enzymatic process of synthesis from disaccharides (Nugent, 2000; Mussamatto and Mancilha, 2007). The main prebiotics in use are FOS, GOS, isomalto-oligosaccharides (IMO) and xylo-oligosaccharides (XOS). Primarily oligosaccharides, such as soy oligosaccharides (SOS), GOS and XOS are also marketed in Japan (Ouwehand, 2007).

Currently, inulin is the major prebiotic made. It is produced by chemical synthesis using transglycosylation, which produces polysaccharides from monosaccharides and disaccharides. Figure 1.4 shows a brief description of the process of transglycosylation (Delattre et al., 2005; Barreteau et al., 2006).

Figure 1.4 Synthesis of oligosaccharides by glycosylation using (a) a chemical process and (b) an enzymatic process with glycosyltransferases. Source: Saad et al., 2013. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier

1.5.2 Functional probiotic products

Traditional probiotic products

The reason for opting for probiotic food can best be explained as an easy way to maintain daily health. Eating junk foods, drinking chlorinated water, work stress and irregular diet can have a serious impact on the gastrointestinal tract by destroying the beneficial microbial flora. So the ready availability of probiotics in the market helps resolve the problem to a great extent.

Kefir is a traditional milk product containing lactic acid bacteria and yeasts, which have a symbiotic relationship. Fermented milk products (kefir, yoghurt or sour milk) have higher nutritional values and a high nitrogen content compared with milk.

Kombucha is a fermented tea product and a symbiotic culture of yeast and bacteria. It is a traditional product that has been used for centuries and has recently gained attention globally, especially in the United States.

Another traditional Japanese food with probiotics is made from soybeans – a fermented product of fungi called koji. Table 1.4 shows examples of potential probiotic traditional fermented foods.

Table 1.4 Potential probiotic traditional fermented foods

Present day commercial products

Products available in market with combined probiotics and prebiotics are now widely accepted. In 2008, Beyaz Peynir cheese from Turkey, a traditional cheese with nutritional value, was available with the addition of Lactobacillus plantarum.

The very first product marketed as a probiotic rather than a traditional product was Yakult by Yakult Honsha, Japan. Other commercial probiotic products available in market are shown in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5 Probiotic foods in present market

Brand name

Food type

Yakult Honsha Co., Ltd.

Dairy beverage

Attune Food

Chocolate bar

Kevita

Probiotic non-diary drinks

Amul

Prolife (yoghurt and ice-cream)

GoodBelly

Probiotic fruit juice

Life way

Kefir drink

Ombar

Probiotic chocolates

Dannon

An Active dairy drink

1.6 Probiotic market