Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals, and Degenerative Disease Prevention E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 974

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals and Degenerative Disease Prevention is a compilation of different segments of functional foods and nutraceuticals focusing on their mechanism of action in the human body leading to disease prevention. Numerous chapters deal with different functional foods in terms of their efficacy, highlighting the mechanism of action of their ingredients. The book focuses on the biochemistry and molecular biology of the disease prevention process rather than simply compiling the benefits of functional foods and nutraceuticals.

Aimed primarily at an audience comprised of researchers, industry professionals, food scientists, medical professionals and graduate level students, Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals and Degenerative Disease Prevention offers a mechanism-based interpretation for the effect of nutraceuticals within the human body. Ultimately, the discussion of the biological effects of a variety of functional foods will provide a wholesome approach to the maintenance of health through judicious choice of functional foods.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Contributors

Preface

About the Editors

1 Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals, and Disease Prevention: A Window to the Future of Health Promotion

1.1 CHRONIC DEGENERATIVE DISEASES IN MODERN SOCIETY: IMPLICATIONS ON LIFE QUALITY, PRODUCTIVITY, ECONOMIC BURDEN

1.2 HEALTH REGULATORY PROPERTIES OF FOODS: “PREVENTION IS BETTER THAN CURE”

2 Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 DEFINITION OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS AND NUTRACEUTICALS

2.3 SOURCES AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS AND NUTRACEUTICALS IN NATURE

2.4 FUNCTIONAL FOODS AND NUTRACEUTICALS: HEALTH CLAIMS AND BENEFITS

2.5 QUALIFIED HEALTH CLAIMS

2.6 FUNCTIONAL FOODS AND NUTRACEUTICALS: SAFETY ISSUES

2.7 REGULATION OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS AND NUTRACEUTICALS

2.8 PUBLIC EDUCATION AND DIETARY GUIDANCE

2.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS

3 Nutritional Genomics: Fundamental Role of Diet in Chronic Disease Prevention and Control

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 NUTRIGENETICS

3.3 COMPLEXITIES OF CHRONIC DISEASE RESEARCH IN NUTRIGENETICS

3.4 CHRONIC DISEASE AND RARE SNPS

3.5 CVD AND NUTRIGENETICS

3.6 NUTRIGENETICS AND CANCER

3.7 SUMMARY OF NUTRIGENETIC RESEARCH POTENTIAL

3.8 NUTRIEPIGENETICS

3.9 EPIMUTATIONS IN CHRONIC DISEASE

3.10 SUMMARY OF EPIGENETIC RESEARCH POTENTIAL

3.11 NUTRIGENOMICS

3.12 VITAMIN A AND GENE INTERACTIONS

3.13 VITAMIN E AND NUTRIGENOMICS

3.14 VITAMIN D AND GENE INTERACTIONS

3.15 PHYTOESTROGENS AND GENE INTERACTIONS

3.16 PHYTOSTEROLS AND GENE INTERACTIONS

3.17 POLYPHENOLS AND GENE INTERACTIONS

3.18 NUTRIGENOMICS SUMMARY: ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS, FUTURE

3.19 CONCLUSIONS

4 Nutraceuticals and Antioxidant Function

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 OXIDATIVE STRESS AND ROS

4.3 ANTIOXIDANTS AND ANTIOXIDATIVE DEFENSE SYSTEMS

4.4 PHYTOCHEMICALS

4.5 ANTIOXIDANT AMINO ACIDS, PEPTIDES, AND PROTEINS

4.6 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTIOXIDATIVE STRESS AMINO ACIDS, PEPTIDES, AND PROTEINS

4.7 PRODUCTION OF ANTIOXIDANT PEPTIDES

4.8 RECENT ADVANCES IN ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR MEASURING ANTIOXIDANT CAPACITY AND OXIDATIVE DAMAGE

4.9 HEALTH BENEFITS OF NUTRACEUTICAL ANTIOXIDANTS

4.10 CONCLUSION

5 Composition and Chemistry of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Influence on Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 POLYPHENOLS AS ANTIOXIDANTS

5.3 ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF ANTHOCYANINS

5.4 ANTHOCYANIN BIOSYNTHESIS AND LOCALIZATION

5.5 BIOACCESSIBILITY AND BIOAVAILABILITY OF POLYPHENOLS

5.6 MICROSTRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAPE JUICE

5.7 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE DIALYZED JUICE FRACTION

5.8 ULTRASTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF JUICE FRACTIONS

5.9 COMPOSITION OF JUICE FRACTIONS

5.10 ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF JUICE FRACTIONS

5.11 METABOLISM AND BIOAVAILABILITY OF FLAVONOIDS

5.12 DIETARY POLYPHENOLS AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES

5.13 INCREASING HEALTH BENEFICIAL PROPERTIES OF JUICES

6 Cruciferous Vegetable-Derived Isothiocyanates and Cancer Prevention

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 METABOLISM OF XENOBIOTICS

6.3 ITCS AND INHIBITION OF CANCER

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

7 The Disease-Preventive Potential of Some Popular and Underutilized Seeds

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 OIL SEEDS AND THEIR THERAPEUTIC POTENTIAL

7.3 SPICE SEEDS AS MEDICINE

7.4 LEGUMES AND MEDICINAL USE

7.5 UNDERUTILIZED SEEDS

7.6 FUTURE OUTLOOK

8 Effects of Carotenoids and Retinoids on Immune-Mediated Chronic Inflammation in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 CAROTENOIDS

8.3 IBDS

8.4 PHYTOCHEMICALS AND DOWNREGULATION OF IBD

8.5 EFFECTS OF CAROTENOIDS ON IMMUNE GENETIC MECHANISM OF IBD

8.6 EFFECTS OF RETINOIDS AND CAROTENOIDS ON THE OXIDATIVE STRESS SIGNALING PATHWAY

9 Ruminant Trans Fat as Potential Nutraceutical Components to Prevent Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease

9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 C9,T11-CLA ISOMER AND HEALTH IMPLICATIONS

9.3 MECHANISMS OF CLA ACTION ON CANCER

9.4 CLA MODULATES CHD RISK FACTORS

9.5 MECHANISMS OF CLA ACTION ON CHD

9.6 VACCENIC ACID

9.7 DAIRY FAT ENRICHED WITH VA AND CLA

9.8 DISCUSSION

10 Nanotechnology for Cerebral Delivery of Nutraceuticals for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases

10.1 INTRODUCTION

10.2 OXIDATIVE STRESS IN MILD COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT (MCI) AND AD

10.3 EFFICACY OF SELECTED COMPONENTS OF NUTRACEUTICAL COMPOUNDS IN THE AMYLOID CASCADE AND IN THE PREVENTION OF AD

10.4 TARGETED NPS FOR DELIVERY OF BIOACTIVES COMPOUNDS FROM FOODS FOR THE TREATMENT OF AD

10.5 CONCLUSION

11 Cancer Prevention by Polyphenols: Influence on Signal Transduction and Gene Expression

11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.2 GENETIC MECHANISMS OF CARCINOGENESIS

11.3 BIOCHEMICAL MECHANISMS OF CARCINOGENESIS

11.4 SIGNALING PATHWAYS IN BREAST CANCER

11.5 CANCER PREVENTION AND THERAPY

11.6 GRAPES AND RED WINE AS A DIETARY SOURCE OF POLYPHENOLS

11.7 GENETIC APPROACH: IDENTIFICATION OF FLAVONOID MEDIATED MOLECULAR TARGETS

11.8 ESTROGEN METABOLISM, BREAST CANCER, AND FLAVONOIDS

11.9 POLYPHENOLS AND ESTROGEN SIGNALING

12 Potato–Herb Synergies as Food Designs for Hyperglycemia and Hypertension Management

12.1 INTRODUCTION

12.2 PHENOLIC-ENRICHED CHILEAN POTATO AND SELECT SPECIES OF APIACEAE AND LAMIACEAE FAMILIES IN DIET

12.3 COMBINATION OF POTATO WITH SEEDS AND/OR HERBS FOR HYPERTENSION AND HYPERGLYCEMIA MANAGEMENT

12.4 CONCLUSIONS: COMBINING THE CHILEAN POTATO WITH SEEDS AND HERBS FROM THE APIACEAE AND LAMIACEAE FAMILIES

13 Fermentation-Based Processing of Food Botanicals for Mobilization of Phenolic Phytochemicals for Type 2 Diabetes Management

13.1 INTRODUCTION

13.2 DIABETES: THE RISING BURDEN

13.3 FERMENTATION AND HEALTH: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

13.4 FERMENTATION: ADDING VALUE

13.5 PHENOLIC ANTIOXIDANTS AND DIABETES MANAGEMENT

13.6 MICROBIAL AEROBIC GROWTH AND FERMENTATION AND ITS ANTI-DIABETES POTENTIAL BY PHENOLIC AND ANTIOXIDANT MOBILIZATION

13.7 FRUIT JUICE FERMENTATION FOR HEALTHY FOOD INGREDIENTS FOR MANAGEMENT OF TYPE 2 DIABETES

13.8 SUMMARY

14 Postharvest Strategies to Enhance Bioactive Ingredients for Type 2 Diabetes Management and Heart Health

14.1 INTRODUCTION

14.2 CHANGING DIETARY PATTERNS: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

14.3 NONCOMMUNICABLE CHRONIC DISEASES: ERA OF NEW GLOBAL EPIDEMICS

14.4 HEALTHY DIET: “PREVENTION IS BETTER THAN CURE”

14.5 BIOACTIVE INGREDIENTS

14.6 DIETARY POLYPHENOLS: IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH

14.7 PHENOLIC BIOSYNTHESIS: BIOLOGICAL MECHANISM TO IMPROVE DIETARY POLYPHENOLS IN PLANT MODELS

14.8 POSTHARVEST STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE BIOACTIVE INGREDIENTS IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

14.9 PHENOLIC-LINKED ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY DURING POSTHARVEST STAGES IN FRUITS AND RELEVANCE FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES

14.10 FUTURE DIRECTION OF RESEARCH: WHEN FUNCTIONAL FOOD AND DIET BECOME “PANACEA”

14.11 CONCLUSIONS

15 Enhancing Functional Food Ingredients in Fruits and Vegetables

15.1 INTRODUCTION

15.2 STRATEGIES FOR NUTRITIONAL ENHANCEMENT

15.3 IMPROVING THE MINERAL CONTENT OF PLANT FOODS

15.4 IMPROVING THE ANTIOXIDANTS CONTENT OF PLANT FOODS

15.5 IMPROVING THE AMINO ACID CONTENT OF PROTEINS OF PLANT FOODS

15.6 IMPROVING THE FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF PLANT SEED OIL

15.7 INFLUENCE OF PROCESSING AND STORAGE IN THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF PLANT FOODS

Index

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Functional foods, nutraceuticals, and degenerative disease prevention / edited by Gopinadhan Paliyath, Marica Bakovic, Kalidas Shetty.

p. cm.

 Includes bibliographical references and index.

 ISBN-13: 978-0-8138-2453-6 (hardcover : alk. paper)

 ISBN-10: 0-8138-2453-2

 1. Functional foods. 2. Degeneration (Pathology)–Prevention. 3. Medicine, Preventive. I. Paliyath, Gopinadhan. II. Bakovic, Marica. III. Shetty, Kalidas.

 QP144.F85F8645 2011

 613.2–dc23

2011013769

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDF 9780470960813; Wiley Online Library 9780470960844; ePub 9780470960820; Mobi 9780470960837

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Contributors

Chandrakant Ankolekar

Department of Food Science

University of Massachusetts Amherst

Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA

Marica Bakovic

Department of Human Health and Nutritional Science

University of Guelph

Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada

Rajeev Bhat

Food Technology Division

School of Industrial Technology

Universiti Sains Malaysia

Penang-11800, Malaysia

Rong Cao

Research scientist

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

Food Research Centre

Guelph, Ontario, Canada

Lé Dao

INRS-EMT

1650, Boulevard Lionel-Boulet

Varennes, Québec J3X 1S2, Canada

Branden Deschambault

Department of Human Health and Nutritional Science

University of Guelph

Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada

Sihem Doggui

INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier

Laval, Québec H7V 1B7, Canada

Ali Hussein Eid

Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences

Qatar University

Qatar

Saleem Fahad

Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA

Ming Fan

Department of Animal and Poultry Science

University of Guelph

Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada

Catherine J. Field

Department of Agricultural, Food, and Nutritional Science

University of Alberta

318F Agriculture Forestry Centre

Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Fatima Hakimuddin

Central Veterinary Research Institute

Dubai

United Arab Emirates

Chung-Ja C. Jackson

Vice-President

BioLaunch Inc.

Burlington, Ontario L7T 3W6, Canada

Jissy K. Jacob

Nestle PTC

Marysville, Ohio 43040, USA

Yoshinori Mine

Professor

Department of Food Science

University of Guelph

Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada

Gopinadhan Paliyath

Department of Plant Agriculture

University of Guelph

Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada

Spencer D. Proctor

Department of Agricultural, Food, and Nutritional Science

University of Alberta

318F Agriculture Forestry Centre

Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Charles Ramassamy

INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier

Laval, Québec H7V 1B7, Canada

Jasjeet Kaur Sahni

INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier

531, Boulevard des Prairies

Laval, Québec H7V 1B7, Canada

Ravi P. Sahu

Department of Biomedical Sciences

Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center

Amarillo, Texas 79106, USA

Fahad Saleem

Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA

Dipayan Sarkar

Department of Food Science

University of Massachusetts Amherst

Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA

Kalidas Shetty

Laboratory of Food Biotechnology

Department of Food Science

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA

Sanjay K. Srivastava

School of Pharmacy

Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center

Amarillo, Texas 79106, USA

Rong Tsao

Guelph Food Research Centre

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

Guelph, Ontario N1G 5C9, Canada

Amy J. Tucker

Department of Human Health and Nutritional Science

University of Guelph

Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada

Shaila Wadud

Department of Food Science

University of Guelph

Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada

Ye Wang

Department of Agricultural, Food, and Nutritional Science

University of Alberta

318F Agriculture Forestry Centre

Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Denise Young

Department of Food Science

University of Guelph

Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada

Hua Zhang

Department of Food Science

University of Guelph

Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada

Preface

In recent years, there has been a tremendous increase in the awareness of dietary habits and their influence on maintaining good health through disease prevention. Thus, there has been considerable popular demand for the health-enhancing, physiologically active components of functional foods, as consumers have become increasingly aware of the important link between diet and health, and the vital role that diet plays in combating chronic degenerative diseases such as cancer, type II diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, Alzheimer’s, and autoimmune diseases. Functional foods and functional food ingredients/nutraceuticals and their influence on health have become common in scientific and popular literature. Apart from the common nutrients and vitamins that are obtained from food that form the building blocks of the human body, nutraceuticals present in many commonly consumed foods exert specific health or medical benefits, including the prevention and, in some cases, treatment of disease conditions, which enables their categorization as functional foods. Functional foods include fruits; vegetables; cereals, such as oats; oilseeds, such as soybeans; seeds and nuts; probiotics; and fish that are known to have health benefits. The nutraceuticals include bioactive ingredients in the functional foods, such as polyphenols (anthocyanins, resveratrol, various types of flavonoids, green tea polyphenols such as Epicatechin gallate, epigallocatechin gallate), carotenoids (beta-carotene, lycopene, lutein, astaxanthin), phytochemicals from herbs (rosmarinic acid), phytosterols, omega-3-fatty acids, and so on. Nutraceuticals can be derived from plant, animal, and microbial sources, including those from the aquatic environment. Phytochemicals are chemical compounds produced by plants such as alkaloids, polyphenols, and uncommon amino acids. Several of these compounds are non-nutritive in the traditional sense, but effective in preventing or combating disease. Traditional knowledge about the healing properties of foods has increasingly been substantiated with respect to their health beneficial claims, through systematic epidemiological studies and scientific investigations on the mode of action of specific functional food ingredients. Recent recommendations by the government agencies on food consumption habits take into account such studies on the disease-preventive and health- restorative roles of foods. In short, the interest in functional foods and nutraceuticals at various levels of society has resulted in an explosive growth in the literature on these topics and has enhanced the growth of a segment of the food industry worth over several billion dollars across the world, comprising health foods and drinks, sport foods and drinks, various supplements including capsules and tablets of purified nutraceuticals, and cosmeceutical preparations.

At present, a large proportion of the scientific literature on functional foods, nutraceuticals, and disease prevention lies buried in the literature. The objective of this book is to bring some of this key information together. In the context of the growing incidence of chronic degenerative diseases across the world and associated increases in healthcare costs and loss in productivity, information focused on disease prevention will be of great interest.

This book is a compilation of different aspects of functional foods and nutraceuticals, focusing on their mechanisms of action in the human body leading to disease prevention in terms of their efficacy and highlighting the biochemical and molecular mechanism of action of their ingredients. The objective is to enhance the knowledge and understanding of functional food and nutraceuticals so that readers at various levels will be able to appreciate and use the information compiled in this book to adopt healthy lifestyles and advance health education. The discussion of the biological effects of a variety of functional foods will provide a wholesome approach to the maintenance of health through judicious choice of functional foods. The book is primarily intended for an audience comprising researchers, industry professionals, food scientists, medical professionals, and students.

GOPINADHAN PALIYATH

MARICA BAKOVIC

KALIDAS SHETTY

About the Editors

Gopinadhan Paliyath is a Professor at the Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Dr. Paliyath obtained his B.Sc.Ed. degree (botany and chemistry) in Science Education from the University of Mysore, M.Sc. degree (botany) from the University of Calicut, and Ph.D. degree (biochemistry) from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. He did postdoctoral work at Washington State University, the University of Waterloo, and the University of Guelph. The major focus of Dr. Paliyath’s work is to understand the mechanism of action of nutraceutical components in fruits and vegetables in humans and their implications in the prevention of chronic degenerative diseases. Dr. Paliyath also serves as the Research Programme Director of “food for health,” a major theme of research under the University of Guelph/Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs partnership.

Marica Bakovic is a Professor at the Department of Human Health and Nutritional Science, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Dr. Bakovic obtained her B.Sc. degree in chemistry from the University of Belgrade, M.Sc. degree in food science and nutrition from the University of Belgrade, and Ph.D. degree in biological chemistry from the University of Alberta. She did postdoctoral work at the University of Alberta before joining Guelph. Dr. Bakovic’s research is focused on nutrigenomics, specifically in relation to phospholipid metabolism, choline transport, obesity, and metabolic syndrome in general. One of Dr. Bakovic’s current research projects are on developing strategies for obesity reduction through vegetable consumption.

Kalidas Shetty is a Professor at the Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts. He received his B.Sc. degree from the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India, majoring in applied microbiology. He received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Idaho, Moscow, specializing in microbiology. He pursued postdoctoral research in plant biotechnology at the National Institute of Agro-biological Sciences, Tsukuba Science City, Japan, and Horticultural Science, University of Guelph, before joining the University of Massachusetts. Dr. Shetty has conducted extensive research on functional foods, including functional food ingredients, the influence of processing and storage in the content of bioactive ingredients, and their mechanisms of action in the human body. He has conducted extensive research on herbs and their disease-preventive potential by altering the mitochondrial metabolism. Dr. Shetty has served as Jefferson Science Fellow at the U.S. State Department, advising the Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs on scientific issues as they relate to international diplomacy and international development. He has received the Asia-Pacific Clinical Nutrition Society Award for his outstanding contributions in the area of functional foods and human health.

1

Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals, and Disease Prevention: A Window to the Future of Health Promotion

Gopinadhan Paliyath and Kalidas Shetty

1.1 CHRONIC DEGENERATIVE DISEASES IN MODERN SOCIETY: IMPLICATIONS ON LIFE QUALITY, PRODUCTIVITY, ECONOMIC BURDEN

The diet of early humans was quite varied and reflected an omnivorous food habit. Being hunter-gatherers, humans used the fruits, vegetables, and tubers that grew wild. It has been proposed that Paleolithic humans used fruits and vegetables as a major source of food (Eaton et al., 1997). A transition from food gathering into organized agriculture may have further diversified the diet. Recognition of the healing properties of foods and plants may have been discovered accidentally; it has been transferred from generation to generation. In the literature of many ancient cultures, there is recognition of the healthy aspects of fruit and vegetable consumption. The ancient texts of the Ayurveda refer to the medicinal and healing properties of several fruits, vegetables, herbs, and spices, which were also used for food purposes. Fruits such as apples, dates, pomegranates, and grapes, prevalent in the Mediterranean, were frequently mentioned in the Biblical literature. These fruits were associated with eternal life in ancient Egyptian and Sumerian culture.

1.1.1 Diet and Lifestyle Changes: the Missing Foods

We have observed tremendous changes in the food habits of humans in the past few hundred years; changes that have been even more dramatic in the post-World War II era. The search for a sea route to the spice-growing areas of the East and the subsequent discovery of continents and new forms of edible fruits and vegetables not only enhanced the food variety but also led to the transoceanic migration of several food crops (e.g., the introduction of tomato and potato to Europe and other parts of the world where these were traditionally not grown). However, geopolitical diversities, modern science, and economic changes all resulted in the development of new social food habits. Continued changes in the processing technologies to meet consumer preferences and lifestyle changes have caused the present state of increased caloric intake, sedentary habits, overconsumption of high energy foods due to increased portion sizes, and low intake of functional foods, resulting in a significant increase in the prevalence of several chronic degenerative diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and inflammatory diseases.

1.1.2 Social and Economic Burden of Chronic Degenerative Diseases

“Metabolic syndrome” refers to an aggregate of several physiological conditions that are indicators of the potential for future development of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and associated health problems. In general, obesity is an initial indication of the development of several other abnormalities such as hypertension and insulin resistance, further magnifying the complications. Thus, coronary heart disease (CHD), obesity, and type 2 diabetes have reached epidemic proportions around the world, and are the leading causes of the loss of living quality and productivity, as well as the high mortality rate in developed and developing countries (Bisbal et al., 2010). Recent estimations indicate that cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, obesity, cancer, and respiratory conditions account for 59% of the 56.5 million deaths annually (Jaganath, 2008).

Across the world, more than 220 million people have been estimated to be affected by diabetes (WHO Fact Sheet, 2011), and among these, type 2 diabetic incidences exceed 90% of the diagnosed cases. A recent report suggests that diabetic cases in the North American and Caribbean region have reached 37.4 million (International Diabetes Federation, 2010). Additionally, type 2 diabetes has been increasing among children in epidemic proportions (Kaufman, 2002). In North America, the occurrence of type 2 diabetes is more prevalent in African-American, Mexican-American, Native-American, and Asian-American children and young adults. However, the increase in obesity-linked diabetes is not limited to North America; it also occurs in affluent regions of other parts of the world, especially in economically emerging regions of Asia. Across the world, cases of type 2 diabetes are increasing rapidly, and such a rapid increase in a short period of time suggests the influence of environment, diet, and lifestyle risk factors in increases of type 2 diabetes. Genetic changes are unlikely to be predominant causative factors for a rapid increase in diabetes, but inherent genetic susceptibility can enhance the chances of its development. Type 2 diabetes is associated with obesity, and the number of people suffering from type 2 diabetes is predicted to rise to more than 350 million by 2030 (WHO/FAO, 2003).

Chronic degenerative diseases in general result in significant losses to society and the economy, in terms of lost productivity, increase in human suffering, and loss of living quality. In addition, the cumulative effects of the diseases create a heavy burden on the health-care system. The health-care costs and economic burden due to various types of cancer in the United States have been estimated to be in billions of dollars (Yabroff et al., 2007; healthservices.cancer.gov). Annual estimates of new cancer cases in the United States are estimated at over 1.5 million, with mortality close to half a million. According to the National Cancer Institute (“The Cost of Cancer”), the direct cost of cancer care was estimated at $104 billion and the indirect cost in terms of lost productivity and economic loss was estimated at $134 billion in 2006.

Diabetes is another disease whose costs weigh heavily on the health-care system. Diabetes can cause both microvascular (retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy) as well as macrovascular (heart attacks, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease) complications. Type 2 diabetes is the leading cause of blindness and end-stage renal failure in the United States (Klein, 1995). The risk of heart disease and stroke are two to four times more frequent in patients with diabetes; 50% of people with diabetes die due to cardiovascular disease. Diabetes, along with cardiovascular disease, has a significant socioeconomic impact on individuals, families, health systems, and countries. Recent estimates (Dall et al., 2010) suggest that economic burden from prediabetes and diabetes reached $218 billion in the United States in 2007, while the estimates in Canada were close to US$2 billion. The World Health Organization reported that between 2006 and 2015, China will lose US$558 billion in foregone national income due to heart disease, stroke, and diabetes alone. Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease have genetic causes, but other factors such as obesity, physical activity, and food intake have been shown to influence the pathophy­siology of both diseases significantly (Fitzgerald and Parekh, 2009). Thus, by adopting healthy living habits and reducing the development of chronic diseases, significant reductions in health-care costs can be achieved, with several indirect social and economic impacts.

1.2 HEALTH REGULATORY PROPERTIES OF FOODS: “PREVENTION IS BETTER THAN CURE”

Dietary patterns vary across the world, according to traditionally based, locally available food. However, increased globalization and changes in lifestyle habits have resulted in variations from traditional patterns, leading to an increased prevalence of chronic degenerative disease (Kris-Etherton et al., 2002). Daily intake of refined processed foods with a high glycemic index has been linked to increased risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Pancreatic β-cell dysfunction, dyslipidemia, and endothelial dysfunction are related to these problem diets (Törrönen et al., 2010). Abnormal glucose homeostasis can result in a multi-symptom disorder of energy homeostasis that includes obesity, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, hypertension, and dyslipidemia (Burton-Freeman, 2010; Hanhineva et al., 2010).

Several “healthy spots” have been recognized in the world. People living in these areas have characteristic diets and consume foods that may be primarily responsible for their health and longevity. Food habits in the Mediterranean region, Okinawa island (Suzuki et al.), and other regions in Asia lead to some general associations. Overeating, in comparison with eating only what is sufficient, is a factor that tends to promote health abnormalities. Mediterranean food is rich in fiber, fish, and polyphenols (red wine), with a reduced amount of red meat intake compared with the typical North American diet. This has been associated with reduced incidences of cardiovascular diseases (the so-called French paradox). Increased longevity among Okinawan people has been associated with consumption of fish and vegetables such as bitter melon and a range of legumes. Consumption of spices such as turmeric and cumin in the Indian diet has been associated with reduced incidence of cancers. Above all, an active and stress-free life is a key factor that determines the longevity and health of one’s life. The major characteristic of the Mediterranean diet to protect against diabetes includes a high intake of fiber, high intake of vegetable fat (in the form of monounsaturated fatty acids such as in olive oil), a low intake of trans fatty acids, and a moderate intake of alcohol (Martinez-Gonzalez et al., 2008). Details on several dietary patterns are available from several government sources.

1.2.1 Fruit and Vegetable Consumption and Disease Prevention

Fruits and vegetables are rich sources of a wide range of vital micronutrients, vitamins (provitamin A carotenoids, vitamin C, and folate), phytochemicals (non-provitamin A carotenoids and polyphenols), and fiber (Amiot and Lairon, 2010; Chapter 2). These components with a wide range of chemical structures and functionality provide different beneficial effects beyond simple nutrition, resulting in improved health. In general, fruits and vegetables are generally low-energy foods because of a high proportion of nondigestible carbohydrate polymers such as cellulose and pectin and lower levels of proteins and lipids. Thus, fruits and vegetables supplement the high-energy foods in diet and can be seen to provide a balance in the transit of food through the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), as well as to aid digestion and subsequent action by the gut microflora in the large intestine. The influence of fruit and vegetable components (prebiotics) in intestinal health, through viscosity modification of foods during their transition through the GIT, immunity modulation, prevention of inflammation, and maintenance of an ideal population of microflora (probiotics) is continuously being unraveled. Thus, secondary plant products such as carotenoids, polyphenols, sulforaphanes, indoles, and essential oils, in conjunction with a milieu of polymeric substances from fruits and vegetables, enhance the healthfulness of foods (Chapter 2). Nutritional recommendations in the majority of developed countries encourage increased consumption of fruits and vegetables (National Academy of Sciences, United States; Health Canada). Extensive campaigns to achieve this target (five-a-day or more) are reported to be successful in many areas, but consumption of fruits and vegetables is still below the recommended level in many countries. The influence of increased fruit and vegetable consumption and decreased incidences of several forms of cancer has been highlighted in several epidemiological studies (e.g., Steinmetz and Potter, 1991; Chapters 5, 6, 8, 11). An intake of fresh fruit and vegetables in an adequate quantity (400–500 g/day) is recommended to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and high blood pressure (Jaganath, 2008). In the United Kingdom, for optimum health, it is advised to consume five portions of fruit and vegetables (each comprising at least 80 g) on a daily basis (Williams, 1995).

Plant-based foods have been utilized for therapeutic purposes since ancient times and are still being extensively used today. The Ayurvedic system in India has used medicinal plants, herbs, and foods for preventing the development of diseases and also as a means of healing (nccam.nih.gov/health/ayurveda/D287_BKG.pdf; www.ayurvedahealth.org/symposium09.pdf). Ayurveda has approached disease prevention and cure in a holistic manner, and when the root causes of many diseases involve abnormal functioning of the body at multiple levels, targeting these with various types of ingredients is only logical. The mechanistic aspects of the action of several components of fruits and vegetables have been revealed through several studies, and new aspects are still being discovered. A fundamental property of several functional food ingredients, specifically those from fruits and vegetables, is that they are very strong antioxidants, and are sometimes as efficient as vitamins C and E. The conjugated structures of these components can accept unpaired electrons and form a stable structure and gradually detoxify these through the enzymatic antioxidant system. Although the beneficial properties of functional food components have been joined to their antioxidant properties, this is only partly true. Apart from being strong antioxidants, these components are able to modulate biochemical pathways within the cell, especially when some of these pathways are overactive, such as in the case of cancer. Inhibition of calcium-calmodulin-mediated biochemical reactions by polyphenols and inhibition of cyclooxygenase by curcumin (active ingredient in turmeric) are examples of specific inhibition of enzymes. Still at another level, functional food ingredients can influence gene expression. Several genes that are upregulated during inflammation and cancer development, such as tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukins, protein kinase C, cyclins, and cyclin-dependent kinases, are downregulated by functional food ingredients. Phenolic compounds are also strong inhibitors of carbohydrate-digesting enzymes such as α-amylase and α-glucosidase and can function in hyperglycemia management linked to type 2 diabetes (Chapters 13 and 14). Therefore, natural forms of α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitors from plant-based foods provide dietary strategies to control postprandial hyperglycemia, and could be used in therapies with minimal side effects (Da Silva et al., 2010). Thus, several functional food components are able to provide multilevel protection to the body from abnormalities.

In addition to understanding the mechanisms behind the health beneficial properties of functional food components, there are several aspects that need to be understood. Most of the studies demonstrating health beneficial properties of these components were conducted using in vitro systems, and the observations were generally extended to whole body situations. In most of these studies, unusually high levels of components were tested, which appear to be unrealistic when the bioavailability of these components is taken into consideration. The absorption of polyphenols is very low, in the range of 0.1% to less than 1%, leading to plasma levels of around 1 µM or less. Therefore, even if one consumes large amounts of polyphenol-containing foods, the plasma level of the ingredients could be low. At present, it is not clear if this is a defense mechanism to prevent excessive absorption of these compounds. Considering the evolutionary significance of this mechanism, this may be protective. The interesting aspect is that even at the low levels absorbed, these components are active as antioxidants, modulate second messenger systems and biochemical pathways and, above all, modulate gene expression. In several in vitro studies, polyphenols were selectively able to kill cancer cells without affecting the growth and proliferation of normal cells at 1–2 µM levels, at which concentration these show antioxidant activity and modulation of biochemical pathways. Thus, it is likely that through constant consumption of adequate amounts of functional foods, a threshold concentration of functional food components could be built up within the body at a protective level. If cancer cells originate through mutation, these cells are likely to be killed at the level of functional food components present within the body through consistent consumption within a balanced diet. And this may be the protective mechanism that gets translated into disease prevention. Consumption of functional foods that can contain several grams of polyphenols does not appear to cause any problems as seen in many culture-specific food systems, and achieving a few micromolar levels of these ingredients appears achievable.

Another important aspect of consuming functional foods is that, whether all the ingredients are absorbed or not, the foods containing these ingredients are in contact with the inside cell layers of the GIT, which is a primary site of immune response and initiation of several abnormalities, including inflammation. Protecting these cells is as important as protecting the internal cells of the body. The internal cell layers of the GIT are the primary site of exposure to several food and nonfood chemicals, some of which may even be harmful. In some way, functional food components may have a protective role during the transition of foods through the GIT. In addition, once these reach the intestine, a beneficial microflora can digest and positively modulate the food matrix, releasing several bound functional food components that can get absorbed and enter into the circulation. The large intestine is thus a site with an increased potential to develop several abnormalities, and adequate levels of functional food consumption may have a role in preventing these abnormalities (e.g., inflammation, ulcerative colitis). Future research will provide answers to these questions.

This book provides a consolidated approach to provide evidence for the importance of functional foods in the diet. At present, there is much debate regarding the relation of diet and health. Even though the importance of functional foods is highlighted in the media, the public is exposed to conflicting messages on food consumption. It is interesting to note that several multinational food companies are using functional food ingredients at increasing levels in some popular foods. It is likely that certain types of food will be classified as potential threats to health, as even legislative bodies are moving forward to deter the consumption of foods with high levels of sugar and fat among children as a measure to prevent childhood obesity. Such pressures will increase as the cost of health care increases, and are even projected to reach 50% of the government budget, leaving little for other areas of necessity. Thus, the importance of functional foods and healthy living habits will come to the forefront of a positive social change across the world.

REFERENCES

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Bisbal, C., Lambert, K., and Avignon, A. 2010. Antioxidants and glucose metabolism disorders. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care, 13, 439–446.

Burton-Freeman, B. 2010. Postprandial metabolic events and fruit derived phenolics: a review of the science. British Journal of Nutrition, 104, S1–S14.

The cost of cancer. Available at: www.cancer.gov/aboutnci/servingpeople/cancer-statistics/costofcancer January 12, 2011.

Dall, T.M., Zhang, Y., Chen, Y.J., Quick, W.W., Yang, W.J., and Fogli, J. 2010. The economic burden of diabetes. Health Affairs, 29, 297–303.

Da Silva, P.M., Kwon, Y.-I., Apostolidis, E., Lajolo, F.M., Genovese, M.I., and Shetty, K. 2010. Evaluation of red currants (Ribes ruberum L.), black currants (Ribes nigrum L.), red and green gooseberries (Ribes uva-crispa) for potential management of type 2 diabetes and hypertension using in vitro models. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 34, 639–660.

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Fitzgerald, N. and Parekh, N. 2009. Vegetable intake as a preventative measure against type 2 diabetes and cancer. In Fruit and Vegetable Consumption and Health. A. Papareschi and H. Eppolito, eds. New York: Nova Science, pp. 81–99.

Hanhineva, K., Törrönen, R., Bondia-Pons, I., Pekkinen, J., Kolehmainen, M., Mykkänen, H., and Poutanen, K. 2010. Impact of dietary polyphenols on carbohydrate metabolism. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 11, 1365–1402.

International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas. Available at: www.diabetesatlas.org/content/nac-data. August, 2010.

Jaganath, I. 2008. Overview of health-promoting compounds in fruit and vegetables. In Improving the Health-Promoting Properties of Fruit and Vegetable Products. F.A. Tomás-Barberán and M.I. Gil, eds. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 3–37.

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2

Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

Chung-Ja C. Jackson and Gopinadhan Paliyath

Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food.

—Hippocrates, ca. 460–377 B.C.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The terms “functional foods” and “functional food ingredients/nutraceuticals” are applied broadly to foods and food constituents, respectively, that provide specific health or medical benefits, including the prevention and treatment of diseases, as well as nutritional value (the term nutraceuticals is synonymously used for functional food ingredients in several countries). The practice of using certain foods or plants for the prevention or treatment of diseases in human societies must have originated far back in time, as hunters and gatherers did so long ago. Even primates (the closest living relatives of Homo sapiens) are known to use medicinal herbs. Nearly 2500 years ago, Hippocrates proclaimed, “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food.” Contemporary works by the ancient Indian sage Charaka (Charaka Samhita) is the foundation of modern day Ayurveda which relies heavily on foods and herbs with medicinal qualities to heal the malfunctioning of the body. Our ancestors did not know why those plants produced the observed effects, and the discovery of medicinal properties of specific plants and foods was probably accidental or the result of trial and error. It is conceivable that certain edible plants and other foods (but not necessarily the ones that were consumed on a regular basis) were helpful in alleviating sickness, which led to the knowledge of the medicinal properties of such foods. Repeated trial and error could have led to the categorization of specific foods for treating particular diseases or other medical conditions. The use of specific decoctions containing phytochemicals was scientifically practiced in Ayurvedic, Greek, and Oriental systems of medicine, though the precise mechanism of the observed effects of the ingredients was not completely understood.