Fundamentals of Public Communication Campaigns E-Book

Jonathan Matusitz

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Seitenzahl: 1354

Beschreibung

The most comprehensive and up-to-date textbook on public communication campaigns currently available Fundamentals of Public Communication Campaigns provides students and practitioners with the theoretical and practical knowledge needed to create and implement effective messaging campaigns for an array of real-world scenarios. Assuming no prior expertise in the subject, this easily accessible textbook clearly describes more than 700 essential concepts of public communication campaigns. Numerous case studies illustrate real-world media campaigns, such as those promoting COVID-19 vaccinations and social distancing, campaigns raising awareness of LGBTQ+ issues, entertainment and Hollywood celebrity campaigns, and social activist initiatives including the #MeToo movement and Black Lives Matter (BLM). Opening with a thorough introduction to the Fundamentals of Public Communication Campaigns, the text examines a wide array of different health communication campaigns, social justice and social change campaigns, and counter-radicalization campaigns. Readers learn about the theoretical foundations of public communication campaigns, the roles of persuasion and provocation, how people's attitudes can be changed through fear appeals, the use of ethnographic research in designing campaigns, the ethical principles of public communication campaigns, the potential negative effects of public messaging, and much more. * Describes each of the 10 steps of public communication campaigns, from defining the topic and setting objectives to developing optimal message content and updating the campaign with timely and relevant information * Covers public communication campaigns from the United States as well as 25 other countries, including Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Egypt, India, Israel, Singapore, South Korea, and the United Kingdom * Offers a template for creating or adapting messages for advertising, public relations, health, safety, entertainment, social justice, animal rights, and many other scenarios * Incorporates key theories such as the Diffusion of Innovations (DoI) theory, social judgment theory (SJT), the Health Belief Model (HBM), social cognitive theory (SCT), and self-determination theory (SDT) * Includes in-depth case studies of communication campaigns of Islamophobia, antisemitism, white supremacism, and violent extremism. Fundamentals of Public Communication Campaigns is the perfect textbook for undergraduate students across the social sciences and the humanities, and a valuable resource for general readers with interest in the subject.

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Fundamentals of Public Communication Campaigns

Jonathan Matusitz

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Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Introduction

Public Communication Campaigns

Changes in the Media Landscape

What This Textbook Offers

A Comprehensive Focus

An Easy Focus

An International Focus

A Practical Focus

A Theoretical Focus

Summary of All Chapters

Notes

PART I Introducing Public Communication Campaigns

CHAPTER 1 Definitions, Strategies, and Background Information

What Are Public Communication Campaigns?

A Method of Reform and Governance

Public Communication Campaigns vs. Advertising

Two Main Types of Public Communication Campaigns

Communication

Definitions

Communication as a Mediator of Social Change

Community-Based and Interpersonal Communication

Messaging

The “Public” Aspect of Campaigns

Public Communication

Public Sphere

Segmented Communication

Personal Messaging

Focal Segments

Experiential Identity

Diffusion of Innovations (DoI): An Introduction

Five Steps of Diffusion

Four Elements of DoI

Diffusion of Innovations (DoI): Social Capital

Social Network Analysis

Centralized, Decentralized, and All-Channel Networks

Case Study: The Guy-to-Guy Project

Diffusion of Innovations (DoI): Opinion Leadership

Friends and Colleagues as Opinion Leaders

Social Influencers in the Internet Era

Public Communication Campaigns in History

Case Study 1: The United States

Case Study 2: The Temperance Movement

Case Study 3: Singapore

Current Strategies of Communication Campaigns

Social Marketing

Marketing Perspectives

Five Types of Social Marketing

Social Norms Marketing

Social Norms

Types of Social Norms

Peer Groups

Third-Person Effect

The Theory of Planned Behavior

Notes

CHAPTER 2 The 10 Steps of Public Communication Campaigns

Step 1: Define and Select Your Topic

Step 2: Set Goals and Objectives

Step 3: Analyze and Understand the Situation Beforehand

Planning

Formative Research

Communication Design

Step 4: Define Your Audience(s)

Audience Analysis

Audience Beliefs

Audience Values

Audience Needs

Audience Adaptation

Audience Perception

Step 5: Understand the Timeline and Budget

Allocating the Budget

Government Funding

Step 6: Choose Appropriate Media

What Medium to Use?

Media Advocacy

Audience Engagement on Social Networks

Building a Website for the Campaign?

Uses & Gratifications (U&G) Theory

Step 7: Develop Optimal Message Content

Keep the Message Simple

Emphasize Benefits over Risks

Avoid Confusion

Copyright and Intellectual Property Issues

Step 8: Avoid Monologic Communication and Interact with Your Audience(s)

Monologic Communication

Dialogic Communication

Communal Mindset

Step 9: Update the Campaign with Timely, Relevant, and Accurate Information

Boost the Confidence to Make Changes

Update Campaign Memes

Step 10: Evaluate the Overall Campaign

What Is Meant by “Evaluation“?

Beginning at the Outset of the Campaign

Different Platforms for Evaluation

Notes

CHAPTER 3 Persuasion in Public Communication Campaigns

Three Types of Messages

Three Paths of Persuasion

Logos, Pathos, and Ethos

Logos

Pathos

Ethos

Behavior Change Communication (BCC)

Behavioral Intention

Belief Change

Priming

Repeated Exposure

Self-Affirmation Theory

The Three Components

Self-Integrity

The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Central Route

Peripheral Route

The Transtheoretical Model

The Five Stages

Application to the Struggles of Obesity

Understanding Attitude

Attitude Object

Attitude Change

Ego

Social Judgment Theory (SJT)

The Three-Part Latitude

Persuasion as a Two-Stage Process

Attitude Accessibility Theory

Examples

Biased Message Processing

Expectancy Theory

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Three Components of Expectancy Theory

The 10 Ethical Principles of Public Communication Campaigns

1—Ethical Campaigners Are Factual

2—Ethical Campaigners Are Honest

3—Ethical Campaigners Act with Integrity

4—Ethical Campaigners Balance the Message

5—Ethical Campaigners Demonstrate Respect

6—Ethical Campaigners Give Informed Choices

7—Ethical Campaigners Do Not Violate Individuals’ Autonomy

8—Ethical Campaigners Avoid Conflicts of Interests

9— E thical Campaigners Avoid Unnecessarily Privileging One Group over Another

10—Ethical Campaigners Are Responsible

Persuasive Effects of Public Communication Campaigns

Five Positive Effects of Public Communication Campaigns

Unintended Effects

Indirect Routes

The 12 Negative Effects of Public Communication Campaigns

1—Low External Locus of Control

2—Messages that Produce the Opposite Behavior

3—Reactance

4—Widening Disparity

5—Opportunity Cost

6—Enabling

7—Loss of Self-Esteem

8—Less Enjoyment

9—Culpability

10—Increased Danger to One’s Health

11—Misunderstanding

12—Desensitization

Notes

CHAPTER 4 Thought-Provoking Public Communication Campaigns

The Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM)

Past Research

The EPPM as a Process Model

Sensation Seeking

High-Sensation Seekers

Sensation Seeking Targeting (SENTAR)

Case Study

Sensation Value

Effects of Alarmist Language

Negative Effects: Case Studies

Nonconsequentialism: An Argument against Alarmist Language

Visual Materials

Responsive Chord

Vivid Information

Case Study: Climate Communication Campaigns

Provocation: Definitions

Case Study: Antismoking Campaigns in England

Shockvertising

Controversial, Troubling, Explicit, and Crass

Selective Perception Theory

Perceptual Defense and the Salience Effect

Framing Theory

Framing a Campaign

Gain-Framed vs. Loss-Framed Messages

Case Study: People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA)

PETA as an Organization

Techniques and Communications

PETA’s Campaigns

Campaign #1: “I’d Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur”

Women as Headline-Grabbers

Female Sexuality and Female Bodies

Campaign #2: “Holocaust on Your Plate”

Holocaust, Animals, and Himmler

Personhood

Criticism

Describing PETA’s Campaigns through Self-Efficacy Theory and Inoculation Theory

Notes

PART II Health Communication Campaigns

CHAPTER 5 Health Communication Campaigns: General Perspectives

Perceptions of Health over Time

Public Health

Communication Tools

Goals and Strategies

Noncommercial Aims

How Effective Are Health Communication Campaigns?

Perceptions of Mass Media Messages about Health

Five-Step Strategy for Better Health Communication Campaigns

Antismoking Campaigns

The Health Belief Model (HBM)

The Negative Effects of Stigmatizing Smokers in Campaigns

Case Study: The truth Campaign

“Finish It”

Methods

truth’s Most Recognized Media

Effects of the truth Campaign

Costs of the Campaign

Bar-Based Interventions

Harm Reduction Campaigns

Campaigns to Legalize Prostitution

Case Study: DanceSafe

Criticism of Harm Reduction Campaigns

Case Study: HIV Campaigns in South Africa

HIV Campaigns

World AIDS Day

Case Study: Examining Social Determinants of Health (SDH) and ABC Behaviors in Uganda

Risky Sexual Behaviors

ABC Behaviors

ABC Behaviors Campaign in Uganda

Tackling Gender Inequities

Situation Today

Fisheries

Case Study: The “Clean India Mission” Campaign

Notes

CHAPTER 6 Differences in Literacy and Culture in Health Campaigns

Health Literacy

Four Message Characteristics

eHealth and the Digital Divide

Bridging the Digital Divide

E-Inclusion

Case Study: UNICEF’s Reimagine Education Campaign

Bridging the Digital Divide

Examples across the World

Facing Cultural Barriers

Antismoking Campaigns

Understanding Culture-Specific Interpretations

Case Study: Jamaica

Patois or Creole

The Health Literacy Problem

Targeted Community Intervention (TCI) for HIV/AIDS

Interventions through Oral Culture

The Five Attributes of Culture

Habitus

Structure

Socially Constructed and Historically Transmitted

Software of the Mind

Learned

Case Study: Gerber in Africa

Differences within Africa

Considering the Broader Picture and Formative Research

Case Study: A Case for Cultural Competency

Cultural Awareness, Knowledge, and Skill

Reducing Cross-Cultural Misunderstandings

Ethnographic Considerations for Health Campaigns

Participant Observation

Discovering Symbolic Cultures

Implications for Health Communication Campaigns

Notes

CHAPTER 7 Public Communication Campaigns during the COVID-19 Pandemic

COVID-19: Definitions and Facts

The Great Lockdown

Suicides, Mental Health Disorders, and Alcoholism

Risk Communication

Risk Communication vs. Crisis Communication

Strategic Communication

Infodemic Management

Strategies for COVID-19 Communication Campaigns

Early Campaigns as Infodemic Management

The 12 Principles of Social Distancing Campaigns

Case Study: Vietnam

Quick and Appropriate Response

“Jealous Coronavirus” Video

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)

Consistent, Truthful Messages

Messages of Unity and Community Responsibility

COVID-19 Vaccination Campaigns

Vaccination-Driven Campaigns

Avoiding Manufacturing Consent

The Threat of Vaccine Hesitancy

Case Study: Israel

Public Communication Campaigns

Ultra-Orthodox Jews as Change Agents

Arab Communities in Israel

Countercampaign: Anti-Vaxxers

Anti-Vaxxers

The Role of Social Media

Notes

CHAPTER 8 Entertainment–Education, Digital Games, and Celebrity Campaigns

Behavioral and Social Change

Social Impact Entertainment (SIE)

Case Studies

EE in the United States

EE in the Latino World

EE in Africa

EE in Asia

Narrative Involvement

The Sabido Methodology

Identification and Wishful Identification

Perceived Similarity

Parasocial Interaction

Liking

Markers

Digital Games as Health Communication Campaigns

Gamification

Games for Health Promotion Programs

Game Features

Games for Change (GfC), Serious Games, and Persuasive Games

Serious Games

Persuasive Games

Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Autonomy

Competence

Relatedness

Dasein

Celebrity Health Campaigns

Celebrities’ Participation

Public Service Announcement (PSAs)

Case Study: Prince William’s Mental Health Campaign

The Heads Up Campaign

The Heads Together Campaign

Impact of Celebrity Health Disclosure

The Kylie Effect

The Selena Effect

Notes

PART III Communication Campaigns For Social Justice and Social Change

CHAPTER 9 Social Justice and Social Change

What Is Social Justice?

Social Movements

Social Justice Warriors (SJWs)?

The Ultimate Objective of Social Justice Campaigns: Social Change

What Is Social Change?

Manifestations of Social Change

Case Study 1: Campaign against Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Africa

Statistics

The End FGM/C Social Change Campaign

Communicating Facts to the Public

Advocating for Human Rights

Absolute Rights and Natural Rights

Conscientization

Critical Questioning

Citizen Participation

Case Study 2: Campaign against Honor Killing in Pakistan

Beyond Individual Family Matters and across Cultures

Humanity Healing International’s Campaign

Citizen Participation

Campaigning for Environmental Policies

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

Ecological Responsibility

Green Campaigns for Young Green Audiences

Nongovernmental Organizations

The Types of Nongovernmental Organizations

The Four Orientations

Notes

CHAPTER 10 The #MeToo Campaign

Sexual Misconduct: Key Terms and Definitions

Sexual Harassment and Rape Culture

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)

Sexual Misconduct: Statistics and Facts

Situation in the United States

Situation on US College Campuses

Situation in the US Workplace

The #MeToo Campaign: General Perspectives

The #MeToo Movement

Hashtag Activism and User Generated Content

The #MeToo Campaign: Positive Impact in the United States

Removing Perpetrators from Positions of Power

Impact on US Employer Disciplinary Practices

Impact on US College Campuses

Impact on US Legal Reforms

The #MeToo Campaign: Positive Impact around the World

Australia

South Korea

France, Sweden, and the UK

Theories: Spiral of Silence

A Platform for Women

Battling Long-Established Traditions

Theories: Muted Group Theory

Marginalized or Muted Groups

Case Study: China

Theories: Intimate Publicity, Epistemic Injustice, and Critical Race Feminism

Epistemic Injustice

Critical Race Feminism

Theories: Social Identity Theory

In-Groups vs. Out-Groups

Male vs. Female Perceptions of #MeToo

The #MeToo Campaign: Negative Impact

Egypt and China

The Danger of Passive Empathy

Notes

CHAPTER 11 Public Communication Campaigns for LGBTQ+ Communities

LGBTQ+: Key Terms and Definitions

Gender Expression and Gender Identity

Opposition and Homophobia

An Introduction to LGBTQ+ Campaigns

Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and Institutional Actors

Signaling and Human Rights Language

Case Study 1: The GLAAD Campaigns

The “Be an Ally and a Friend” Campaign

The “Talking to the Middle” Campaign

GLAAD’s Campaign through Televised Productions

Applying Agenda-Setting Theory to GLAAD’s Campaigns

Implications for Campaigns

Making LGBTQ+ a Salient Issue

Queer Theory

Case Study 2: Campaign against Homophobia in Poland

Gay and Lesbian Organizations in Poland

Campaign against Homophobia

Challenging Ignorance

The Situation Today

Case Study 3: LGBTQ+ Campaigns in Brazil

The Situation Today

The Brazil without Homophobia Campaign

The Free & Equal Campaign

The Diversity in School Campaign

Notes

CHAPTER 12 Black Lives Matter Campaigns

Growth of a Movement

Roots in the Civil Rights Movement

George Floyd’s Death

Black Lives Matter UK

BLM Campaigns: An Introduction

Framing a New Visual Rhetoric

Symbolic Representation

Campaign against Police Brutality

Three Types of Victimhood

Campaign Zero

Campaign against Systemic Racism

Campaign against the Unfair Justice System

Combating the Four Domains of Power

Denouncing Respectability Politics

A Note on BLM’s Social Media Usage

Forming Coalitions with Like-Minded Activists

Slacktivism

Intersectionality: An Introduction

Rooted in Historical Marginalization

Embedded in Neo-Marxist and Feminist Scholarship

Allyship

Intersectionality and BLM

Case Study 1: Alicia Garza’s Herstory Campaign

Case Study 2: The BLMTO Campaign

Standpoint Theory, Critical Race Theory, and Critical Social Justice

Critical Race Theory

Disagreement with Critical Race Theory

Critical Social Justice

Notes

PART IV Terrorist, Extremist, And Anti–Terrorist Communication Campaigns

CHAPTER 13 Terrorist Communication Campaigns: Two Major Case Studies

Violent Extremism, Radicalization, and Indoctrination

Radicalization

Indoctrination

Terrorist Communications

Terrorist vs. Traditional Communication Campaigns

Terrorist Communications until and after the Twenty-First Century

Case Study 1: The FARC in Colombia

The FARC’s Ideology

The FARC’s Structure

The FARC’s Communications

Four Types of Audiences

La Voz de la Resistencia

Applying Speech Act Theory to the FARC’s Public Communication Campaigns

Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Acts

The Bolivarian Populist Campaign

Using Human Rights Language

The FARC’s Propaganda

Institutional Theory and Organizational Legitimacy

The Deception of the Marquetalia Campaign

Case Study 2: The Rwanda Genocide

Why the Rwanda Genocide?

An Introduction to Radio Campaigns

Spreading Propaganda and Lies

Radio as “Truth-Teller” in Rwanda

Radio Machete

Kill-or-Be-Killed Frame

Valérie Bemeriki: Charismatic Broadcaster

Media System Dependency Theory

Euphemisms in the Radio Machete Campaign

Euphemisms: A Description

Euphemisms in Terrorism

Euphemisms in the Rwanda Genocide

Euphemisms for Killing

Euphemisms in Kinyarwanda

Euphemisms to Hurt Women

Notes

CHAPTER 14 Public Communication Campaigns of White Supremacism

A Violent Ideology

Statistics on Right-Wing Terrorism

Key Terms on White Supremacism

White Supremacist Campaigning through the Manosphere

The MGTOW Campaign

Global Participation

The Alt-Right

Leaderless Resistance

Case Study: “It’s Okay to Be White“

Social Media Platforms

Different Locations

White Male Victimization Narratives

The Proud Boys

The Proud Boys’ Ideology

The Proud Boys’ Campaign Tactics

Case Study: The “2020 Voter Fraud” Campaign

Opponents to the November 2020 Election Results

The 2021 US Capitol Riots

QAnon

Group Polarization and Groupthink

Notes

CHAPTER 15 Public Communication Campaigns of Islamophobia and Antisemitism

Islamophobia: An Introduction

Origins of the Word

Current Definitions

Satirical Cartoons

Case Study 1: Islamophobia in India

Hindutva or Hindu Nationalism

The Persistence of Islamophobia

Islamophobia during the COVID-19 Pandemic in India: General Information

Fears of Islamic Revivalism

From Unfounded Anxieties to Othering

Public Communication Campaign of Islamophobic Hashtags

#CoronaJihad

#TablighiJamatVirus

Disastrous Consequences

An Application of Terror Management Theory (TMT)

Cultural Survival through Prejudice

TMT and Islamophobia

Antisemitism: An Introduction

Antisemitic Ideology and Prejudice

Scapegoating and False Accusations

Holocaust Denial

Case Study 2: Antisemitism in Hungary

Past Perspectives

Contemporary Perspectives

The “Christian-National” Campaign in Hungary

A Reminiscence of Hungarian Complicity in the Holocaust

Hate Communication Campaigns

Intertextuality

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion

Notes

CHAPTER 16 Antiterrorist Public Communication Campaigns

Winning the War of Ideas

Counterradicalization Campaigns

Counterradicalization vs. Deradicalization

The “Soft Power“ Approach

Moving to the Online Space

The Terrorists’ YouTube Effect

Strategies for Pushing Back

Case Study 1: Exit USA

Case Study 2: Exit Norway

Case Study 3: Building Community Resilience

Community Resilience

Building Community Resilience

Case Study 4: Average Mohamed

Targeting Muslim Youths

Emphasizing the Self, Not the Other

Case Study 5: Saudi Arabia’s Prevention Campaigns

Prevention, Rehabilitation, and After Care (PRAC)

The Sakinah Campaign

Case Study 6: Antiterrorism through Entertainment–Education (EE) in the Middle East

Case Study 7: Say No to Terror

Rejecting Violence

Exposing Jihadism through Videos

Case Study 8: Reparation Campaigns in Australia

Aboriginal Australians Today

Racist Violence and Indirect Terrorism

Reparation Campaigns

Study by Donovan and Leivers

The Mixed Results of Antiterrorist Communication Campaigns

Notes

Glossary

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Direct outputs of the Finish It campaign (2014–2016)

Guide

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Glossary

Index

End User License Agreement

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Introduction

Divided into 16 chapters, this textbook describes the fundamentals of public communication campaigns for beginners; more specifically, for large audiences like undergraduate students and readers from both the United States and countries around the world. Unlike most works on that subject, this textbook has a considerably high international focus, a thorough description of over 700 basic concepts, and numerous real-life case studies―all of which being infused with communication theories. While this is not a perfect volume and there is still progress to be made, the author makes the point that successful public communication campaigns are ones that diversify their strategies and discard the notion that information alone is the solution to induce individual and/or social change. Effective campaigns are no longer based on the erroneous perception that society will improve if audiences acquire more information. Rather, campaigns are increasingly paying attention to context and combining their traditional media and behavior change strategies with social media and direct, face-to-face community action. In the end, this makes the social and human environment more supportive of the desired campaign outcomes.1

PUBLIC COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGNS

Public communication campaigns are typically large-scale initiatives designed, sponsored, and run by state actors or nonstate actors to alter people’s behaviors, attitudes, social norms, and/or beliefs.2 As Gültekin and Gültekin (2012) reason,3 a campaign aims at mobilizing the public’s conscience and sustaining this conscience with solid strategies on communication platforms. Campaigns can influence people at the individual, the social, and/or the institutional level. The majority of them seek to change behavior at the individual level, and must take specific individual factors into consideration―those factors that underlie behavioral intention and behavior within a given target audience.4 Campaigns tend to be presented in different forms and serve various purposes, with the most prevalent ones created for promoting sociopolitical causes. Others are for public health, social programs, charitable causes, well-being, and safety. Most communication campaigns are supported by entities such as governments, private corporations, nonprofit organizations, communities, and social change promoters.5

In order to modify behavior, we need to understand people’s behaviors when designing campaigns. Understanding the reasons that affect intention and behavior is important for laying the groundwork for the creation, implementation, and evaluation of effective public communication campaigns.6 Communication scholars have devoted a great deal of attention to the content and impacts of messages on audiences. Public health campaigns, in particular, are often addressed in books and scholarly studies, arguably due to their purported intent to champion social good instead of harm. Nevertheless, other types of public communication campaigns―like those of terrorist movements or campaigns for Islamophobia―have been understudied for their potential to produce undesirable effects. In addition to social change, public communication campaigns can be an instrument of self-insight and remedy. Whether it is meant for good or bad purposes is contingent upon us and our value system—the approaches that we take to change people’s minds at work and at home, and how we consider the practice of persuasion with strangers and loved ones.

CHANGES IN THE MEDIA LANDSCAPE

All communication is humankind’s fundamental symbolic resource for regulating the environment.7 Today, communication brings together media and persuasion to change social conditions. Mass media campaigns are often designed to expose high volumes of people to messages through regular uses of traditional media, such as TV, radio, and newspapers. However, exposure through existing media like these is generally passive.8 This is why a combination of traditional media, social media, interpersonal relationships, segmented communication, and culturally tailored messaging to audiences are more likely to make a public communication campaign efficient and thriving.9 Large-scale public communication programs today necessitate mass communication campaign strategies, as marked by the investments of time, money, and other resources in most of contemporary initiatives. Success or failure in campaigning depends mainly on campaign managers’ skills in crafting effective communication (including social media) campaigns. The strategies include opposition research, segmented targeting of audiences, continual adaptation of messages, and step-by-step tracking of issues. In this new era of digital communications and around-the-clock news cycles, undivided attention must be given to message delivery, audience feedback, and unintended consequences.10

The media landscape has metamorphosed since the dawn of the twenty-first century. Although long-established methods of communication are still important, new platforms of public communication are constantly emerging through digitalization, the internet, and social media.11 The media landscape in modern societies has gradually been saturated with a proliferation of media outlets and options, presenting audiences with alternatives to fulfill their media-related needs.12 Audiences frequently use a mélange of media and content types to absorb issues raised by public communication campaigns.13 Publics have split into subgroups across platforms to come into contact with various online communities around certain niche interests, politics, ideologies, or hobbies like music and sports.14 Online communities consist of cultures of participation in which members’ activities form a collective type of sense-making.15 Taken as a whole, owing to the changes in the media landscape, public communication campaigns need to be aware that they have to grow more sophisticated and strategic.

WHAT THIS TEXTBOOK OFFERS

It is important to understand that, for a college textbook to be successful in the social sciences, particularly if it is intended for international audiences, it must meet five main criteria: A comprehensive focus, an easy focus, an international focus, a practical focus, and a theoretical focus.

A Comprehensive Focus

This textbook is divided into four parts: (1) Introducing Public Communication Campaigns, (2) Health Communication Campaigns, (3) Communication Campaigns for Social Justice and Social Change, and (4) Terrorist, Extremist, and Anti-Terrorist Communication Campaigns. Each of the four parts contains four chapters. Most major works that have been available in the past and current literature only cover one or two parts. Under existing circumstances, it is important to teach students and practitioners alike how to create and implement public communication campaigns from a wide array of perspectives―including those produced by organizations like Black Lives Matter. Enter the last topic of the fourth part of the book: antiterrorist communication campaigns. Not only are counterradicalization communicators moving to the online space to counter (would-be) terrorists, but they can also assist volunteers or authorities in designing messages that help societies win the war of ideas against enemies (both external forces and enemies from within). Even communication campaigns against female genital mutilation (FGM) and honor killing are addressed. In a nutshell, this textbook is the most comprehensive one on public communication campaigns.

An Easy Focus

To date, no major textbook on public communication campaigns has been written for large audiences like undergraduate students and readers from both the United States and countries around the world. As will be explained in the next section (on the competition with other books), the few major volumes that have been published on that subject are certainly well written and thought-out, but the content is not written with the intention of explaining the fundamentals of public communication campaigns to beginners. Rather, the language is too elevated and theoretical for large publics or these volumes focus too much on one part of the world or other topics that fall outside the scope of this textbook. More importantly, this textbook includes over 700 fundamental concepts of campaigns that are in bold writing and clearly defined for readers. Each chapter is markedly different and includes case studies to which both young and older audiences can relate. For example, there are case studies on COVID-19 campaigns in several nations, LGBTQ+ initiatives in South America, and Hollywood celebrity health campaigns. At the end of this textbook, readers can look through a glossary that lists and defines all key terms and concepts used across the 16 chapters.

An International Focus

Most books on that subject tend to overly concentrate on projects in the United States. Although it is true that, for message designers and common citizens alike, the immense accessibility of both mainstream and social media in the United States facilitates the creation and impact of campaigns, most books tend to overlook the efforts made in other countries. As such, this volume includes public communication campaigns from both the United States and a whopping 25 other countries. These countries are Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Egypt, Hungary, India, Israel, Jamaica, Jordan, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Somalia, South Africa, South Korea, the United Kingdom, Uganda, and Vietnam. It is the author’s hope that this international focus will open the reader’s minds and perspectives in regards to public communication campaigns and how they become both a familiar and essential component of the civic culture of those nations and an important policy tool used by state actors and nonstate actors across six continents.

A Practical Focus

To make sound and educated choices and apply methods in the most optimal way, campaign designers need to be conscious of what is available and understand the fundamental principles and processes inherent to large-scale communication projects. Chapter 2, in particular, is on the 10 steps of public communication campaigns. It provides a detailed template for practitioners or scholars who need to create or adapt messages to scenarios in such areas as advertising, public relations, health, safety, personal well-being, entertainment, social justice, animal rights, and even terrorism and antiterrorism―among a myriad of others. Underlining the structure is the easy step-by-step process, which provides directions for all endeavors and suggestions for all types of messages. Chapter 2 explains how a public communication campaign is to be planned from start to finish by identifying what is to be done, for what purpose, by whom, for which audience, on what platform, within what time frame, and with what expected outcomes. The 10 steps show that substantial consideration must be exercised in crafting a campaign and that the key individuals involved in the implementation or supervision comprehend the overall purpose and the courses of action.

A Theoretical Focus

Many theories are integrated in this textbook because they help understand the procedures that actuate campaign effects and, especially for the discipline of communication, the theoretical foundations for the production of effective messages to inform, persuade, and inspire publics.16 Theories serve a diversity of equally important purposes, all of which are geared towards cultivating the ability to think about and understand the issues in question. In addition, reinforcing a campaign with a theoretical foundation can both sustain its development and serve as a basis for its application and evaluation.17 This textbook includes both mainstream communication theories and other essential theories that are often missing in the literature. The mainstream theories in this book include the Diffusion of Innovations (DoI) theory, framing theory, agenda-setting theory, social judgment theory (SJT), the Uses & Gratifications (U&G) theory, the Health Belief Model (HBM), the Transtheoretical Model, the Theory of Planned Behavior, the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), self-efficacy theory, social cognitive theory (SCT), social learning theory (SLT), and social movement theory (SMT)―to name a few. In most cases, the theories were applied to specific case studies of public communication campaigns. Other essential theories, like self-determination theory (SDT) and media dependency theory, have surprisingly been rarely included in major volumes on that topic. This is why this textbook has filled this gap by developing entire case studies around them. Other theories include self-affirmation theory, attitude accessibility theory, the theory of responsive chord, selective perception theory, inoculation theory, the spiral of silence, and muted group theory―again, to name a few. Chapter 8, for example, applies SDT to health communication campaigns created through digital games.

SUMMARY OF ALL CHAPTERS

Chapter 1 provides definitions, strategies, and background information on public communication campaigns. It begins with a description of the communication process and the public sphere and then proceeds with a detailed account of the Diffusion of Innovations (DoI) theory. After giving examples of campaigns in history, it discusses current strategies like social marketing and social norms marketing. Chapter 2 lays out the 10 steps of public communication campaigns. As such, the steps are (a) define and select your topic; (b) set goals and objectives; (c) analyze and understand the situation beforehand; (d) define your audience(s); (e) understand the timeline and budget; (f) choose appropriate media; (g) develop optimal message content; (h) avoid monologic communication and interact with your audience(s); (i) update the campaign with timely, relevant, and accurate information; and (j) evaluate the overall campaign.

Chapter 3 discusses the role of persuasion in public communication campaigns. A large section is devoted to Behavior Change Communication (BCC) and related theories such as self-affirmation theory and the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM). Another large section is devoted to attitudes and related theories such as social judgment theory (SJT) and attitude accessibility theory. Of particular relevance are the 10 ethical principles of public communication campaigns, the persuasive effects of such campaigns, and, conversely, their 12 negative effects. Chapter 4 is on thought-provoking public communication campaigns. The Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM), for example, explains how people’s attitudes can be changed through fear appeals. At the same time, the effects of alarmist language are mentioned as well. A special focus is also placed on provocation, including the theoretical concept of shockvertising. The end of the chapter provides a detailed case study on two campaigns launched by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA).

Chapter 5 offers readers general perspectives on health communication campaigns. After describing what “health” means and the different goals and strategies of such campaigns, the chapter continues with a thorough analysis of antismoking campaigns (like the truth initiative) and harm reduction campaigns. The chapter ends with a detailed case study that examines the social determinants of health (SDH) and ABC behaviors in Uganda. Chapter 6 tackles the differences in literacy and culture in health campaigns. An important segment on eHealth and the digital divide highlights how communication technologies may fundamentally determine who has access to health information. What comes subsequently are the cultural barriers that audiences face when exposed to various public communication campaigns. This chapter ends with the key attributes of culture, cultural competency, and how ethnographic research can reduce cultural differences when designing campaigns.

Chapter 7 addresses public communication campaigns during the COVID-19 pandemic. After introducing fundamental concepts such as risk communication, a comprehensive section on the strategies for COVID-19 communication campaigns illustrate how campaign designers can concentrate on issues such as social distancing. Also significant is the information on both vaccination campaigns and countercampaigns like those of anti-vaxxers. Chapter 8 looks at Entertainment–Education, digital games, and celebrity campaigns as alternatives to traditional health communication campaigns. Of particular interest to readers are the multiple case studies contained within one chapter and the theoretical framework of narrative involvement. Equally important are the section on Games for Change (GfC), serious games, and persuasive games, and the section on self-determination theory (SDT). Lastly, an interesting point is the impact of celebrity health disclosure.

Chapter 9 is about communication campaigns for social justice and social change. After reading the list of important terms, including seven manifestations of social change, readers can learn about case studies on campaigns against female genital mutilation (FGM) in Africa and honor killing in Pakistan. The second part of this chapter focuses on campaigning for environmental policies and what nongovernmental organizations are. Chapter 10 addresses the #MeToo campaign. After an understanding of what constitutes sexual misconduct, one can see how the initiatives around the world have created a positive impact on both the United States and other countries. Long-established theories like the spiral of silence and muted group theory explain how minority groups are now part of the mainstream in their struggles against injustice. Other theories such as critical race feminism and social identity theory (SIT) are also included.

Chapter 11 is dedicated to public communication campaigns for LGBTQ+ communities. Three case studies―the GLAAD campaign in the United States (with an application of agenda-setting theory as well), the campaign against homophobia in Poland, and LGBTQ+ campaigns in Brazil―illustrate how grassroots initiatives and social media platforms can make waves even in countries with traditional beliefs that sexual rights are only for heterosexuals. Chapter 12 discusses Black Lives Matter (BLM) campaigns, particularly how BLM started and has evolved to what it is today. The two large sections on campaigns against police brutality and systemic racism will inform anyone interested in policy solutions for societal reform. What comes next is a description of the role of intersectionality and standpoint theory, critical race theory, and critical social justice.

Chapter 13 presents readers with two major case studies of terrorist communication campaigns. The first one is about the FARC in Colombia since 1964; this Marxist–Leninist terrorist group used various forms of communications to spread their ideology to peasants and lowly educated workers. The author shows how speech act theory has great value here. The second one is about the Rwanda Genocide in 1994. The role of “Radio Machete,” the genociders’ main vehicle for spreading hatred and propaganda (including numerous euphemisms for killing), is something to behold. Chapter 14 is about public communication campaigns of White supremacism. The concept of “manosphere”―a collection of groups and online sites that advocate male supremacy and subjugation of women―plays a crucial part for both recruitment and campaigning. Case studies on the “It’s Okay to Be White,” the Proud Boys, and the “2020 voter fraud” campaign exemplify the ability of social media platforms to amplify feelings of victimhood against what they call the “Evil Left.”

Chapter 15 deals with public communication campaigns of Islamophobia and antisemitism. A particular focus is placed on hashtag-driven Islamophobia campaigns in India and political campaigns that are antisemitic in Hungary. Both types of campaigns are immersed in historical events. The application of Terror Management Theory (TMT) to the case of Islamophobia serves to explain how campaigns are conducted to ensure the survival and growth of “natives.” Chapter 16 ends on a positive note. It discusses antiterrorist public communication campaigns and strategies on how to win the war of ideas through clever messaging. The battle is more likely to be won when campaigns are moved to the online space. Multiple case studies are offered, including the US government’s initiative on how to build community resilience within Somali communities in the United States. Of particular interest are the antiterrorist public communication campaigns in the Middle East and the reparation campaigns in Australia.

NOTES

1

. Julia Coffman,

Public Communication Campaign Evaluation: An Environmental Scan of Challenges, Criticisms, Practice, and Opportunities

(Cambridge, MA: Harvard Family Research Project, 2002).

2

. Janet A. Weiss and Mary Tschirhart, “Public Information Campaigns as Policy Instruments,”

Journal of Policy Analysis and Management

13, no. 1 (1994): 82–119.

https://doi.org/10.2307/3325092

.

3

. Bilgehan Gültekin and Tuba Gültekin, “Importance of Public Communication Campaigns and Art Activities in Social Education,”

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

64 (2012): 708–24.

4

. Lourdes S. Martinez and Nehama Lewis, “The Moderated Influence of Perceived Behavioral Control on Intentions Among the General US Population: Implications for Public Communication Campaigns,”

Journal of Health Communication

21, no. 9 (2016): 1006–15.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2016.1204378

.

5

. Elizabeth Crisp Crawford and Charles C. Okigbo, “Strategic Communication Campaigns,” in

Strategic Urban Health Communication

, ed. Charles C. Okigbo (New York: Springer, 2014): 11–23.

6

. Martin Fishbein, Harry C. Triandis, Frederick H. Kanfer, Marshall Becker, Susan E. Middlestadt, and Anita Eichler, “Factors Influencing Behavior and Behavior Change,” in

Handbook of Health Psychology

, ed. Andrew Baum, Tracey A. Revenson, and Jerome E. Singer (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2001): 3–16.

7

. Ian Somerville, “Agency versus Identity: Actor‐Network Theory Meets Public Relations,”

Corporate Communications: An International Journal

4, no. 1 (1999): 6–13.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13563289910254525

.

8

. Melanie A. Wakefield, Barbara Loken, and Robert C. Hornik, “Use of Mass Media Campaigns to Change Health Behaviour,”

The Lancet

376, no. 9748 (2010): 1261–71.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60809-4

.

9

. Richard M. Perloff,

The Dynamics of Persuasion: Communication and Attitudes in the 21st Century

(2nd Ed.) (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003).

10

. Crawford and Charles C. Okigbo, “Strategic Communication Campaigns,” 12.

11

. Christopher Laurell, Christian Sandström, Klas Eriksson, and Rasmus Nykvist, “Digitalization and the Future of Management Learning: New technology as an Enabler of Historical, Practice-Oriented, and Critical Perspectives in Management Research and Learning,”

Management Learning

51, no. 1 (2020): 89–108.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1350507619872912

.

12

. John L. Sherry, “Media Saturation and Entertainment–Education,”

Communication Theory

12, no. 2 (2002): 206–24.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2002.tb00267.x

.

13

. Harsh Taneja, James G. Webster, Edward C. Malthouse, and Thomas B. Ksiazek, “Media Consumption across Platforms: Identifying User-Defined Repertoires,”

New Media & Society

14, no. 6 (2012): 951–68.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444811436146

.

14

. Grant Blank and Bianca C. Reisdorf, “The Participatory Web: A User Perspective on Web 2.0,”

Information, Communication & Society

15, no. 4 (2012): 537–54.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2012.665935

.

15

. Neta Kligler-Vilenchik and Kjerstin Thorson, “Good Citizenship as a Frame Contest: Kony2012, Memes, and Critiques of the Networked Citizen,”

New Media & Society

18, no. 9 (2015): 1993–2011.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815575311

.

16

. Joseph N. Cappella, “Editor’s Introduction: Theoretical Approaches to Communication Campaigns,”

Communication Theory

13, no. 2 (2003): 160–3.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2003.tb00286.x

.

17

. Thomas W. Valente, “Evaluating Communications Campaigns,” in

Public Communication Campaigns

(3rd Ed.), ed. Ronald E. Rice and Charles C. K. Atkin (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001): 105–24.

PART I INTRODUCING PUBLIC COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGNS

CHAPTER 1 Definitions, Strategies, and Background Information

WHAT ARE PUBLIC COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGNS?

Public communication campaigns are found everywhere and it is nearly impossible to elude them in our modern-day environment of traditional communication and social media. By and large, a campaign is a comprehensive and organized attempt at shaping the behavior, attitude, or decision-making status within a community of people. It is a strategic course of action carried out during a specific time limit and for a precise outcome.1 A public communication campaign consists of a set of coordinated messages or other communicative efforts aimed at accomplishing predetermined goals and objectives: to sway a high number of people’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors.2 Atkin (1981)3 defines “public communication campaign” as a method that uses “promotional messages in the public interest disseminated through mass media channels to target audiences.” Public communication campaigns tend to be waged by state or nonstate actors who seek to inform or affect behaviors in large audiences through an organized set of communication processes. They are designed with two phases in mind. The first phase generates awareness about a certain topic. Thus, a campaign has a purpose; the desired outcomes can be diverse―ranging from individual-level cognitive impacts to social or systemic change. The second phase uses that awareness to instill behavior change and shape the thoughts or actions of the audience; it is typically aimed at a large audience. “Large” is an important concept here because it helps differentiate campaigns from interpersonal persuasive endeavors by one―or a few―person that seek to influence a handful of others.4

A Method of Reform and Governance

The element of reform is inherent in all public communications campaigns. Reform refers to action that improves society or the lives of individuals. In the eyes of campaign designers, change within the audience’s behavior will make life better. “Better” is aligned with emerging values in society during each historical era.5 “Better” implies that one group intends to influence other groups’ beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors on the basis of communicated appeals.6 Campaigns should also be viewed as a governance strategy. Governance is “conduct of conduct.” It motivates a group of people to govern themselves in a novel manner. Since requests for behavior change are usually not mandatory in modern societies, public communication campaigns need to employ the cleverest appeals to self-governance. This kind of strategy, “turning us into decent people,” can have moral and normative effects on a whole class of citizens.7 Overall, the concept of governance illustrates how public communication campaigns are prosocial in their efforts to influence behavior towards desirable social outcomes. The consequences of those behaviors may be that individuals, families, and communities are healthier, or that particular policy results bring about better outcomes for those individuals, families, and communities.8

Public Communication Campaigns vs. Advertising

Most public communication campaigns are not made to attain financial outcomes, even in commercial organizations. Rather, such campaigns are undertaken to raise awareness (i.e., of an issue, policy, or law), to transform attitudes, and/or to improve reputation. Almost half of public communication across the globe is undertaken by public-sector and nonprofit corporations that do not have financial interests.9 As Atkin and Rice (2012)10 put it, public communication campaigns contain “an array of mediated messages in multiple channels generally to produce noncommercial benefits to individuals and society.” The objectives and processes inherent in commercial advertising are not appropriate for public communication campaigns. The fundamental differences between advertising and public communication lie in the kind and quality of issues, the procedures involved in promotion and, evidently, in the type of audiences. In general, advertising by itself does not cause fundamental changes in behavior. It does not produce substantial effects on potential consumers, as some critics might believe. Nevertheless, incremental changes in market share for a specific product that are achieved as a result of advertising may lead to significantly higher sales and profits.11

Two Main Types of Public Communication Campaigns

There are two main types of public communication campaigns: (1) Individual behavior-change campaigns and (2) public will campaigns. Individual behavior-change campaigns attempt to change individual behaviors that create problems in society or promote behaviors that better individual or social well-being. Also known as public information campaigns or public education campaigns, they shape beliefs and information about a behavior and its impact. They influence attitudes in favor of behavior that will be perceived positively among one’s peers. In other words, they create social norms about the acceptability of a desired behavior (and the intentions to perform it). They are more likely to induce behavior change if complemented by supportive program elements. Effective campaigns of this type target behaviors such as smoking, using drugs, recycling, driving responsibly, using the seat belt, and preventing fire and crime. Many are found within the public health arena. This type of campaign has also evolved into other sectors like education, criminal justice, and early childhood.12

Public will campaigns serve to muster public action for policy action and change. Although less understood, they are growing in numbers. As long as they spread visibility of a social issue and its magnitude, they can shape perceptions of such issues―and identify who is responsible―and criteria that the audience needs to judge policies and policymakers. Hence, they impart knowledge about solutions (based on who is portrayed as responsible) and help determine what can be done for service introduction and public support. They engage and galvanize interested individuals into action. A public will campaign focuses less on the person who takes harmful actions (e.g., smoking, polluting, or doing drugs), and more on the public’s duty to make decisions that will foster an environment conducive to behavior change.13

A public will campaign searches for the various factors that are hurting communities and builds on current efforts or develops new ones to heal those communities. By definition, public will is a manifestation of how the community feels and acts. For instance, public will on problems that concern children and families may constitute a shared sense of community-based ownership of the welfare and comfort of children and families, as well as a collective commitment to make the indispensable changes to improve it. Public will has more commonalities with public engagement than with education and awareness. This is why it is also called a public engagement campaign.14 Public will entails more than public opinion or awareness. It entails the inclination to act in favor of how an individual feels about an issue. Effective communications campaigns want to be clear as to what actions people should take. As such, the actions should strengthen policy agendas and enable people to carry them out in their own backyards. Certainly, it is not unusual for campaigns to include both individual change and public will components within the same project.15

COMMUNICATION

Communication is the fundamental pillar of our society. John Dewey (1916)16 famously said that “society exists… in communication.” Williams (1976)17 agreed with Dewey when he stated that “society is a form of communication.” Human communication is an exceedingly more multifaceted, ambiguous, and variable process than many of us would admit. We are well aware that communication is a practice that all humans do, to varying degrees, from the cradle to the grave. However, to presuppose that attempts at communicating are automatically, or even frequently, effective is to disregard the conflicts, divorces, breakdowns of relationships, family feuds, miscommunications, and other disturbances that take place on a daily basis in human society.18

Definitions

Communication is the “process of exchanging information, imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others and understanding others in return.”19 It is the process of conveying a message from a sender to a receiver. The study of communication in Western civilization dates back to roughly 2,500 years and ostensibly originated in Ancient Greece with Aristotle’s Rhetoric and Poetics.20 He, too, thought that communication was an exchange of meanings represented by signs. The term “communicate” stems from the Latin communicare (“to make common”). Communication is an act that makes something common; it reflects the need to participate in shared or common action. What makes human communication exceptional among all species, and most likely not transferable to other species, is that it can take place through multiple media of transmission.21

Contemporary communication comprises both mass communication and networked communication. Mass communication diffuses information from a major source via consolidated media, like TV, newspapers, and radio. This category of mass-mediated exchange is regulated by big corporations, some of which are government-owned; it also disseminates information through mainstream vehicles of distribution.22Networked communication, on the other hand, sends information from a wide array of sources, including nontraditional ones (e.g., average citizens on the street) and, as such, reflects many different views. It can happen through a mixture of formats, such as email, teleconferencing, and social networking sites like Twitter and Facebook.23 By the same token, a network effect develops when individuals or groups are more willing to use a particular medium of communication if other people have done it successfully (and are fully associated with that medium).24 If truth be told, Devji (2005)25 calls this network effect the global media effect, because no single actor will have total control over the effects of other individuals or actions.

Communication as a Mediator of Social Change

Since communication is the sharing and diffusion of information, it is also the enabler of the initiation of any contact and relationship within communities. From this perspective, communication is a mediator of social change because it must be theorized in terms of various parties involved in producing meanings, by way of dialogue.26 Change is a communicative challenge and appropriate communication approaches can abate the resistance to change. Since change is a communicative challenge, serious consideration needs to be paid whenever a change “project” is to be undertaken. Communication procedures are components of change implementation itself.27 Information technologies, media organizations, and effective media coverage contribute to the creation and preservation of such social change. Accordingly, communication plays a vital role on the social map.28 It allows the obtaining of new knowledge (as well as the reusing of old knowledge) for audiences and the persuasive appeals, based on that knowledge, to change their beliefs, attitudes, and/or behaviors.29

Community-Based and Interpersonal Communication

It is clear, by now, that public communication campaigns are (1) an organized communication enterprise, (2) directed at large audiences during a specific period of time, (3) designed to achieve definite goals and objectives, and (4) and ultimately attempting to create change. Such campaigns rely on the media, messaging, and a variety of communication activities to produce desired outcomes.30 To amplify their likelihoods of success, public communication campaigns often combine media efforts with a mélange of community-based and interpersonal communication means.31 Examples of community-based channels include, but are not limited to, TV, radio, newspapers, billboards, email, and social media. Examples of interpersonal channels include, but are not limited to, face-to-face gatherings, home visits, and workshops. Printed materials, such as brochures and pamphlets, are sometimes considered mass media or can also be incorporated in interpersonal contexts.32

Public communication campaigns have become more sophisticated and strategic. Messages are crafted on the basis of both form and content, and care is taken as to what appropriate communication channels and media should be selected. By combining media efforts with a mélange of communication channels, campaign designers can expand the reach and frequency of the messages and increase the probability that they will successfully lead to change.33