Gamebird Medicine and Management E-Book
136,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Gamebird Medicine and Management A complete and authoritative reference covering the management of gamebirds and exhibition Galliformes in health and disease In Gamebird Medicine and Management, a team of distinguished professionals deliver a comprehensive discussion of gamebirds and exhibition Galliformes for veterinary practitioners, gamebird producers, breeders and conservationists, as well as other avian health professionals. The book covers common diseases affecting gamebirds and offers management and production information not found in other resources. The authors combine relevant material from avian veterinarians, commercial production professionals, and experts from the conservation and captive breeding sectors, that enables veterinarians, gamebird producers, and conservationists to develop diagnostic and treatment plans for small or large gamebird flocks. Readers will also find: * Thorough introductions to laws and regulations governing gamebirds in the United States * In-depth examinations of the anatomy and physiology of gamebirds * Comprehensive explorations of the medical management of gamebirds * Information on treating dermatological, musculoskeletal, neurological, digestive, and respiratory diseases affecting gamebirds * A practical, step-by-step necropsy guide * An engaging photo collection of gamebird and exhibition Galliformes diseases Perfect for veterinary practitioners, gamebird producers, and conservationists, Gamebird Medicine and Management will also earn a place in the libraries of zoo veterinarians and staff.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 823
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
List of Contributors
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Gamebird History
1.1 Origins of Gamebird Terminology
1.2 Birds as Game
1.3 The “Professionalization” of the United States Gamebird Industry
1.4 Advances in Disease Prevention and Treatment
1.5 Nutrition Advances Improve Bird Health and Quality
1.6 Equipment Changes Eliminate Losses and Increase Efficiency
1.7 Gamebird Entrepreneurs
References
2 Gamebird Laws, Regulations, and the National Poultry Improvement Plan
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The National Poultry Improvement Plan
Additional References
3 Galliformes: Species, Varieties, and Behavior
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Domestication and Hybridization
3.3 Systematics
3.4 Megapodiidae – Megapodes
3.5 Cracidae – Guans, Chachalacas, Curassows
3.6 Numididae – Guineafowl
3.7 Odontophoridae – New World Quail
3.8 Phasianidae – Pheasants, Partridges, Turkeys, Grouse
References
4 Gamebird Anatomy
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Body Regions
4.3 Integument: Skin and Feathers
4.4 Skeletal System
4.5 Muscular System
4.6 Respiratory System
4.7 Excretory System
4.8 Digestive System
4.9 Immune System
4.10 Spleen
4.11 Circulatory System
4.12 Endocrine System
4.13 Reproductive Systems
4.14 Nervous System
References
5 Avian Physiology
5.1 Muscle Development and Growth
5.2 Bone Development and Growth
5.3 Osmoregulation
5.4 Respiratory System
5.5 Digestive System
5.6 Integument
References
6 Gamebird Housing and Handling
6.1 Pheasants
6.2 Bobwhite Quail
References
7 Gamebird Nutrition
7.1 Feed Type
7.2 Feed Ingredients
7.3 Mold Control
7.4 Water and Water Quality
7.5 Feed Ingredients – Nonnutritional
7.6 Feed Form
7.7 Formulation of Gamebird Feed
7.8 Nutritional Diseases, Diagnosis, and Troubleshooting
References
8 Biosecurity for Gamebirds
8.1 Commercial Gamebird Production
8.2 Biosecurity Recommendations
8.3 Small Gamebird Flocks
8.4 Biosecurity Considerations
8.5 Flock Concept
References
9 Field Investigation, Medication, Vaccination, and Diagnostics for Gamebirds
9.1 Field Investigation
9.2 Medication Administration
9.3 Vaccines and Vaccine Administration
9.4 Diagnostic Services
9.5 Diagnostic Services Commonly Requested for Gamebird Field Investigations
9.6 Tests That Might Be Required in Special Situations or May Not Be Widely Available
9.7 Conclusion
References
10 Gamebird Respiratory Diseases
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Viral Respiratory Diseases
10.3 Bacterial Respiratory Diseases
10.4 Parasitic Respiratory Diseases
10.5 Fungal Respiratory Diseases
References
11 Gamebird Digestive Diseases
11.1 Conditions of the Oral Cavity, Esophagus, and Crop
11.2 Conditions of the Proventriculus and Gizzard
11.3 Conditions of the Intestine and Cecum
References
12 Gamebird Musculoskeletal and Neurologic Diseases
12.1 Diseases Affecting the Extremities
12.2 Diseases Affecting the Head
12.3 Generalized Disease
References
13 Gamebird Skin Diseases and Multisystemic Diseases
13.1 Infectious Agents of the Skin
13.2 Miscellaneous Skin Conditions
13.3 Gamebird Multisystemic Infections
References
14 Gamebird Toxicologic Diseases
14.1 Lead
14.2 Selenium
14.3 Other Toxicants
References
15 Gamebird Necropsy Procedures
15.1 Equipment
15.2 Necropsy Procedure
16 Gamebird Medication Regulations
16.1 Introduction and Overview
16.2 Definition of a Gamebird
16.3 Drug Administration, On‐Label and Extra‐Label Drug Use in Gamebirds
16.4 Definition of Residues
16.5 Legislation, Regulations, and Programs Related to Drug Use and Drug Residues
16.6 Prohibited Drugs
16.7 Compounding of Medications
16.8 FDA‐CVM Guidance Documents
16.9 Considerations for Avoiding Residues in Gamebird Products Intended for Human Consumption
16.10 Testing for Drug Residues
16.11 Pharmacovigilance: Guidelines for Prudent Antibiotic Drug Use when Medicating Gamebirds
16.12 Conclusion
References
17 Guineafowl
17.1 General Behavior and Preferred Habitat
17.2 Health Considerations
17.3 Pharmacology Considerations
17.4 Reproduction
17.5 Production Systems
17.6 Tick Control – Fact or Fiction?
17.7 Conclusion
References
18 Exhibition Galliformes
18.1 Husbandry
18.2 Breeding and Rearing of Ornamental Pheasants
18.3 Medical Concerns
18.4 Aviculture in Conservation
18.5 Further Resources
References
19 Peafowl
19.1 Peafowl as a Gamebird
19.2 Taxonomic Relationship to Other Galliformes
19.3 Peafowl Terminology
19.4 Peafowl Behavior
19.5 Unique Anatomical and Physiological Features
19.6 Species, Subspecies, and Hybrids
19.7 Feeding Peafowl
19.8 Reproduction
19.9 Medical Considerations
19.10 Conclusion
References
20 Conservation of Gamebirds
20.1 Conservation Status
20.2 Social Science Approach
20.3 Conservation Population Management
20.4 History of the Conservation of the Heath Hen and Attwater's Prairie Chicken
20.5 Vietnam Pheasant SSP
20.6 Moving Forward and Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Differences in Subpart E testing and Subpart J testing. For H5/H7 ...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Megapodiidae family with genera.
Table 3.2 Cracidae family with genera.
Table 3.3 Numidae family with genera.
Table 3.4 Odontophoridae family and their genera.
Table 3.5 Phasianidae family and its genera.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Lighting requirements for Bobwhite quail at different ages.
Table 6.2 Incubation time and requirements for Bobwhite quail.
Table 6.3 Causes of poor hatchability.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Suggested nutrients for pheasants, partridge, bobwhite quail, w...
Table 7.2 Water quality standards for poultry: bacteria.
Table 7.3 Water quality standards for poultry: minerals.
Table 7.4 Examples of gamebird formulas (in pounds per 2000 pounds).
Table 7.5 Nutrition‐related disease, diagnosis, troubleshooting I.
Table 7.6 Nutrition‐related disease, diagnosis, troubleshooting II.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Checklist for field visit observations.
Table 9.2 Gamebird approved drug list [2].
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Infection sites and hosts for the life cycle of various
Capillar
...
Table 11.2 Ascarid species referenced in gamebirds, guineafowl, and peafowl...
Table 11.3
Coccidia
species referenced in gamebirds, guineafowl, and peafow...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Louse species referenced in gamebirds, guineafowl, and peafowl....
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Web links for online resources that provide veterinary drug and/...
Table 16.2 Requirements of the Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act ...
Table 16.3 FDA‐Center for Veterinary Medicine prohibited drugs that have re...
Table 16.4 Requirements for legal use of compounded products in food‐produc...
Table 16.5 Required information to be included in the patient's medical rec...
Table 16.6 Information to be included on the prescription label with extra‐...
Table 16.7 Factors increasing and decreasing water uptake for birds.
Table 16.8 FDA‐approved products for use in gamebirds (as of September 2020...
Table 16.9 Health Canada's categorization of antimicrobial drugs based on i...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Galliformes complete conservation status and population trends....
Table 20.2 Galliformes conservation by family.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 (a and b) Pullorum‐typhoid testing a quail using stained antigen ...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Galliformes cladogram displaying the relationships among families...
Figure 3.2 Maleo (
Macrocephalon maleo
).
Figure 3.3 Cracidae. (a) Wattled curassow (
Crax globulosa
) hen.
Figure 3.4 Helmeted guineafowl (
Numida meleagris
). (a) Wild form on left.
Figure 3.5 Quail. (a) Masked bobwhite (
Colinus virginianus ridgwayi
).
Figure 3.6 Pheasant. (a) Ring‐necked pheasant (
Phasianus colchicus
).
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 (a) Male partridge. 1. Nasal, 2. Orbital, 3. Suborbital, 4. Foreh...
Figure 4.2 (a) Pheasant ventral view. 1. Chest, 2. Abdomen, 3. Shank, 4. Upp...
Figure 4.3 Male pheasant feet detail. 1. Tarsometatarsal, 2. Spur, 3. Digit ...
Figure 4.4 (a) Pheasant, caudal‐dorsal region. 1. Levator caudae m., 2. Urop...
Figure 4.5 Pheasant feathers. (a) Primary, (b) Allula, (c) Secondary covert,...
Figure 4.6 Adult pheasant contour feathers. (a) Lateral thoracic, (b) Neck, ...
Figure 4.7 Pheasant primary feather of adult male. Dorsal view (left image),...
Figure 4.8 Pheasant skull. (A) Lateral view. (B) Dorsal view. (a) Maxillary ...
Figure 4.9 Synsacrum of an adult pheasant. (A) Dorsal view. (B) Ventral view...
Figure 4.10 All bones are from an adult pheasant. 1. Scapula and coracoid: (...
Figure 4.11 A pheasant sternum. (a) Lateral surface of keel, (b) Sternal kee...
Figure 4.12 (a) Pheasant, ventral view. 1. Crop, 2. Pectoral m., 3. Keel (wh...
Figure 4.13 (a) Pheasant, isolated gastrointestinal tract. 1. Esophagus, 2. ...
Figure 4.14 (a) Quail. 1. Cervical esophagus, 2. Trachea, 3. Crop, 4. Thorac...
Figure 4.15 (a) Quail, adult female. 1. Crop, 2. Esophagus, thoracic, 3. Ova...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Pedigree white pheasant breeder cocks in breeder battery cages.
Figure 6.2 This male ringneck pheasant is fitted with peepers (spectacles), ...
Figure 6.3 Eggs are arranged in racks for a large‐volume incubator. The supp...
Figure 6.4 This pheasant brooder house with litter floor has been prepared f...
Figure 6.5 A plastic hood, a larger form of the peeper, has been placed on t...
Figure 6.6 An external view of a typical outdoor pheasant flight pen include...
Figure 6.7 Dense vegetation, such as amaranth grasskosha, lamb's quarter, co...
Figure 6.8 Adult pheasants are not suitable for crating and shipping until t...
Figure 6.9 Mature pheasants are placed in 9 in. high, stackable crates prior...
Figure 6.10 (a) Breeder quail cage system with automated egg collection. (b)...
Figure 6.11 An outside view of a quail barn.
Figure 6.12 An inside view of a quail barn showing both feeders and drinker...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Gamebird production and hunting preserves increase the productivi...
Figure 8.2 Transportation of gamebirds can be tricky and is certainly more s...
Figure 8.3 The “Danish entry system” allows full clothes change or use of pr...
Figure 8.4 Wild bird deterrents are very important in order to keep wild bir...
Figure 8.5 Perimeter fencing and overhead netting are key in preventing wild...
Figure 8.6 (a) Noise cannons are used to deter nuisance birds and predators ...
Figure 8.7 At bird auctions, many birds are grouped together and their sourc...
Figure 8.8 Footbaths prepared under experimental conditions and used for a p...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Veterinary Feed Directive. The VFD form provides veterinarians in...
Figure 9.2 Fluid vaccine drops placed into the eye through the open eyelids ...
Figure 9.3 To perform wing web vaccination, the double‐pronged needle carryi...
Figure 9.4 An oropharyngeal/tracheal sample collected with a Dacron
®
or...
Figure 9.5 Proper packaging of carcasses for shipment to the diagnostic labo...
Figure 9.6 A “biological substance, category B” label should be applied to t...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Blood and fibrin in the trachea of a chicken with infectious lar...
Figure 10.2 Chicken trachea: fibrin, hemorrhage, and syncytial cells with in...
Figure 10.3 Quail trachea with inflammatory exudate in the lumen and numerou...
Figure 10.4 Pheasant: sinusitis and conjunctivitis due to
Pasteurella multoc
...
Figure 10.5 Turkey lung: fibrinous pleuritis and bronchopneumonia due to
Pas
...
Figure 10.6 Partridge:
Syngamus trachea
in unopened trachea (arrow).
Figure 10.7 Partridge:
Syngamus trachea
in opened trachea (arrow).
Figure 10.8 Quail: photomicrograph of trachea; note
Cryptosporidium
sp. (arr...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 The open crop from a 2‐week‐old chukar partridge is lined by a w...
Figure 11.2 Candidiasis of partridge crop. There is epithelial hyperplasia a...
Figure 11.3 Bobwhite quail. The opened crop has white, rugated, thickened mu...
Figure 11.4 Mucosal scraping of crop mucosa reveals
Capillaria
nematodes con...
Figure 11.5
Trichomonas
infection is often observed as white to yellow pseud...
Figure 11.6 Cytologic imprint of oral mucosa of racing pigeon with
Trichomon
...
Figure 11.7 The proventriculus (P) of a passerine bird contains numerous adu...
Figure 11.8 The proventriculus of pigeon contains multiple dark, round foci ...
Figure 11.9 The gizzard of a 2‐week‐old bobwhite quail has a thick, brown to...
Figure 11.10 The gizzard from a 3‐week‐old partridge was filled with litter....
Figure 11.11 A ring‐necked pheasant chick with paratyphoid
Salmonella
(Group...
Figure 11.12 A ring‐necked pheasant chick infected with paratyphoid strain o...
Figure 11.13 Four‐week‐old bobwhite quail with ulcerative enteritis. Note th...
Figure 11.14 Small intestine of 4‐week‐old bobwhite quail with ulcerative en...
Figure 11.15 Nine‐day‐old pheasant chick with rotaviral enteritis. The small...
Figure 11.16 The small intestine of a 7‐month‐old peacock is distended with ...
Figure 11.17 Fifteen‐week‐old ring‐necked pheasant with
Heterakis isolonche
....
Figure 11.18 The opened cecum of an adult pheasant contains mural granulomas...
Figure 11.19 The oval ova of
Heterakis
can be observed microscopically in a ...
Figure 11.20 The opened intestine of a 1‐year‐old bantam chicken contains se...
Figure 11.21 Three‐week‐old chukar partridges are infected with
Eimeria
sp. ...
Figure 11.22 Chukar partridges with severe coccidiosis have feet and toes co...
Figure 11.23 Three‐week‐old chukar partridge with cecal coccidiosis (
Eimeria
...
Figure 11.24 Fresh fecal or intestinal oocysts of
Eimeria
sp. as observed on...
Figure 11.25 Eight‐week‐old pheasant with
Histomonas meleagridis
. Note the m...
Figure 11.26 Cytologic impression of liver infected with
Histomonas
reveals ...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Perosis. (a) White pheasant chick cannot extend right leg due to...
Figure 12.2 Rickets. The proximal tibiotarsal bones have been sectioned sagi...
Figure 12.3 Mycotic encephalitis photomicrographs. (a) Low magnification of ...
Figure 12.4 Encephalomalacia. The dorsal portion of the skull has been remov...
Figure 12.5 Encephalomalacia in cerebellum due to vitamin E deficiency. Necr...
Figure 12.6 Weak pheasants unable to stand. Botulism would be the likely con...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 (a) A 5‐week‐old ring‐necked pheasant with Avipoxvirus infection...
Figure 13.2 A histological section of skin from the pheasant in Figure 13.1 ...
Figure 13.3 A 1‐day‐old white pheasant chick has a yolk sac infection with
S
...
Figure 13.4 Lice. (a) In heavy infestations, chewing lice, which are larger ...
Figure 13.5 Lice.
Menacanthus
sp., the chicken body louse, has been describe...
Figure 13.6 Mites. Scrapings of feather exudate can be placed into mineral o...
Figure 13.7 (a) Mites of the northern fowl mite,
Ornithonyssus sylviarum
, ar...
Figure 13.8 Scaly leg. An adult pheasant has thickened scales along the nonf...
Figure 13.9 Ten‐month‐old white pheasant. (a) The sternal bursa is enlarged ...
Figure 13.10 A ring‐necked pheasant hen shows signs of cannibalism with fray...
Figure 13.11 (a) The ring‐necked pheasant has spectacle blinders. (b) The Hu...
Figure 13.12 One‐year‐old ring‐necked pheasant with marble spleen disease. N...
Figure 13.13 Photomicrograph of spleen from 1‐year‐old ring‐necked pheasant ...
Figure 13.14 Examples of
Escherichia coli
infection in ring‐necked pheasants...
Figure 13.15 An adult ring‐necked pheasant hen with
Pasteurella multocida
in...
Figure 13.16 An adult chukar partridge with
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
sep...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 The recommended tools for necropsy include water‐resistant marke...
Figure 15.2 Examine the head (a) for swollen sinuses and exudate around the ...
Figure 15.3 A detergent will wet down the feathers and make it easier to cut...
Figure 15.4 The carcass is placed on its back with the neck and legs extende...
Figure 15.5 Incise the skin between the keel bone/breast muscle and the femu...
Figure 15.6 After the skin is incised, the thigh and leg muscles will be exp...
Figure 15.7 Fold the legs laterally (away from the body) to separate (disloc...
Figure 15.8 Tent the skin near the caudal edge (tip) of the keel bone and pe...
Figure 15.9 Continue to cut skin along the base of the neck up to the mandib...
Figure 15.10 The cut along the neck will expose the trachea (T), esophagus (...
Figure 15.11 Open the crop and note the contents. The crop (C) of a clinical...
Figure 15.12 Incise the body wall along the caudal border of the keel bone t...
Figure 15.13 Cut across the ribs and breast muscle on both sides and reach t...
Figure 15.14 After cutting through the ribs and both scapulohumeral joints, ...
Figure 15.15 In the caudal coelom, observe the abdominal (A) air sacs, which...
Figure 15.16 Bluntly dissect through the air sacs, grasp the gizzard and ext...
Figure 15.17 Identify the various segments of the digestive tract. (T) Tongu...
Figure 15.18 Observe the proventriculcus (P) and adjacent gizzard (G).
Figure 15.19 Open the proventriculus to observe the pale, nodular mucosal gl...
Figure 15.20 In several birds, use glass microscope coverslips to separately...
Figure 15.21 Place each coverslip with mucosal scrapings on a glass slide. E...
Figure 15.22 The heart has four chambers. Cut transversely across left and r...
Figure 15.23 A transverse section of the heart shows the thin wall of the ri...
Figure 15.24 The kidneys (K) are partially nestled within the bone of the lu...
Figure 15.25 Coelomic cavity of a female pheasant. The ovary (O) is unilater...
Figure 15.26 Coelomic cavity of a female pheasant. One can detach the lungs ...
Figure 15.27 The lungs are completely detached from the ribs to show the rib...
Figure 15.28 Cut through the temporomandibular joint between the upper and l...
Figure 15.29 The oropharynx has been exposed. Note the tongue, choana (slit ...
Figure 15.30 The trachea (T) can be opened by cutting through the glottis wi...
Figure 15.31 Place the shears across the beak and caudal to the nares to mak...
Figure 15.32 The transverse cut of the beak has been completed to reveal the...
Figure 15.33 Excised intertarsal joint. The joint articular cartilage should...
Figure 15.34 The skull can be disarticulated by cutting across the region wh...
Figure 15.35 Once the skull is disarticulated, remove the skin and skeletal ...
Figure 15.36 Dorsum of pheasant skull with skin removed. Make two caudorostr...
Figure 15.37 Caudal view of pheasant skull with bone removed. Making a serie...
Figure 15.38 Dorsal view of pheasant skull, which has bone removed to expose...
Figure 15.39 Dorsal view of pheasant brain after removal from the skull. The...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Pearl guineafowl.
Figure 17.2 Anatomical nomenclature of the head of a guineafowl.
Figure 17.3 Fighting between guineafowl and a rooster.
Figure 17.4 Lavender guineafowl.
Figure 17.5 One‐day‐old keets.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Male red golden pheasant (
Chrysolophus pictus
).
Figure 18.2 Male Lady Amherst's pheasant (
Chrysolophus amherstiae
).
Figure 18.3 Free‐roaming adult male Indian peafowl (
Pavo cristatus
).
Figure 18.4 Male Temminck's tragopan (
Tragopan temminckii)
.
Figure 18.5 Male great argus (
Argusianus argus
).
Figure 18.6 Male kalij pheasant (
Lophura leucomelanos
).
Figure 18.7 A pair of Siamese firebacks (
Lophura diardi
) in a planted aviary...
Figure 18.8 A contact incubator with thin air‐filled membrane in the upper l...
Figure 18.9 The Edward'ss pheasant (
Lophura edwardsi
) is likely extinct in t...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Oil painting by Dutch artist Pieter Claesz entitled “Still Life ...
Figure 19.2 A scene from the Bracebridge Dinner at Yosemite National Park (C...
Figure 19.3 Illustration highlighting some of the terminology used in descri...
Figure 19.4 A free‐roaming Indian blue peacock outside the Los Angeles Arbor...
Figure 19.5 A muster of free‐roaming Indian blue peahens and their peachicks...
Figure 19.6 (a) The long train of the Indian blue peafowl. Note the prominen...
Figure 19.7 (a) The prominent yellow‐orange ear patch and shafted crest feat...
Figure 19.8 A male green peafowl with the prominent shafted crest feathers. ...
Figure 19.9 Male (left) and female (right) Congo Peafowl in captivity. As ob...
Figure 19.10 (a,b) A composite photo of pied (pattern mutation) peafowl with...
Figure 19.11 (a) European violet black juvenile male.(b) An Indian Blue ...
Figure 19.12 (a) A leucistic (white) peacock. A leucistic phenotype carries ...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 (a) Adult male Attwater's prairie chicken “booming” or displayin...
Figure 20.2 (a) Adult male Vietnam pheasant of the
edwardsi
coloration.(...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
List of Contributors
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
Pages
iii
iv
v
ix
x
xi
xiii
xiv
xv
xvi
xvii
xviii
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
Gamebird Medicine and Management
Edited by
Teresa Y. Morishita, DVM, PhD, DACPVCollege of Veterinary MedicineWestern University of Health SciencesPomona, CA, USA
Robert E. Porter, Jr, DVM, PhD, DACVP, DACPVCollege of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of MinnesotaSt. Paul, MN, USA
This edition first published 2023© 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Teresa Y. Morishita and Robert E. Porter, Jr to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
Editorial Office111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyThe contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding, and discussion only and are not intended and should not be relied upon as recommending or promoting scientific method, diagnosis, or treatment by physicians for any particular patient. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of medicines, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each medicine, equipment, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data applied for
Paperback ISBN: 9781119712213, LCCN 2022029461 (print)
Cover Design: WileyCover Images: Courtesy of Teresa Y. Morishita (Top‐Left), MacFarlane Pheasants (Top‐Middle; Top‐Right), and Robert E. Porter (Bottom 3 Images).
This book is dedicated to my loved ones – my parents, dear P, SG1, and Capt. F, and my ohana‐SFSGGBWCFMRPMPBPK‐by blood or by choice, who provided me life‐giving waters of love, wisdom, and kindness; fertilizing my life with curiosity, courage, and exploration; and providing protection from adversity and the patience, perseverance, and calmness to weather storms, and thereby allowing me to grow and be the person I am.
Teresa Y. Morishita
I dedicate this book to my loving wife Patty with whom all things are possible.
Robert E. Porter, Jr
List of Contributors
Douglas Anderson, DVM
Veterinary Director
Georgia Poultry Laboratory Network
Forsyth, GA, USA
Gen Anderson
General Curator
St Augustine Alligator Farm Zoological Park
St Augustine, FL, USA
AZA Galliformes TAG Vice‐Chair
Elena Behnke, DVM, MAHM, DACPV
Senior Coordinator
National Poultry Improvement Plan
United States Department of Agriculture
Animal and Plant Health Insepction Services
Veterinary Services
Conyers, GA, USA
Steven E. Benscheidt, DVM
Veterinarian
Nelson Road Veterinary Clinic
Longmont, CO, USA
Mark C. Bland, DVM, MS, DACPV
Poultry Veterinarian
Cutler Associates International
Napa, CA, USA
Abigail Duvall, DVM, DABVP(Avian Practice)
Associate Veterinarian
Exotic Vet Care
Mount Pleasant, SC, USA
Linda G. Flores, BS
Professor
College of Veterinary Medicine
Western University of Health Sciences
Pomona, CA, USA
David D. Frame, DVM, DACPV
Associate Professor
Central Utah Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory
Utah State University
Spanish Fork, UT, USA
Richard M. Fulton, DVM, PhD, DACPV
Professor
Avian Diseases
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI, USA
Rodrigo A. Gallardo, DVM, PhD, DACPV
Associate Professor in Poultry Medicine
School of Veterinary Medicine
University of California-Davis
Davis, CA, USA
Kahina Boukherroub, PhD
Assistant Professor
Department of Animal Science
University of Minnesota
St Paul, MN, USA
Al Hollister, PhD
Technical Services Nutritionist
Dawe's Laboratories
Arlington Heights, IL, USA
Chris Holmes
Curator of Birds
Houston Zoo
Houston, TX, USA
AZA Galliformes TAG Chair
Jacqueline Jacob, PhD
Poultry Extension Project Manager
Department of Animal and Food Sciences
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY, USA
Wael Khamas, BVM&S, MS, PhD
Professor of Anatomy and Histology
College of Veterinary Medicine
Western University of Health Sciences
Pomona, CA, USA
Bill MacFarlane
MacFarlane Pheasants, Inc.
Janesville, WI, USA
Past President of the North American Gamebird Association (NAGA)
Tara Marmulak, PharmD, DICVP, FSVHP
Director of Pharmacy
Veterinary Teaching Hospital
College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO, USA
Krysta L. Martin, PharmD, FSHVP
Pharmacist
Food Animal Residue Avoidance and Depletion Program
Department of Medicine and Epidemiology
School of Veterinary Medicine
University of California, Davis, CA, USA
Teresa Y. Morishita, DVM, PhD, DACPV
Professor of Poultry Medicine and Food Safety
College of Veterinary Medicine
Western University of Health Sciences
Pomona, CA, USA
AZA Galliformes TAG
Sally L. Noll, PhD
Professor
Department of Animal Science
University of Minnesota
St Paul, MN, USA
Anthony Pescatore, PhD, PAS
Extension Professor
Department of Animal and Food Sciences
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY, USA
Robert E. Porter, Jr, DVM, PhD, DACVP, DACPV
Distinguished Teaching Professor
College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Minnesota
St. Paul, MN, USA
Casey W. Ritz, BS, MS, PhD
Professor and Extension Poultry Specialist
Department of Poultry Science
University of Georgia
Athens, GA, USA
Josep Rutllant, DVM, PhD
Professor of Anatomy and Embryology
College of Veterinary Medicine
Western University of Health Sciences
Pomona, CA, USA
Robert Sexton
Executive Director
North American Gamebird Association
Pierceville, KS, USA
Daniel P. Shaw, DVM, PhD, DACVP, DACPV
Professor Emeritus
College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Missouri
Columbia, MO, USA
Lisa A. Tell, ABVP(Avian), ACZM
Professor
Food Animal Residue Avoidance and Depletion Program
Department of Medicine and Epidemiology
School of Veterinary Medicine
University of California, Davis, CA, USA
Eva Wallner‐Pendleton, DVM, MS, DACPV
Clinical Associate Professor (retired)
Animal Diagnostic Laboratory
Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences
Pennsylvania State University
State College, PA, USA
Foreword
Dr. L. Dwight Schwartz, DVM, MS
It is an honor to share a few thoughts on our father, Dr. L. Dwight Schwartz, as part of this new gamebird publication. In the late 1950s, Dad deliberately shifted the direction of his veterinary career following a short stint as a USDA Inspector at a poultry processing plant. Having to condemn so many diseased birds for human consumption, he suspected treatment and prevention of disease were far better alternatives for the producers and consumers. This idea led him to a Master's degree at the University of Georgia in the early 1960s followed by nearly three decades as an extension poultry veterinarian at Penn State and Michigan State Universities. However, as he provided veterinary services to poultry growers in both states, he also served the gamebird growers in many states, becoming a good friend to numerous gamebird growers throughout the United States and beyond.
One key accomplishment of Dr Schwartz's career was his authorship of the Poultry Health Handbook in 1972, which had three more editions released over the next 22 years. He had long wanted to compile a similar easy‐to‐use gamebird health handbook based on his vast knowledge and experience with gamebirds. He retired from university life in 1993 and used this new‐found “free time” to sit at a desk instead of in a rocking chair and make that dream come true. After more than a year of hard work, with our mother, Wilma J. Schwartz, as his typist and editorial director, he authored and published the Grower's Reference on Gamebird Health in 1995.
Whether it was at a professional presentation, a local gamebird breeders association, a necropsy class of vet students, or even a 4‐H club, Dr Schwartz had the ability to explain diagnostic and treatment information on diseases to anyone. No question was too simple. No group size was too small. He wanted those raising gamebirds to be successful. In that same light, his Grower's Reference on Gamebird Health was intended to be helpful to those raising only a few birds as well as to those raising large flocks. Dad wanted growers to be successful and birds to be healthy.
As it has been 26 years since publication of the Grower's Reference on Gamebird Health, we celebrate the efforts of the present team of avian veterinary professionals to bring the heart of that book up to date. The newly updated information and the wealth of photographs in this current publication will prove to be invaluable to numerous gamebird growers here in North America, and hopefully around the world as well. We are so very thankful to Drs Teresa Morishita and Robert Porter for spearheading this great effort, as well as to the host of contributing authors, for working to make the current publication the best and most valuable book ever written on the topic of gamebird health. We know our father would be honored and proud of all those who worked so hard to make this book a reality.
December 2021
Roger D. Schwartz, DVM, MAM
Vicki J. Schwartz, M.Ed
Preface
This book is a culmination of our years of working as an extension poultry veterinarian (Morishita) and as an avian pathologist (Porter) with Galliformes species and recognizing the need for such a resource. How did we get interested in gamebirds and exhibition Galliformes? For Teresa, her childhood memories include being intrigued with the beautiful peacocks and their shimmering tails; the ring‐necked pheasant scurrying across the country roads; and finishing up every zoo visit with the exotic pheasant collections by peering into their cages to get a glimpse of the elusive and oh so colorful golden or Lady Amherst's pheasants as they hid among the foliage. Teresa then learned autogenous vaccine production working on marble spleen disease for pheasants and the first birds she learned blood collection on were chukar partridges and quails. The vulturine guineafowl necropsy was Teresa's most memorable, especially when she turned her back to get some additional equipment and when she returned to the bird's carcass, there, on the necropsy table, appeared multiple brown slug‐like creatures. How creepy, yet exciting! The specimens were later identified as the air sac fluke with the scientific name Morishitium! What a fluke (of a coincidence)! Teresa realized that there was a lack of information on these species which often resulted in the need to extrapolate from the chicken and turkey. Teresa developed a mission to create such a resource for this diverse family of birds that were raised for their meat or eggs, or just for their pure beauty and conservation.
Rob's interest in avian pathology began with pet and wild birds, and domestic poultry. As he began his veterinary career, he soon learned that gamebirds, such as pheasants, partridges, and quail, were categorized as poultry and, in fact, could be considered as commercial poultry because of the millions of dollars that their production contributed to the agricultural economy of the US. Additionally, the breeding, husbandry, and management of these birds was quite different from that of other domestic poultry because the utility of these birds required that they maintain their wild characteristics as well as their distinctive, colorful plumage. They are fascinating birds!
At the same time, Rob, like Teresa, relied heavily on the text (Grower's Reference to Gamebird Health) written by L. Dwight Schwartz to diagnose the conditions in gamebirds that were submitted to his veterinary diagnostic laboratory. Upon directly purchasing a copy of this gamebird medicine book, Rob was honored to receive a personally inscribed, lengthy acknowledgment from the author on the first page. This book served as a useful reference and still sits on his office shelf. Rob remembers calling Dr Schwartz to glean his experience on various diagnostic cases.
Teresa is grateful to collaborate on this amazing book project with one of her first colleagues, and friend, Rob Porter, whom she met close to 30 years ago when she became an extension poultry veterinarian in Ohio. Little did she know that her mission of writing such a book was also one of his goals. For Rob, preparing a text dedicated to L. Dwight Schwartz and collaborating with his colleague and good friend Teresa has been a pleasure! We have both personally enjoyed working with the gamebird growers and exhibition pheasant and peafowl breeders these many years, Teresa serving as the veterinary advisor for the United Peafowl Association (2004–2014) after L. Dwight Schwarz. Since 2008, Teresa has also served as the veterinary advisor for the Galliformes Taxon Advisory Group of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. It is great to work with a fantastic, enthusiastic group of knowledgeable individuals. Rob has served as an advisor to the National American Gamebird Association and continues to be an invited speaker at gamebird symposia to speak on diseases, diagnosis, and management.
We were fortunate to assemble a team of experts to share their knowledge and expertise on various aspects of gamebird health, physiology, nutrition, management, conservation, and regulations with the goal of providing the best care for these species. Special chapters on guineafowl and peafowl are included as well. Spanning over 30 years, we also hope that you enjoy Rob's expansive photo archive of gamebird diseases and disorders. This is a book dedicated to gamebirds!
There is a saying by the twelfth‐century philosopher John of Salisbury: “We are like dwarfs sitting on the shoulder of giants. We see more and farther than our predecessors, not because we have keener vision or greater height, but because we are lifted up and borne aloft on their gigantic stature.” With this in mind, we “stand on the shoulders” of L. Dwight Schwartz and his pioneering work on gamebird medicine and hope this book builds upon his legacy to increase the knowledge of gamebird medicine and management for all to benefit.
Teresa Y. MorishitaRobert E. Porter, Jr
Acknowledgments
Robert Frost's famous poem ends with…“Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the road less traveled by, and that has made all the difference.” When I reflect on my life journey, I can't help but thank my parents for instilling in me curiosity about the world around me; fostering the spirit of taking the initiative to fulfill my dreams and to be adventurous in new things and experiences; teaching me patience and perseverance to forge ahead when life gives me bumps in the road; helping me to have courage and always do the right thing; and to always be kind and generous as I travel my own road. They instilled in me the courage to pursue my dreams of becoming a veterinarian and to leave my home state of Hawaii where I spent my entire life and where all my family and friends resided. Their support and determination gave me the confidence and courage to make new friends and learn new cultures as I moved to California to embark on my veterinary career. Then again, to uproot like a migrating bird by moving to Ohio, and to again make new friends and colleagues. Yes, forging a new road, to go into the unknown and live in a new place is difficult as you leave familiarity behind, but as in the Frost poem, it has made all the difference… as it allowed me to grow. I would not have had the life I have if it wasn't for that spirit of adventure instilled by my parents whom I could always count on for support. I knew there was always a nest for me if I ever needed it. With this spirit of adventure, I learned new things; had novel experiences; visited new places; and met many new colleagues and friends. All this would not have been possible without the support of my parents, my loved ones, extended family and true friends, the friends who remain with you when the road darkens and when it brightens again, as it always does; and to all the new and welcoming individuals that I encountered along my way. I am so fortunate and for that I am grateful.
This book was also like a journey, a thought, a dream which I shared with one of my friends and colleagues only to find out that he too dreamed of such a book. The rest is history and we joined forces to create such a project. Thank you to my co‐editor, colleague and I am lucky to count as a friend, Rob Porter who joined me on this effort. Thank you to all the gamebird breeders and exhibition Galliformes enthusiasts who entrusted me with the care of their flocks which allowed me to continue to work with these beautiful birds. I also thank the many chapter authors, experts in their own disciplines, who joined us to make this book a reality by sharing their knowledge and expertise. Much appreciation to Deborah Ann Harris and Chris Vander Veen for their technical assistance and advice in helping me with this project's organizational and developmental stages. A special thanks to Merryl Le Roux who assisted us in this book's organization and production and to Erica Judisch who believed in our dream to make this book a reality. Thank you all for choosing to take the same road to writing this book with us.
We hope that this book will help to provide better care for our gamebird and exhibition Galliformes species. We know the importance of experts from all disciplines working together to ensure better health for these birds in captivity and in conservation for future generations. Let us promote kindness and caring for the land and all its creatures, including each other, as we each walk our own road. Much Aloha!
Teresa Y. Morishita
The planning and creation of this book was more challenging than I had originally anticipated. I am grateful to my wife Patty for tolerating my absences this year as I toiled at the computer. You are the greatest! Additionally, I have had the opportunity to collaborate with Teresa Morishita, a genuine scholar who I have long admired. Thanks for your patience, Teresa. I must give credit to the many gamebird growers who have been willing to work with me. I would not have had the appropriate resources for this book without your cooperation. Finally, this gamebird medicine book is buttressed by a cadre of talented authors who represent a wide breadth of knowledge and expertise. Thanks to you all.
Robert E. Porter, Jr
1Gamebird History
Robert Sexton Robert E. Porter Jr and Teresa Y. Morishita
1.1 Origins of Gamebird Terminology
Before discussing the origin of the terminology of gamebirds, the term gamebird must be defined. This term has been written in many forms, from gamebird to game bird to “game” bird. The original term gamebird referred to a bird which was hunted and thus was the “game.” In the broadest sense, gamebirds were those birds that were free living and were hunted primarily for food, and then later for sport. Hence, the collective term gamebird includes a variety of bird orders including the landfowl (primarily Galliformes), which mostly lived on the ground, and waterfowl (primarily Anseriformes), which spend their time associated with water bodies. There were also perching birds like the Columbiformes and Passerines which, while they also lived on land, could also roost above ground in trees. Because these birds were associated with different habitats, the hunting method used to capture this game varied.
Even before the use of the term gamebird, the term fowl, derived from the Old English fugel, was used to refer to a bird. The term was of Germanic origin from fluglaz, the general term for bird. The term fowl was replaced with the term bird. The first documented record of the use of the term fowl was in 1570. In recent times, the word fowl is more associated with the domesticated chicken and turkey. The terminology in the United States was also expanded to include domestic ducks and geese in this category. The word fowl can also be used as a verb, originated from the Old English fuglian, which means “to catch birds” as in the term fowling. The individual who caught birds for a living was known as a fowler and the fowling piece was the gun used to shoot wild fowl, as early as 1570s [1].
The interchangeable use of the terms fowl and bird led to many combinations such as gamebird/gamebird and game fowl/gamefowl. While we utilize the term gamebird to refer to those that were once hunted as game, the terms gamebird and game fowl have totally different uses and connotation. The term game fowl currently refers to roosters, known as “game cocks,” trained for cockfighting. While cockfighting is illegal in many countries, its origins can be traced back to Greece where it was to stimulate warriors preparing for battle [2]. It was likely adopted from ancient Persia but many believe that its origins are rather from South‐East Asia [2]. This pastime spread to Europe and England during the Middle Ages. It was brought to America by the English colonists. A Spanish variant of cockfighting was also introduced by Spanish settlers in the south‐western United States. This Latino variant of cockfighting spread along migration routes from recent immigrants from Mexico and Central America [2].
Because cockfighting is illegal, it is unfortunate that the term gamebird has a connotation with the illegal activity of game fowl and/or game cocks. Hence, it is extremely important to use the correct terminology. Many gamebird breeders want to ensure that the gamebird industry is not affiliated with illegal cockfighting activity so it is important to use the correct terminology.
While humans primarily hunted gamebirds, other closely related species that were hunted for game initially were also easily domesticated, including landfowl (chickens and turkeys) and waterfowl (ducks and geese). These birds were easily domesticated due to their docile nature, and they could be raised in large numbers to provide a constant supply of food for the home. Domestic fowl (birds) raised for meat and/or eggs are often referred to the collective term poultry[3]. The definition of poultry is any domesticated bird raised in captivity for meat, eggs, and feathers [3]. The word poultry originated in the late fourteenth century from pultry, a place where poultry is sold, from the thirteenth century Old French term pouletrie or “domestic fowl” [3]. In the broadest sense, gamebirds such as quail and pheasants that are commercially raised for meat and/or eggs can also be seen as part of the poultry industry but many such producers prefer to be called gamebird producers rather than poultry producers.
As humans depended less on subsistence hunting for food and agricultural farming became the predominant way of life, the domestication of poultry took place. The chicken and turkey, because of their docile nature, were now kept in larger numbers. As advances were made in raising birds in captivity, some gamebirds could also now be raised in captivity in large numbers, leading to the development of the modern gamebird industry.
According to the Agricultural Marketing Resource Center [4], gamebirds are either native or nonnative birds that were historically either wild game or decorative fowl. Most of these birds are now raised commercially for their meat or eggs. Others are known as “flight‐ready” which means that they are released on hunting preserves or by state wildlife agencies. In this book, only gamebirds of the Galliformes order will be discussed, including guinea fowl, partridge, peacocks, pheasants, and quail. While the wild turkey is a gamebird and belongs to the Galliformes order, it is not raised commercially, and diseases of turkeys are discussed in books covering the common domesticated turkey. Other orders that can be considered gamebirds are pigeons, including squabs, and doves (Columbiformes), and swans, geese, and ducks (Anseriformes).
Galliformes gamebirds are unique as some are raised as flight ready, such as pheasants, partridges, and quail, while the majority are ornamental and raised for the exhibition or hobby market [5].
1.2 Birds as Game
The concept of hunting birds is as old as the history of humankind [5, 6]. Hunting involved the seeking, pursuing, and killing of game. Hunting for birds and other animals was a means of survival to provide food for self, family, and the community. Throughout the world, different trapping methods were developed to capture birds, utilizing their entire bodies for meat for food, feathers for clothing, decorations and bedding material, and bones for tools. Every part of the bird was fully utilized.
Not only have humans hunted birds for food, but some Galliformes were eventually captured and domesticated, including the chicken and turkey. Those that were not as easily domesticated remained in the free‐living state of forests and grasslands where they continued to be hunted. However, with increasing habitat destruction due to deforestation for farming and other agricultural purposes, the numbers of gamebirds have dwindled with resultant population declines. With these declines came conservation programs, some of the most successful being the greater prairie chicken of the great plains of the United States. Throughout history, gamebirds have been present [5].
Early documentation of hunting birds is found in all continents. The initial tools of hunting included sticks and stones, which later developed into specifically shaped clubs and throwing sticks [6]. Later, sharpened stone, bone, or metal were added to improve killing efficiency and effectiveness, as seen with the use of bows and arrows. Blowpipes or blow guns with poison darts were efficient for mammals as targets were larger. Because birds were smaller, such methods were only effective for the highly skilled hunter. Other techniques used during the hunt included camouflage to get the hunter as close to the prey as possible.
As agricultural production increased and the hunter mode of living decreased, the idea of hunting continued for different reasons. These reasons included the social activity aspect which gained prestige since land was only owned by individuals of power [6]. Hence, hunting became a sport for the wealthy and those who had time for leisure activity. Hunting has been documented in ancient Egypt with the hunter being a separate social class in society [6]. The use of hawks and falcons for hunting was first documented by the Assyrians before 700 BCE but it may have been established earlier in India and China. The horse was also used for the hunting of larger game but not for gamebirds. The sport of hunting became less popular during the time of the Romans where it was maintained only in the upper class and professionals. However, to the Franks and others of Germanic origin, hunting, especially falconry, and the thrill of the chase remained a popular activity [6].
From the earliest times, a distinction was made between hunting for food and hunting for sport. When hunting for food, the important factor was obtaining the most kills for the least effort [5, 6]. However, hunting for sport had a strict code of conduct based on the standard used by royalty and nobles [6]. For example, a noble taking gamebirds for sport used a falcon but a fowler who earned a living by selling gamebirds was able to use a net. Those who hunted for sport had a code to allow their quarry a fair chance to escape, which lead to the establishment of European game laws. In the sixteenth century, the use of guns in hunting was initiated and this allowed the hunter to kill from farther distances [6].
In North America, European settlers and explorers found a multitude of game, including gamebirds such as the wild turkey and waterfowl. Unfortunately, this was associated with uncontrolled hunting, as in the extermination of the passenger pigeon, and laws establishing kill limits and licensures were required for hunters. Hunting fees could then be used to provide revenue to promote the replenishment of stock. It should be noted that it was hunting that motivated the initiation of wildlife conservation [5, 6].
The basic methods of sport hunting are stalking, still‐hunting, tracking, driving, sitting up and calling. While stalking, still‐hunting, and tracking are used for large mammalian quarry, gamebirds and other landfowl usually go into cover and must be driven out into the open. Driving, also known as beating, the quarry out into the open can be done with the help of people or dogs [6]. The term beating about the bush had its origin in gamebird hunting, meaning to flush birds out of bush cover. This is in contrast to hunting waterfowl, which is performed via the sitting‐up method, where a hunter is usually concealed in blinds, and is used for waterfowl with or without calling.
Since the times of the ancient Egyptians, dogs have been used for hunting gamebirds. Spaniels, setters, and pointers, which hunt by scent and sight, were called gun dogs as they retrieved the shot birds but also located birds for the hunters and flushed them out while the hunter was in the shooting position [6]. Shotguns were used for shooting waterfowl and gamebirds due to the possibility to kill multiple small quarry rather than using a single shot. Modern‐day reserves try to recreate this type of hunting for sports enthusiasts by stocking birds raised under intensive conditions but still maintain their wild behaviors necessary for survival in the free‐living state.
1.3 The “Professionalization” of the United States Gamebird Industry
The modern era of the gamebird industry began in the 1960s and expanded during the 1970s and 1980s. It was during this time that many farms that had been raising pheasants and quail as more of a hobby operation, sideline or small farm scale expanded into businesses with much greater capacities. But what makes this transition interesting is that this expansion did not come at the expense of the one common attribute that ties these farms together – the fact that businesses that make up the gamebird industry remain almost exclusively family farms. The family gamebird farm existed prior to this period of expansion and persisted during the 1990s when much was written about the loss of family farms in the mainstream media. It continues to thrive today, with many multigenerational farms continuing to expand capacity. Advances and developments in technology, equipment, and animal science covering all aspects of the gamebird business have significantly aided this expansion.
The history of the gamebird industry's trade association, the North American Gamebird Association (NAGA), is woven throughout this story as well. The nation's largest and most prominent gamebird farms underwrite the cost of the association which functions as a clearinghouse for vital information, as the tip of the spear in defending the industry before government, the public relations arm for the gamebird business, and finally as a gathering place where like‐minded people can share their experiences in this business.
Despite the continued existence of family‐owned and ‐operated gamebird farms, the gamebird industry has evolved into efficient farms that maximize bird production, improve overall bird health, decrease disease and mortality issues, and most importantly produce a high‐quality sporting bird that is sought after by America's sporting public.
1.4 Advances in Disease Prevention and Treatment
A major factor in the successful evolution and expansion of gamebird production has been the ongoing partnership with university veterinary programs and extension programs. This partnership is literally nationwide and features some of the nation's most prestigious universities, including Auburn University, Clemson University, North Carolina State University, The Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, Texas A&M University, University of California‐Davis, University of Georgia, University of Minnesota, and Washington State University.
