Graphene Materials E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Advance Materials Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 624

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

Graphene Materials: Fundamentals and Emerging Applications brings together innovative methodologies with research and development strategies to provide a detailed state-of-the-art overview of the processing, properties, and technology developments of graphene materials and their wide-ranging applications. The applications areas covered are biosensing, energy storage, environmental monitoring, and health.

The book discusses the various methods that have been developed for the preparation and functionalization of single-layered graphene nanosheets. These form the essential building blocks for the bottom-up architecture of various graphene materials because they possess unique physico-chemical properties such as large surface areas, good conductivity and mechanical strength, high thermal stability and desirable flexibility. The electronic behavior in graphene, such as dirac fermions obtained due to the interaction with the ions of the lattice, has led to the discovery of novel miracles like Klein tunneling in carbon-based solid state systems and the so-called half-integer quantum Hall effect. The combination of these properties makes graphene a highly desirable material for applications.

In particular, Graphene Materials: Fundamentals and Emerging Applications has chapters covering:

• Graphene and related two-dimensional nanomaterials
• Surface functionalization of graphene
• Functional three-dimensional graphene networks
• Covalent graphene-polymer nanocomposites
• Magnesium matrix composites reinforced with graphene nanoplatelets
• Graphene derivatives for energy storage
• Graphene nanocomposite for high performance supercapacitors
• Graphene nanocomposite-based bulk hetro-junction solar cells
• Graphene bimetallic nanocatalysts foam for energy storage and biosensing
• Graphene  nanocomposites-based for electrochemical sensors
• Graphene electrodes for health and environmental monitoring

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Foreword

Part 1: Fundamentals of Graphene and Graphene-Based Nanocomposites

Chapter 1: Graphene and Related Two-Dimensional Materials

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Preparation of Graphene Oxide by Modified Hummers’ Method

1.3 Dispersion of Graphene Oxide in Organic Solvents

1.4 Paper-like Graphene Oxide

1.5 Thin Films of Graphene Oxide and Graphene

1.6 Nanocomposites of Graphene Oxide

1.7 Graphene-Based Materials

1.8 Other Two-dimensional Materials

1.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 2: Surface Functionalization of Graphene

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Noncovalent Functionalization of Graphene

2.3 Covalent Functionalization of Graphene

2.4 Graphene–Nanoparticles

2.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: Architecture and Applications of Functional Three-dimensional Graphene Networks

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Applications

3.3 Summary, Conclusion, Outlook

Abbreviations

References

Chapter 4: Covalent Graphene-Polymer Nanocomposites

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Properties of Graphene for Polymer Reinforcement

4.3 Graphene and Graphene-like Materials

4.4 Methods of Production

4.5 Chemistry of Graphene

4.6 Conventional Graphene Based Polymer Nanocomposites

4.7 Covalent Graphene-polymer Nanocomposites

4.8 Grafting-From Approaches

4.9 Grafting-to Approaches

4.10 Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

Part 2: Emerging Applications of Graphene in Energy, Health, Environment and Sensors

Chapter 5: Magnesium Matrix Composites Reinforced with Graphene Nanoplatelets

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Effect of Graphene Nanoplatelets on Mechanical Properties of Pure Magnesium

5.3 Synergetic Effect of Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNPs) and Multi-walled Carbon Nanotube (MW-CNTs) on Mechanical Properties of Pure Magnesium

5.4 Effect of Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNPs) Addition on Strength and Ductility of Magnesium-Titanium Alloys

5.5 Effect of Graphene Nanoplatelets on Tensile Properties of Mg–1%Al–1%Sn Alloy

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 6: Graphene and Its Derivatives for Energy Storage

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Graphene in Lithium Batteries

6.3 Graphene in Supercapacitors

6.4 Summary

References

Chapter 7: Graphene-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite: An Ideal Electroactive Material for High Performance Supercapacitors

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Renewable Energy Sources

7.3 Importance of Energy Storage

7.4 Supercapacitors

7.5 Principle and Operation of Supercapacitiors

7.6 Electrode Materials for Supercapacitors

7.7 Graphene-based Supercapacitors and Their Limitations

7.8 Graphene-Polymer-Composite-based Supercapacitors

7.9 Graphene-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite-based Supercapacitiors

7.10 Fabrication of Graphene-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite for Supercapacitiors

7.11 Performance of Graphene-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite-based Supercapacitors

7.12 Summary and Outlook

References

Chapter 8: Hydrophobic ZnO Anchored Graphene Nanocomposite Based Bulk Hetro-junction Solar Cells to Improve Short Circuit Current Density

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Economic Expectations of OPV

8.3 Device Architecture

8.4 Operational Principles

8.5 Experimental procedure for synthesis of hydrophobic nanomaterials

8.6 Characterization of Synthesized ZnO Nanoparticles and ZnO Decorated Graphene (Z@G) Nanocomposite

8.7 Hybrid Solar Cell Fabrication and Characterization

8.8. Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 9: Three-dimensional Graphene Bimetallic Nanocatalysts Foam for Energy Storage and Biosensing

9.1 Background and Introduction

9.2 Preparation and Characterization of Three Dimensional Graphene Foam Supported Platinum-Ruthenium Bimetallic Nanocatalysts for Hydrogen Peroxide Based Electrochemical Biosensors

9.3 Three dimensional graphene Foam Supported Platinum–Ruthenium Bimetallic Nanocatalysts for Direct Methanol and Direct Ethanol Fuel Cell Applications

9.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 10: Electrochemical Sensing and Biosensing Platforms Using Graphene and Graphene-based Nanocomposites

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Fabrication of Graphene and Its Derivatives

10.3 Properties of Graphene and Its Derivatives

10.4 Electrochemistry of Graphene

10.5 Graphene and Graphene-Based Nanocomposites as Electrode Materials

10.6 Electrochemical Sensing/Biosensing

10.7 Challenges and Future Trends

References

Chapter 11: Applications of Graphene Electrodes in Health and Environmental Monitoring

11.1 Biosensors Based on Nanostructured Materials

11.2 Graphene Nanomaterials Used in Electrochemical (bio)Sensors Fabrication

11.3 Miniaturized Graphene Nanostructured Biosensors for Health Monitoring

11.4 Miniaturized Graphene Nanostructured Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring

11.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects

Acknowledgements

References

Index

Graphene Materials

Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Advanced Materials Series

The Advanced Materials Series provides recent advancements of the fascinating field of advanced materials science and technology, particularly in the area of structure, synthesis and processing, characterization, advanced-state properties, and applications. The volumes will cover theoretical and experimental approaches of molecular device materials, biomimetic materials, hybrid-type composite materials, functionalized polymers, supramolecular systems, information- and energy-transfer materials, biobased and biodegradable or environmental friendly materials. Each volume will be devoted to one broad subject and the multidisciplinary aspects will be drawn out in full.

Series Editor: Dr. Ashutosh TiwariBiosensors and Bioelectronics CentreLinköping UniversitySE-581 83 LinköpingSwedenE-mail: [email protected]

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

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Preface

Graphene materials constitute probably the most focused arena of materials research in the present decade because of their involvement with fundamental phenomena from the fields of physics, chemistry, biology, applied sciences and engineering. As the first atomic-thick two-dimensional crystalline material, graphene has continuously created a wonderland in nanomaterials and nanotechnology. A number of methods have been developed for the preparation and rendering functional of single-layered graphene nanosheets, the essential building blocks for the bottom-up architecture of various graphene materials. They possess unique physico-chemical properties including large surface area, good conductivity and mechanical strength, high thermal stability and desirable flexibility. Altogether they create a new type of super-thin phenomenon, highly attractive for a wide range of applications. The electronic behaviour in graphene such as Dirac fermions obtained due to the interaction with the ions of the lattice has led to the discovery of novel miracles like Klein tunneling in carbon based solid state systems and the so-called half-integer quantum Hall effect due to a special type of Berry phase. This book entitled, Graphene Materials: Fundamentals and Emerging Applications proposes a detailed up-to-date chapters on the processing, properties and technology developments of graphene materials including multifunctional graphene sheets, surface functionalization, covalent nanocomposites, reinforced nanoplatelets composites etc. for a wide range of applications.

Graphene has created a profound interest in two-dimensional materials properties. Graphene oxide has shown to be possible to reproduce in large quantities, but still the properties for its fabrication needs to be understood in order to have reproducible material quality. Still it is not clear what type of two dimensional materials will be best for various applications. Other two dimensional materials may be better suited regarding certain applications, and therefore should be understood more in detail. In addition, hybrids and two dimensional materials can results in extended properties.

Chapter 1 presents fabrication of graphene oxide and two dimensional materials, like tin selenides, SnS2, MnO2, NO BN, MoS2 and WS2, the latter which can tune electrical properties from metallic and semiconducting by changing the crystal structure and the amount of layers, but it may also act as a lubricant material for use in high temperature and high pressure applications. In comparison, MoS2 is one of the transition metal dichalcogenides and applicable as battery, electrochemical capacitor, memory cell, catalysts, and composite. The chapter also introduces the concept of WS2 nanosheets hybridized with reduced graphene oxide nanosheets to achieve a good catalytic activity.

Novel features may be obtained combining graphene nanosheets and graphene oxide with other new nanomaterials such as magnetic nanoparticles, carbon dots, carbon nanotubes, nanosemiconductors, quantum dots. The requirement is that the graphene surfaces must be rendered functional. The noncovalent and covalent functionalization of graphene nanosheets and graphene oxide are presented in Chapter 2. Noncovalent functionalization involves hydrophobic, π-π, Van der Waals, and electrostatic interactions. In this, there is a physical adsorption of suitable molecules on the graphene surface. Covalent functionalization can take place at the end of the sheets and/or on the surface. The combination of inorganic nanoparticles with graphene oxide may be either as a pre-graphenization (graphene oxide is mixed with the nano particles) or post-graphenization (where nanosheets and graphene oxide are prepared separately) process. The functionalized graphene nanosheets may be applied into three-dimensional porous graphene networks that have large surface areas, good conductivity and mechanical strength, high thermal stability and flexibility.

In Chapter 3, the most widely-used methods for assembling three-dimensional porous graphene networks and their structural characteristics are presented. Examples are given of their applications in sensors and energy devices. Graphene-based composites have a large specific surface area, porous structure, and fast electron transport kinetics, providing unique physicochemical properties that are mechanically robust, with high conductivity and thermal stability combined with fast mass and electron transport properties. The challenges lie in controlling pore size and functionality so as to enjoy flexibility in the development of frameworks for mechanically robust materials while maintaining structural integrity, stability and conductivity.

Graphene-based nanocomposites may act as both graphene filler and polymer host. These are known for their enhanced performance in many applications such as flexible packaging, structural components for transportation or energy storage, memory devices, hydrogen storage and printed electronics. Polymers covalently reinforced with graphene may be best when homogeneously dispersed in the matrix with a strong filler/polymer interface without phase segregation, especially in direct covalent binding between polymers and graphene. The grafting-from (graphene as a macromolecular initiator for growing polymer brushes from its surface) and grafting-to (combining graphene and polymers through a chemical reaction) approaches to bind polymers to graphene are presented in Chapter 4.

In Chapter 5, metal matrix composites, often used in aerospace and automobile industries, are investigated using graphene and magnesium matrix composites reinforced with graphene nanoplatelets. The mechanical properties of Mg-graphene composites show that there is a poor response of graphene nanoplatelet additions on tensile strength of pure Mg matrix, while addition of graphene nanoplatelets into Mg alloys matrix leads to significant improvement in mechanical strength. In addition, there is higher tensile failure strain in the synergetic effect of graphene and carbon nanotubes in the Mg-1Al alloy matrix relative to those reinforced with individual graphene nanoplatelets and multi-wall carbon nanotubes.

The increase in energy saving need pushes the graphene to be explored in batteries and supercapacitors. Graphene with its electron transfer behavior and unique two-dimensional surface is acknowledged as a potential electrode material. This becomes attractive since graphene improves conductivity, charge rate, energy capacity. The excellent chemical stability, high electrical conductivity, and large surface area of graphene makes it attractive in reduction of volume expansion of electrode materials in lithium batteries and graphene-based supercapacitors which may exhibit high storage capacity, fast energy release, quick recharge time, and a long lifetime. Chapter 6 furnishes insights in intrinsic challenges of poor kinetics, large volume expansion, and dissolution of polysulfides in the electrolyte in graphene based batteries, and V2O5/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites, Co3O4 nanoplates/reduced graphene oxide composites and graphene/NiO as well as graphene–MnO2 hybrids together with some other material approaches as electrode materials for supercapacitors. The poor stability of conducting polymers during charging/discharging is a major challenge in high power supercapacitors. In addition, the low conductivity of conducting polymer also results in high ohmic polarization and a declining reversibility and stability.

Chapter 7 presents conducting polymers including polypyrrole, polyaniline and polyethenedioxythiophene with superior electrical conductivity and large pseudo capacitance have aroused great interest as electrode materials for supercapacitors as a consequence of their high conductivity and fast redox electroactivity.

Chapter 8 deals with ZnO/graphene nanocomposite-based bulk hetero-junction solar cells, deliberating upon carrier diffusion length, recombination losses, device architect limitations, efficient charge separation and transport to respective electrodes and possible restriction of organic photovoltaic efficiency, dielectric constant value and charge carrier mobility.

Bimetallic nanocatalysts may give a large surface excellent dispersion and high degrees of sensitivity. Chapter 9 describes hierarchically-structured platinum–ruthenium nanoparticles incorporated in three-dimensional graphene foam as electrode materials for fuel cells with enhanced performance by decreasing particle size, increasing number of active sites for methanol or ethanol, and increasing the resistance against CO poisoning, as well as detection of H2O2 in biosensing by Pt active binding sites that are able to interact with H2O2 to enhance the catalytic activity of the H2O2 detection. Graphene and graphene-based nanocomposites may be platforms for electrochemical sensing and biosensing. These can lead to biosensors with superior analytical performance, high sensitivity, low detection limit, high precision, high specificity, low working potentials and prolonged stability.

Direct electrochemical detection or enzymeless sensing of glucose is feasible using nanocomposites of graphene decorated with metal nano particles and nanowires that can be operated at low applied potentials. In particular, graphene with exposed edge-like planes offers several advantages over other electrode materials for the catalytic oxidation of the DNA bases, as described in Chapter 10. This has also been used to demonstrate how graphene can be used as a biocompatible substrate to enhance cell adhesion and growth to form a basis for the detection of cells.

Chapter 11 describes graphene approaches that have been adopted for improving the performance of graphene nanomaterials-based miniaturized electrochemical biosensors that may be binding of various enzymes. This may lead to utilizing graphene as a transducer in bio-field-effect transistors, electrochemical, impedimetric, electrochemiluminescence, and fluorescence biosensors, as well as biomolecular labels. Further on, graphene-nanostructured biosensors have broad applicability for environmental monitoring purposes, particularly in toxic gases, heavy metal ions and organic pollutants detection.

EditorsAshutosh Tiwari, PhD, DScMikael Syväjärvi, PhDLinköpingFebruary 2015

Foreword

Graphene is a monolayer of carbon atoms in a densely-packed two-dimensional (2D) honeycomb crystal structure. It can be considered a building block of three-dimensional (3D) graphite, quasi one-dimensional (1D) carbon nanotubes and quasi zero-dimensional (0D) fullerenes. Graphene is a semi-metal with a tiny overlap between the valence and the conduction band (zero-gap semiconductor). Graphene was not known to exist in an isolated form until 2004. Before that, it was known to exist only in the 1D or 0D form, or even better known in its 3D structure as graphite, which consists of graphene sheets with strong in-plane bonds and weak van der Waals-like coupling between layers. Moreover, it was presumed, that a single 2D graphene sheet would be thermodynamically unstable. Only in 2004, researchers from Manchester — Kostya Novoselov and Andre Geim — demonstrated that it is indeed possible to realize stable single and few layer graphene sheets. They were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics 2010 for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene. Graphene was first obtained by delicately cleaving a sample of graphite with sticky tape.

The direct observation of the isolated graphene monolayer has sparked exponentially growing interest. Just a few years were enough to gather several scientific communities to investigate the properties of this unusual material. About 3500 scientific articles were published in 2010. Owing to its peculiar electronic behavior under magnetic field and at low temperature, graphene has attracted the curiosity of mesoscopic physicists. The investigation and tailoring of its transport properties from macroscopic to molecular scales captures a large share of the current research effort. Materials scientists have rapidly grabbed some of the assets of graphene and are already exploring the ways of incorporating graphene into applied devices and materials.

Because of its linear energy–momentum dispersion relations, which cross at the Dirac point, graphene holds open great promise for future electronics technology as well as fundamental physics applications. Two of the most extraordinary properties of graphene are its absolute two-dimensionality and the behavior of its charge carriers as Dirac particles, which obey the Dirac equation rather than usual Schrödinger equation. As a result, many well-known effects in the field of solid state physics are expected to be modified.

Graphene’s exceptional electronic properties (e.g. high carrier mobility) along with transparency make it an extremely attractive material candidate for a wide range of applications - in electronics, optoelectronics, sensing and fundamental studies of the way electrons behave when confined in two dimensions. Concomitantly, the light weight, mechanical strength and high conductivity of graphene are perfectly suited for composite and light polymer materials.

Graphene can be fabricated by many different ways: from exfoliation to chemical synthesis and thermal decomposition of SiC exploiting solid, liquid or vapor phase. The thinnest-ever crystal graphene is a versatile material promising many applications for mankind’s benefit. These will contribute to the solution of existing acute problems related to health, energy saving and ecology. Depending on targeted applications different types of graphene are used. In this book, the reader will find useful information on most of these aspects.

November 27, 2014Rositsa YakimovaLinköping, Sweden

Rositsa Yakimova is Professor Emerita in material science, Linköping University. She is an internationally recognized expert in the field of semiconductor crystal and nanostructure growth. Since 1993 she has had a substantial contribution to the development of the sublimation growth process of SiC. Her major efforts recently have been in research of graphene on SiC. Yakimova has pioneered a novel method for fabrication of large area uniform epitaxial graphene on SiC and since 2008 she is leading the research of graphene on SiC at Linköping University.

Part 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF GRAPHENE AND GRAPHENE-BASED NANOCOMPOSITES

Chapter 1

Graphene and Related Two-Dimensional Materials

Manas Mandal1, Anirban Maitra1, Tanya Das2 and Chapal Kumar Das*1

1Materials Science Centre, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur India.

2Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.

*Corresponding author:[email protected]

Abstract

In today’s nanomaterial moderated world, besides intercalated compounds like graphite, fullerenes and carbon nanotubes; search for specialized materials (2-Dimensional) such as graphene, hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), monolayer molybdenum disulfide, molybdenum selenide (MoSe2), molybdenum telluride, tungsten sulfide, etc., for sophisticated applications in batteries, electrochromics, integrated circuits, photovoltaic, cosmetics, catalysts, solid lubricants and supercapacitors have been a demanding field of scientific inquiry. Graphene, the most significant 2D nanomaterial having sp2 hybridized carbon atoms in a honeycomb arrangement is derived from pristine graphite. It is basically a semiconductor type material having a zero band gap. Simultaneously, it has got a very high charge mobility of some higher order magnitude than silicon semiconductor. To increase the conductivity of graphene, we can dope it by using nitrogen. Moreover, it has got a very high surface area as well as excellent thermal conductivity. In the case of graphene-based polymer nanocomposites, it gives a high modulus with an excellent mechanical and thermal stability. The chapter describes preparation and properties of graphene and alike two- dimensional materials.

Keywords: Nanomaterials, 2D materials, polymer nanocomposites, supercapacitors, piezoelectric, field effect transistors

1.1 Introduction

Graphene is a two-dimensional new allotrope of carbon, having monoatomic thick hexagonal (honeycomb) lattice structure with carbon-carbon distance of 1.42 Å. In other words, it is a single layer of graphite having sp2 hybridized carbon atoms. Graphene is the basic building block of all other graphitic materials such as, three dimensional (3D) graphite, one dimensional (1D) carbon nanotubes and zero dimensional (0D) fullerenes [1]. Due to its attractive physical and chemical properties such as very high surface area, excellent electronic and thermal conductivities, superior mechanical and electrochemical stability, good transparency, graphene has grabbed a great scientific and technological interest in recent years [2]. Moreover, graphene can be easily produced in large scale by the reduction of graphene oxide. Because of these remarkable properties as well as ease synthesis of graphene, it has been widely used in many fields such as polymer nanocomposites, energy storage and conversion (e.g. supercapacitors, batteries, fuel cells and solar cells), chemical sensors, flexible electronic and optical devices [3–8]. Graphene shows double layer capacitance, which is resulted by the charge or ion accumulation on the surface of electrode/electrolyte interface.