Green Aviation E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1358

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

Green Aviation is the first authoritative overview of both engineering and operational measures to mitigate the environmental impact of aviation.

It addresses the current status of measures to reduce the environmental impact of air travel. The chapters cover such items as:

• Engineering and technology-related subjects (aerodynamics, engines, fuels, structures, etc.),
• Operations (air traffic management and infrastructure)
• Policy and regulatory aspects regarding atmospheric and noise pollution.

With contributions from leading experts, this volume is intended to be a valuable addition, and useful resource, for aerospace manufacturers and suppliers, governmental and industrial aerospace research establishments, airline and aviation industries, university engineering and science departments, and industry analysts, consultants, and researchers.

Leseprobe

CONTENTS

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Contributors

Foreword

Preface

Part 1: Overview

Chapter 1: Aviation and Climate Change – The Continuing Challenge

1 Introduction to Aviation & Climate Change Policy

2 Trends in the Aviation Sector's CO2 Emissions

3 Drivers of Demand for Air Travel

4 Technical Options for Cutting CO2 in Aviation

5 Future of Aviation and Climate Change

6 Conclusion

References

Further Reading

Chapter 2: Global Atmospheric Chemistry and Impacts from Aviation

1 Introduction

2 Emissions

3 Chemical Processes in the Troposphere

4 Chemical Processes in the Stratosphere

5 Impacts of Aircraft Emissions

6 Conclusions

Related Articles

References

Chapter 3: Aviation Emissions

1 Introduction

2 Traffic and Emissions Trends

3 Emissions and Effects

4 Emission Inventories

5 Future Trends

6 Mitigation: Technology and Policy

7 Conclusion

Related Articles

References

Chapter 4: Emissions and Other Impacts: Introduction

1 Introduction

2 Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: Avoiding the Predictable Surprise: Early Action Is the Key to Building a Climate-Resilient Aviation Network

1 Introduction

2 Background

3 Potential Climate Change Impacts for European Aviation

4 European Aviation Stakeholder Consultation

5 Building Climate Resilience

6 Early Action to Build Resilience

7 Building Resilience A Global Challenge

8 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Part 2: Aerodynamics and Airframe

Chapter 6: Application of Drag Reduction Techniques to Transport Aircraft

1 Introduction

2 Laminar Flow Control

3 Active Flow Control

4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 7: Blended Wing Body Aircraft: A Historical Perspective

1 The Classical Airplane Concept

2 Flying Wing and Tailless Aircraft

3 Aerodynamic and Fuel Efficiency

4 Very Large Aircraft (VLA)

5 Hybrid Flying Wing

6 Genesis of Blended Wing Body Aircraft

7 Development of the First-Generation BWB

8 Second-Generation BWB

9 Challenges and Advantages

10 Boeing BWB-450

11 Barriers or Show Stoppers?

12 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 8: Fuel Burn Reduction Through Wing Morphing

1 Introduction

2 Impact of Morphing on Fuel Burn

3 Planform Morphing

4 Out-of-Plane Morphing

5 Airfoil Morphing

6 Conclusions and Outlook

References

Part 3: Combustion-Based Propulsion

Chapter 9: Advances in Turbofan Engines: A US Perspective

1 Historical Perspective

2 US Contemporary Efforts in Turbofan Research

3 Generation-after-next Turbofan Research

4 Outlook

Acknowledgments

Nomenclature

References

Chapter 10: A Rolls-Royce Perspective on Concepts and Technologies for Future Green Propulsion Systems

1 Fundamentals of Improving Engine Fuel Efficiency: Thermal and Propulsive Efficiencies

2 Market Drivers and Environmental Requirements

3 Trent Family State of the Art

4 Next-Generation Engines: Advance and Ultrafan™

5 Longer-Term Gas-Turbine “Vision 20” Technology

6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: Geared Turbofan™ Engine: Driven by Innovation

1 Introduction

2 Fan Drive Gear System (FDGS): Historical Development

3 Design Features and Innovation

4 FDGS Validation and Certification

5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 12: Advanced Engine Designs and Concepts Beyond the Geared Turbofan

1 Introduction

2 Near-Term Improvements

3 Long-Term Options

4 Conclusions

Nomenclature

References

Chapter 13: Progress in Open Rotor Research

1 Historical Perspective

2 Contemporary Efforts in Open Rotor Research

3 Systems Analysis of Open Rotor-Powered Aircraft

4 Outlook

Acknowledgments

Nomenclature

References

Part 4: Alternative Propulsion

Chapter 14: Energy Optimization for Solar-Powered Aircraft

1 Introduction

2 Brief History

3 Incident Solar Radiation Modeling

4 Airfoil Shape Optimization for Maximization of Incidence Solar Energy

5 Energy-Optimized Airfoils

6 Energy Optimization with Drag Minimization

7 Types of Solar Panels and Their Relative Merits

8 Power Supply and Control

9 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Nomenclature

References

Chapter 15: Hydrogen-Powered Aircraft

1 Introduction

2 History of Hydrogen-Powered Aviation

3 Hydrogen Transport Aircraft Design

4 Hydrogen Propulsion Systems

5 Hydrogen Combustion

6 Hydrogen Production

7 Hydrogen Distribution Infrastructure

8 Liquid Hydrogen or Liquefied Natural Gas

9 Summary: Hydrogen as a Fuel For Aviation

References

Chapter 16: Biofuels for Green Aviation

1 Overview

2 Introduction

3 Biofuel as Green Aviation Fuel: Background

4 Potential Biofuels for Green Aviation

5 The Processing of Biomass

6 Biofuel Applications for the Green Aviation Industry

7 eXtreme Green Aviation: The Future

8 Summary and Conclusion

References

Chapter 17: Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Auxiliary Power Units

1 Introduction

2 Brief History

3 SOFC/Gas Turbine System Design

4 PEMFC System Alternative

5 Challenges

6 Future Prospects

7 Conclusion

Further Reading

References

Chapter 18: Electric Drives for Propulsion System of Transport Aircraft

1 Introduction

2 Hybrid Electric and Universally Electric Propulsion System Architecture

3 Compendium of Hybrid Electric and Universally Electric Aircraft

4 Insights Regarding Integrated Hybrid Electric Transport Aircraft

5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 19: Lithium-Ion Batteries: Thermomechanics, Performance, and Design Optimization

1 Introduction

2 Fundamentals of Lithium-Ion Batteries

3 Cell Operation

4 Modeling of Lithium-Ion Batteries

5 Battery Design

6 Issues and Challenges

7 The Future

8 Conclusion

References

Part 5: Aerodynamics and Aircraft Concepts

Chapter 20: Damage Arresting Composites

1 Introduction

2 Structural Concept

3 Damage Arrest Design

4 Structural Feasibility Testing

5 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 21: Greener Helicopters

1 Introduction

2 Propulsion Systems

3 Acoustics

4 Conceptual Design

5 Summary

References

Part 6: Noise

Chapter 22: Aircraft Noise: Alleviating Constraints to Airport Operations and Growth

1 Introduction

2 Background

3 Aircraft Noise and Airport Capacity

4 Assessing Noise Impacts on Communities

5 Noise Regulation & Management

6 Conclusion

Related Articles

References

Further Reading

Chapter 23: Aircraft Noise Modeling

1 Aircraft Noise Sources

2 Noise Prediction Models

3 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 24: Carbon and Noise Trading in Aviation

1 Introduction

2 Policy Options to Combat Environmental Externalities

3 Tradable Permits

4 Aviation and Emissions Trading

5 Concepts in Noise Trading

6 Conclusions

References

Part 7: Systems

Chapter 25: Onboard Energy Management

1 Introduction

2 Energy Generation

3 Energy Consumption

4 Architecture Assessments

5 Integration Challenges

6 Energy Management

7 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 26: Impact of Airframe Systems on Green Airliner Operation

1 Introduction

2 Airframe Systems Impact Within the Context of Aircraft Operation

3 Effect of Airframe Systems on Green Trajectories

4 Summary and Conclusions

Appendix A: Route Data

Nomenclature

References

Chapter 27: Modern Avionics and ATM Systems for Green Operations

1 Introduction

2 ATM Evolutionary Roadmap

3 Trajectory Optimization

4 CNS+A Systems for Trajectory-Based Operations

5 Air Traffic Flow Management

6 Dynamic Airspace Management

7 Next-Generation Flight Management Systems

8 Integrated Vehicle Health Management System

9 Data Link Evolutions

10 System-Wide Information Management

11 CNS+A Technologies for RPAS

12 Conclusions

References

Part 8: Operations

Chapter 28: Integrated Assessment Modeling

1 Introduction

2 Aviation System Components and Model Elements

3 Scenarios and System Levers

4 Conclusions and Future Model Development

References

Chapter 29: Cost Analysis Approach in the Development of Advanced Technologies for Green Aviation Aircraft

1 Green Aviation Context: The ERA Project

2 Conceptual Design Process for Green Aviation Aircraft

3 Overview of the Cost Analysis Approach

4 PTIRS Cost Estimating Relationships

5 Business Case for Incorporating a Technology

6 Sample Business Cases

7 ERA Technology Investments Summary

8 ERA Portfolio Business Case

9 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 30: Green Aircraft Operations

1 Introduction

2 Environmental Inefficiency Factors in Current Operations

3 Green Aircraft Operations

4 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 31: Impact of Airports on Local Air Quality

1 Introduction

2 Monitoring

3 Modeling

4 NO

2

5 Fine Particulate Matter

6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 32: A Roadmap for Aviation Research in Australia

1 Introduction

2 Improved Efficiency and Capacity of Airports

3 Systems and Technologies for Air Traffic Management

4 Through-Life Support of new and Aging Aircraft

5 Low-Emission Technologies and Biofuels

6 Enhanced Aviation Safety and Security

7 Conclusions

References

Part 9: Atmosphere and Climate

Chapter 33: Atmospheric Modeling

1 Introduction

2 Consideration for Model Construction

3 How to Run a Model

4 A Natural Extension To Atmospheric Modeling

5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 34: In Plume Physics and Chemistry

1 Introduction

2 Aircraft Wake Dynamics and Exhaust Plume Mixing

3 Chemical Processes and Formation of Aerosol Precursors

4 Microphysics and Aerosol Interactions

5 Summary

Notation

Related Article

References

Further Reading

Chapter 35: Contrails and Contrail Cirrus

1 Introduction

2 Exhaust Contrail Formation

3 Aerodynamic Contrails

4 Climate Impact of Contrails

5 Mitigation Options

6 Summary

References

Further Reading

Chapter 36: Radiative Forcing and Climate Change

1 Introduction

2 Conceptual Framework

3 Radiative Forcing Due to Aviation

4 Emission Indices

5 Conclusions

Related Article

References

Chapter 37: Atmospheric Composition

1 Guide to this Chapter

2 Fundamental Properties of Atmospheric Gases

3 The Homosphere, Heterosphere, and Exosphere

4 The Principal Atmospheric Gases

5 Summary

Acknowledgments

Related Article

References

Chapter 38: Meteorology

1 Introduction

2 Microburst Wind Shear

3 Turbulence

4 Icing

5 Wake Vortices

6 Lightning

7 Dust Devils

8 Concluding Remarks

References

Further Reading

Subject Index

End User License Agreement

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Guide

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Green Aviation

Green Aviation Editors

Ramesh Agarwal

The William Palm Professor of Engineering Washington University, St Louis, MO, USA

Fayette Collier

NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA, USA

Andreas Schäfer

UCL Energy Institute, London, UK

Allan Seabridge

Independent Aerospace Consultant, Lytham St. Annes, UK

Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering Editors-in-Chief

Richard Blockley

Aerospace Consultant, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK

Former Head of Technical Programmes, BAE Systems, Farnborough, UK

Wei Shyy

Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, P. R. China

This edition first published 2016

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Cover image from Getty/junyyeung

Contributors

Ramesh K. Agarwal

Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA

Kevin L. Anderson

Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, School of Mechanical Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

David Angland

Faculty of Engineering, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK

Alfred J. Bedard Jr.

Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, Physical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Boulder, CO, USA

Mike Bennett

Centre for Aviation, Transport and the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

Gaudy M. Bezos-O'Connor

NASA LaRC, Hampton, VA, USA

Cees Bil

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Bilal M.M. Bomani

NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH, USA

Alice Bows-Larkin

Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, School of Mechanical Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

D. Douglas Boyd

NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA, USA

Peter Braesicke

Chemistry Department, NCAS Climate, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Simon I. Briceno

Aerospace Systems Design Laboratory, The Daniel Guggenheim School of Aerospace Engineering,Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

Rachel Burbidge

EUROCONTROL, Brussels, Belgium

Imon Chakraborty

Aerospace Systems Design Laboratory, The Daniel Guggenheim School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

Jeffrey D. Crouch

Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Seattle, WA, USA

Oliver Dessens

Centre for Atmospheric Science, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK

Graham Dorrington

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Lynnette M. Dray

UCL Energy Institute, University College London, London, UK

Wenbo Du

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

Antony D. Evans

UCL Energy Institute, University College London, London, UK

Peter Frederic

Tecolote Research, Inc., Santa Barbara, CA, USA

Joshua E. Freeh

NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH, USA

Astrid Gühnemann

Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Elena Garcia

Aerospace Systems Design Laboratory, The Daniel Guggenheim School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

Alessandro Gardi

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

François A. Garnier

Physics and Instrumentation Department, ONERA, Châtillon, France

Klaus M. Gierens

Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany

James Gill

Faculty of Engineering, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK

Susan A. Gorton

NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA, USA

Jonathan Hart

Rolls-Royce plc, Derby, UK

Robert C. Hendricks

NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH, USA

Paul D. Hooper

Center for Aviation, Transport and the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

Ken I. Hume

Center for Aviation, Transport and the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

Dawn C. Jegley

NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA, USA

Wayne Johnson

NASA Ames Research Center, Mountain View, CA, USA

Marcus O. Köhler

School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

Trevor Kistan

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Lee W. Kohlman

NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH, USA

Craig Lawson

Centre for Aeronautics, School of Aerospace Manufacturing and Transport, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK

David S. Lee

Dalton Research Institute, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

John C. Lin

NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA, USA

Mujeeb R. Malik

NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA, USA

Sarah L. Mander

Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, School of Mechanical Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Matthew Marino

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Joaquim R.R.A Martins

Aerospace Engineering Department, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Janet A. Maughan

Center for Aviation, Transport and the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

Dimitri N. Mavris

Aerospace Systems Design Laboratory, The Daniel Guggenheim School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

Michael McCune

Division of UTC, Pratt & Whitney, East Hartford, CT, USA

Philippe J. Mirabel

Surfaces et Procédés pour la Catalyse, Université de Strasbourg, Laboratoire des Matériaux, Strasbourg, France

Adrian Mouritz

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Craig Nickol

NASA LaRC, Hampton, VA, USA

Bethan Owen

Dalton Research Institute, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

Daniel E. Paxson

Communications and Intelligent Systems Division, NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH, USA

Alexia P. Payan

Aerospace Systems Design Laboratory, The Daniel Guggenheim School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

H. Douglas Perkins

Propulsion Division, NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH, USA

Christopher A. Perullo

Aerospace Systems Design Laboratory, The Daniel Guggenheim School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

Clément Pornet

Bauhaus Luftfahrt, Munich, Germany

Subramanian Ramasamy

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Dave Raper

Centre for Aviation, Transport and the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

Tom G. Reynolds

Air Traffic Control Systems Group, MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Lexington, MA, USA

Carl R. Russell

NASA Ames Research Center, Mountain View, CA, USA

Roberto Sabatini

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

William S. Saric

Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

Thomas W. Schlatter

Earth System Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Boulder, CO, USA

Jeff S. Schutte

Aerospace Systems Design Laboratory, The Daniel Guggenheim School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

Ravinka Seresinhe

Centre for Aeronautics, School of Aerospace Manufacturing and Transport, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK

William Sheridan

Division of UTC, Pratt & Whitney, East Hartford, CT, USA

Keith P. Shine

Department of Meteorology, University of Reading, Reading, UK

Wei Shyy

Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, P. R. China

Christopher A. Snyder

NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH, USA

Aleksandar Subic

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Callum S. Thomas

Center for Aviation, Transport and the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

Egbert Torenbeek

Department of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Michael B. Traut

Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, School of Mechanical Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

David R. Trawick

Aerospace Systems Design Laboratory, The Daniel Guggenheim School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

Xavier P. Vancassel

Physics and Instrumentation Department, ONERA, Châtillon, France

Alexander Velicki

The Boeing Company, Huntington Beach, CA, USA

Zia Wadud

Institute for Transport Studies and Centre for Integrated Energy Research, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Chun Wang

School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Edward A. Whalen

Boeing Research & Technology, Hazelwood, MO, USA

John Whurr

Rolls-Royce plc, Derby, UK

Michael Winter

Division of UTC, Pratt & Whitney, East Hartford, CT, USA

F. Ruth Wood

Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, School of Mechanical Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Nansi Xue

Zee.Aero, Mountain View, CA, USA

Gloria K. Yamauchi

NASA Ames Research Center, Mountain View, CA, USA

Larry A. Young

NASA Ames Research Center, Mountain View, CA, USA

Dale E. Van Zante

Acoustics Branch, Propulsion Division, NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH, USA

Xin Zhang

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, School of Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China

Foreword

When our respective predecessors introduced the Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering, they called it an ambitious effort to meet the challenge of distilling the collective body of aerospace engineering knowledge into a single cohesive reference framework.

The ambition and challenge inherent in this effort derives in part from the relatively short time span the aerospace discipline has existed as well as the dynamic technology-driven discipline it is. Since the publication of the first volume in 2010, new technologies have developed and matured, new technical challenges have emerged and have been confronted, and the resulting experience and knowledge must be incorporated into the professional body of knowledge. A prime example of this is the emergence and maturation of green aviation technologies.

The growing awareness of our responsibilities to preserve our planet and its environment for future generations is evident from increased media attention, the growth of noise and emissions management as drivers for our design engineers and mission planners, and the passionate views of our young people. In addition to being good corporate citizens by sincerely endeavoring to “go greener,” in a time of global economic uncertainly, it makes good business sense to fly aircraft and rotorcraft as efficiently as possible. In short, we as an industry can do good and do well at the same time.

As a field that is both quickly expanding and becoming ever more complex, we welcome this addition to the Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering as both timely and comprehensive. Mirroring the character of the parent publication, this handbook is multidisciplinary and multinational; however, this supplementary publication meets the particular need to capture the risks and mitigation strategies associated with the topical and important environmental aspects of aviation.

From aerodynamics and propulsion to systems and operations and from noise mitigation to atmosphere and climate science, this volume is an essential primer for new and experienced aerospace professionals alike. It will also most certainly be of interest to the larger scientific community, whose members are trying to better understand the past, current, and future effects of aviation on the environment.

The year 2016 marks both the 150th anniversary of the Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS) and the 85th anniversary of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). With a combined membership of more than 50 000 aerospace professionals, our two organizations celebrate these milestones, and our members' never-ending quest for knowledge and solutions is not just to the problems and challenges of today but also of the next impossible thing.

It can be easy to imagine that the level of innovation of today cannot match the pioneering work predating heavier-than-air flight and of the subsequent early years of aviation: yet today we service an industry that underpins the global economy; leads the world in safety; invests enormous sums in product development; and solves a vast array of interconnected technological challenges. These factors make the contributions of today's innovators as important, inspirational, and intriguing as they were 150 years ago. We particularly applaud those whose efforts to understand and manage the environmental impact of aviation are essential for the continued health and well-being of both our industry and our global society.

Aerospace makes the world safer, more connected, more accessible, and more prosperous. It is our hope that the addition of this volume to the Encyclopedia continues this trend and is as professionally valuable and influential to its readers – and the industry – as were the first nine volumes.

We are proud, jointly, to commend to you this new contribution to the aerospace engineering body of knowledge.

Mr. James Maser

President, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and Vice President, Operations Program Management, Pratt & Whitney, East Hartford, CT, USAand

Dr. Chris Atkin

President, Royal Aeronautical Society and Professor of Aeronautical Engineering,City University London, UK

Preface

The Wiley Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering in printed and electronic formats provided knowledge to all disciplines of the aerospace industry in a series of “learned” chapters. It has continued to do that successfully since its publication. This knowledge was principally applicable to aerospace systems currently in operation or in development. Built upon this extensive and comprehensive list of chapters, the Editors decided that further coverage of selected topical areas of emerging importance can further serve the community's interests. The present volume intends to address opportunities, challenges, and technical issues related to aerospace emissions, environment, and green aviation.

The discussion and debate on this issue has grown steadily over the years, and it is clear that there is no universal agreement. Does the aerospace industry in general pollute the environment to a detrimental extent and if so by what mechanisms? More importantly, can the effect be measured, the impact predicted with certainty, and what can be done about it? The debate has been conducted in the press, in textbooks, in the political arena, and in journals. In so doing, a set of polarized views has emerged, and it is difficult to separate scientific and popular viewpoints, objective and vested opinions, and serious and provocative statements. Who is right and who is wrong, in fact is there a right and wrong?

This volume has been developed with the goal of providing informed assistance to achieving an understanding of the issues in hand. It is a collection of chapters written by scientists, engineers, designers, and academics in order to provide a wide ranging, but also deep, understanding of many of the key topics. It is to address the interaction between aerospace and the environment and to provide information and advice to key players in the field. This includes those who directly contribute to the development of new aircraft and infrastructure – engineers, designers, operators, maintainers, and regulators as well as those who have the capability to influence that development such as policy makers, decision makers, planners, politicians, and journalists.

The range of topics is wide, covering innovative aircraft and engine designs, aerodynamics and propulsion, aircraft operations and air traffic management, alternative fuels, lightweight high-strength materials, onboard auxiliary power units, noise reduction technologies, nonconventional aircraft (electric, solar, hydrogen), and so on, but are directly relevant to the issue, and have been written by the authors with pertinent and solid experience. As far as possible, the chapters are factual and objective – this is not a forum for personal opinion or speculation. It is intended to stimulate discussion and to encourage debate.

We expect that with the publication of this volume as part of a comprehensive Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering, more exchanges and collaborations will take place to advance new concepts and practices, and in due time, the convenience and pleasure of flight will be offered in an increasingly more sustainable manner.

Ramesh Agarwal

The William Palm Professor of Engineering Washington University, St Louis, MO, USA

Fayette Collier

NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA, USA

Andreas Schäfer

UCL Energy Institute, London, UKand

Allan Seabridge

Independent Aerospace Consultant, Lytham St. Annes, UK

Part 1Overview

Chapter 1Aviation and Climate Change – The Continuing Challenge

Alice Bows-Larkin, Sarah L. Mander, Michael B.Traut, Kevin L. Anderson, and F. Ruth Wood

Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, School of Mechanical Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

1 Introduction to Aviation & Climate Change Policy

2 Trends in the Aviation Sector’s CO

2

Emissions

3 Drivers of Demand for Air Travel

4 Technical Options for Cutting CO

2

in Aviation

5 Future of Aviation and Climate Change

6 Conclusion

References

Further Reading

1 Introduction to Aviation & Climate Change Policy

International aviation's contribution to global CO2 emissions has come under scrutiny since the early 2000s. Prior to that, mitigation focused on the CO2 released within national borders, given the exclusion of international aviation from the Kyoto Protocol's national targets. Although a considerable body of research has since interrogated aviation's CO2 contribution, discussing cuts in the CO2 produced by flights remains controversial and unpopular for many reasons voiced by industrial stakeholders and the general public (Budd and Ryley, 2013). So, while there are arguments for treating aviation on a level playing field with other sectors and implementing stringent mitigation policies aimed at tackling CO2 (Bows, 2010; Budd and Ryley, 2013; Peeters, Williams, and, Haan, 2009), this is not a universal view.

Aviation's economic importance is regularly cited as a key reason to avoid stringent CO2 mitigation (Wood, Bows, and Anderson, 2012). Another argument can be attached to its role in connecting nations at different stages of development. The sector's growth rate, coupled with few options for reducing carbon emissions per passenger-km (gC/RPK), drives up aviation's CO2 emissions. Increasing mobility and high rates of economic growth in industrializing nations influence demand. These industrializing nations do not in general foresee CO2 targets for their other sectors before 2020, and therefore few direct drivers toward cutting emissions. Globalization supports arguments for treating international aviation and shipping differently to sectors that do not operate within international airspace or waters, with policies that can allow for high growth rates in some countries. While this may have some traction, it only holds within a climate change context if globally averaged growth rates do not jeopardize the international commitment to remain within the 2 °C global temperature target.

There has been widespread political consensus enshrined in various accords, agreements, and declarations that “2 °C” represents the threshold between acceptable and dangerous climate change. Controlling emissions of greenhouse gases across sectors is critical if the carbon budgets underpinning this commitment are not to be exceeded. Yet the sizable and growing emissions from international aviation (and shipping) were exempt from national targets enshrined in the Kyoto Protocol. Domestic aviation emissions were included, but as the United States, with its dominant share of the CO2 from all internal flights when the Protocol was adopted (63% in 1997, IEA, 2014), did not ratify it, the already weak constraints on aviation emissions were watered down still further.

In a bid to include international aviation's CO2 within global climate commitments, the Kyoto Protocol tasked the UN's specialist agency, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), with responsibility for mitigating CO2 from aviation. However, slow progress during the 1990s led the EU Commission, having voiced its frustration, to independently develop proposals for including aviation within its Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) and impose a carbon price on the industry (Bows, 2010). So, by the Kyoto Protocol's final official year, the EU had included aviation within its ETS despite concerns coming from the industry regarding elevated costs and doubt surrounding the resulting impact on CO2 emissions.

Yet even before the policy began operating, the EU suspended the inclusion of non-EU nations' flights in response to progress by ICAO toward establishing a global trading scheme, and in light of strong opposition to the scheme from some countries including the United States (Bows-Larkin, 2014). This suspension remains in place until 2016, when the ICAO mechanism is scheduled to be agreed. Other policy mechanisms promoted through ICAO include a voluntary global annual 2% fleet fuel efficiency improvement up to 2050, with a 50% reduction in net emissions from 2005 levels, and an aim for “carbon neutral growth” from 2020 (ICAO, 2013a).

By October 2013, development of ICAO's global trading scheme was underway, with derived revenue hypothecated to alleviate the impact of aircraft engine emissions, and developing low-carbon alternative fuels. However, with no mechanism agreed before 2016, and then further time needed for implementation, emissions are expected to rise unabated at least until then. Meanwhile, there have been developments within the United States. In 2014, the US Supreme Court upheld the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) power to regulate CO2 under the Clean Air Act. Now, the EPA is considering if aviation has an impact on human health, releasing an information sheet with potential plans to impose a CO2 standard on aircraft.

With cuts of at least 80% from 2010 levels by 2050 necessary across all sectors for a reasonable chance of avoiding 2 °C (Bows-Larkin, 2014), the current mitigation strategy for international aviation assumes other sectors will proportionally cut CO2 by more than aviation. Bows (2010) assessed aviation's climate impact, comparing scenarios for future aviation CO2 with carbon budgets associated with 2 °C. The paper presented the mitigation challenges for aviation and highlighted the importance of understanding the broader climate change context when assessing aviation's climate impact. This chapter updates Bows (2010) by comparing updated aviation scenarios with more recently published 2 °C carbon budgets. It discusses insights in the context of emerging developments, to reassess if that paper's conclusion that “without a large reduction in growth rate or significant penetration of alternative fuel by 2050, aviation's projected CO2 emissions will be incompatible with the 2 °C target” remains sound.

2 Trends in the Aviation Sector's CO2 Emissions

The civil aviation industry's CO2 emissions have grown almost consistently year-on-year since its emergence. The regional profile of aviation-related CO2 emissions shifts as economies develop. Nevertheless, growth remains high even in industrialized economies for two principal reasons: its role in connecting nations especially at different stages of industrialization; the shift from occasional use to frequent flying, facilitated by falling air fares (Randles and Mander, 2009). Its high growth rate poses great challenges for climate change mitigation. Unlike almost all other sectors, technologies available for deployment in the time window consistent with avoiding 2 °C are few and far between. Thus, long lifetimes of aircraft coupled with the longevity of design specifications risk leaving the sector locked into conventional technologies for many decades. Even as fuel efficiency improves, Figure 1 illustrates that high demand growth leads to rising CO2 emissions.

Figure 1 Trends in aviation indicators. Revenue Passenger-km (RPK), Available Seat-km (ASK), and the CO2 emissions for aviation for international and domestic flights. (Source: CO2 data from the International Energy Agency (IEA, 2014); 1971–2006 RPK and ASK data, Owen (2008); 2007–2013 data calculated from “passenger growth rpk” and “passenger load factor achieved” (IATA, 2014).)

Regions currently experiencing rapid growth in aviation CO2 differ depending on whether domestic or international travel is interrogated. Obviously, nations with large land masses have much greater propensity for domestic air travel than smaller nations, where international flights dominate. Nevertheless, the construct of “domestic” and “international” aviation is important in a climate policy context, as international flights are not subject to national mitigation strategies.

2.1 Trends in Domestic Aviation CO2 Emissions

CO2 emissions from aviation have historically been dominated by those from domestic flights in the United States – and they remain a major share (50% of the CO2 from all domestic flights globally in 2011; IEA, 2014; Figure 2). However the picture is in flux, with CO2 from domestic flights in the United States recently declining. China has just one-fifth of the domestic aviation CO2 of the United States, but is growing rapidly at rates close to 10% per year (IEA, 2014). Other parts of Asia are experiencing high growth rates too: 6% per year since 1990, but it is the vast geographical area of some regions that will inevitably lead to high levels of CO2 from domestic flights.

Figure 2 Regional split of CO2 emissions from domestic flights. (Data: IEA statistics (IEA, 2014).)

2.2 Trends in International Aviation CO2 Emissions

The international aviation CO2 emissions are captured in Figure 3. OECD Europe dominates in recent years, with OECD Americas and then Asia (excluding China) following. In terms of growth, China has experienced the highest annual rates at 8% on average since 1990 with the rest of Asia at 5%. OECD Europe continues to grow at 3% annually and even in North America where aviation is considered to be a mature industry, average growth has been 2% per year since 1990 – including both the events of September 11, 2001 and the recent global economic downturn.

Figure 3 Regional split of CO2 emissions from international flights. (Data: IEA statistics (IEA, 2014).)

2.3 Future Aviation CO2 Emissions

In recent years, aviation's CO2 profile shifted emphasis from domestic to international, driven primarily by a rise in international travel by EU citizens, as well as fall in demand for US domestic flying, particularly following the events of 11 September 2001 and recent recession. However, the emergence of China as a rapidly growing source of domestic aviation CO2 suggests the balance could shift back again. Another driver of CO2 will stem from rapid growth in international flying across all nations, influenced by connections with nations experiencing high levels of economic development. This new landscape raises questions. What might be the impact on innovation and climate policy of rapidly growing domestic aviation in China? Will the growing source of international flight CO2 continue to fall outside of policy regimes aimed at other fossil-fuel-consuming sectors? And finally, what drives passenger demand for flying in the first place?

3 Drivers of Demand for Air Travel

To explore some of the drivers of demand for flying, it is worth considering what air travel is primarily used for. In summary, aviation accounts for approximately 10% of all transport (vehicle) km traveled and moves 35% by value of goods traded internationally (ATAG, 2014). Fifty-three percent of international travelers arrive at their nondomicile destination by air compared with 47% by other modes – 40% by road, 2% by rail, and 5% by water (UNWTO, 2014). Fifty-two percent of flyers do so for leisure, 27% to visit friends and family, religious, or health reasons, while 14% fly for business (UNWTO, 2014). Understanding the drivers of demand for air travel is a key piece of the jigsaw.

3.1 Growing Demand Around the World

Recently, passenger numbers have been on an upward trend following a decline around 2008/2009 (Figure 1), with monthly passenger kilometres for September 2014 in the region of 510 billion (IATA, 2014). Emphasizing the link between the state of economies and demand for aviation, as of September 2014, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) judged the outlook for aviation to be positive though inconsistent across the globe; faltering economic improvement in the EU contrasted with recovery in the United States and on Asia Pacific routes (IATA, 2014). While year-on-year growth in passenger kilometers for September 2014 compared with September 2013 averaged 5.3% globally, there is significant regional variation. The Middle East is the only region where the rate of growth continues to increase due to its strong regional economy, with a fall in other regions related to economic slowdown and factors such as strikes and market volatility. Overall growth in demand is highest in emerging economies (IATA, 2014). Forty percent of the international market is centered on Europe, followed by Asia Pacific with 25%. Forty-one percent of the domestic market is the United States with China in second place at 23% (IATA, 2014) and industry forecasts suggest China will become the largest domestic market within 10 years. In terms of flights per capita, in 2014 North Americans and Europeans are the most likely to fly, averaging, 1.6 and 1 flight per person per year, respectively. In 2033, Airbus predicts flights per capita in China will reach 0.95 up from 0.25 in 2014, with India reaching 0.26 up from 0.06.

3.2 The Role of Socio Economic Factors in Shaping Demand

Demand for aviation is shaped by factors that affect people's ability and desire to fly, and by supply-side factors within the aviation industry such as capacity or infrastructure. To unpack demand for aviation, a variety of modeling approaches can be used including econometric modeling (for instance, Department for Transport, 2013). Aviation demand is often related to economic activity and air fares (see, for example, Department for Transport, 2013), while other studies (see Further Reading section) include variables such as exchange rates, purchasing power overseas, and perceived level of household wealth (O'Connell et al., 2013).

Studies show that most people do not fly because they want to fly per se, but because flying enables them to do things they wish to do. Thus, to gain a more nuanced understanding of drivers for demand for aviation, much can be gained from complementing economic modeling studies with sociological and psychological research. Migration and changing household demographics are an important driver for aviation given that increasing globalization means friends and family can be dispersed; this is reflected in figures that suggest around a quarter of flights are to visit friends and family (Hibbert et al., 2013). Urry (2012) argues that society views high-mobility lifestyles positively, whereby someone's standing is reflected by the places they have visited and mobility patterns; frequent flyer programs and the marketing strategies of airlines also link status with mobile lifestyles.

Supply-side changes, namely, the emergence of low-cost airlines specializing in domestic and short-haul routes has helped create new markets. For those who can afford it, the low cost of flights in the United Kingdom has contributed to raising the “standard” of occasions such as a hen party or trip with friends (Randles and Mander, 2009). Changing practices of celebrating, holidaying, and visiting friends and family abroad represents an upward ratchet on the number of flights taken per year. Growth is facilitated further by interacting aspects such as easy Internet booking and online check-in, speeding up the purchasing and delivery of service (Randles and Mander, 2010).

Finally, aviation is an area of consumption where there is a gap between attitudes toward the environment and behavior. Climate awareness does not lead to people not flying. Instead, a lack of alternatives and the habitual nature of flying lead people away from sustainable choices, in contrast to some other areas of decision-making (Hares, Dickinson, and Wilkes, 2010). Frew and Winter (2009) highlight how concerns about the time, family commitments, and a desire to see the world can outweigh consideration of the environmental cost of travel (Frew and Winter, 2009). The extent to which flying practices in many wealthy parts of the world transfers to emerging markets, particularly those now served by their own “low cost” airlines such as AirAsia, remains to be seen.

3.3 Future Demand for Air Travel

Future demand for aviation is likely to be driven by an increasing middle class population, primarily in emerging economies, whose desire to travel is enabled by supply-side developments such as expanding infrastructure and deregulation of markets. Although national models of deregulation and liberalization differ, a competitive aviation industry is seen as crucial to reduce costs and improve service, both domestically and as carriers look to compete internationally (O'Connell et al., 2013). Airport expansion has supported the enlargement of domestic aviation in emerging economies as shown by the development of airports in smaller cities to support regional commuter travel in China for example. In emerging markets, the development of regional airports can drive growth in international air travel as “Hub and spoke” configurations can be used to attract international travelers (O'Connell et al., 2013). With the support that national governments are giving to the aviation industry within emerging economies, the building blocks that enable industry growth predictions to come to fruition are being put in place (O'Connell et al., 2013).

4 Technical Options for Cutting CO2 in Aviation

Redrawing attention to climate change, how can rising demand be met if absolute CO2 emissions from the sector are to be reduced? The obvious place to seek solutions resides in innovative technologies and operational practices available to deliver change. However, previous work highlights the very incremental nature of much of what is available (Bows-Larkin, 2014).

4.1 Improving Aircraft Efficiency

Most technological improvements to reduce fuel burn address structural weight, aerodynamics, or engine efficiency. Decreasing the structural weight of the aircraft and reducing drag to increase the lift-to-drag ratio, both cut propulsive power and thereby reduce fuel consumption. Increasing aircraft engine fuel efficiency also lowers the CO2 intensity of flight. Incremental change across all three leads to efficiency improvements between different aircraft generations. With fuel making up a significant share of the running costs for airlines, unsurprisingly, fuel efficiency has been a major research and development goal for many decades. Advances in engine design, optimized wing and body shapes, and material science contributed to new generations of aircraft that consume less fuel per Available Seat Kilometer (ASK) than their predecessors. Coupled with increased utilization factors, this has led to significant fuel efficiency improvements (Figure 4). While there is still potential for future generations of aircraft to be more fuel efficient than today's, the best-fit regression line in Figure 4 illustrates how aviation faces diminishing returns as technology matures. Aircraft are highly optimized and must meet rigorous safety standards as well as respond to other constraints on noise and local pollution, meaning that fundamental design changes are difficult and costly to achieve. So, while there is certainly promise over the longer term for more advanced, more fuel-efficient, and lower-carbon intensity aircraft, the current challenge is that such changes are highly unlikely within a time frame compatible with climate change targets. Alternative fuels have therefore become attractive, but they come with unresolved issues, such as their full life-cycle CO2 impacts and wider sustainability concerns.

Figure 4 Trends in energy intensity in the aviation sector since the emergence of the civil aviation indus-try projected out to 2050. (Reproduced with permission from Peeters, Williams, and Haan (2009), p. 294. © Taylor and Francis.)

4.2 Beyond Efficiency

To reduce CO2 emissions beyond annual incremental change, alternative fuels will have to come into play. The only ones considered realistic in the near-term are biofuels or other synthetic fuels. The fuel itself would not be fundamentally different from kerosene, but rather than of fossil origin, produced from biomass or from another low-CO2 feedstock. There is a burgeoning range of initiatives in this direction but emission savings delivered depend on feedstocks and production methods. Some of the CO2 from biofuels may be negated by the CO2 taken up by the plants grown to produce them. However, the CO2 benefits of producing jet fuel from, for example, Jatropha, depend on the current vegetation or land use it displaces and for many areas this may be negative. Furthermore, large-scale production raises wider sustainability issues as feedstock production displaces food production.

In general, life-cycle assessments yield a wide range of potential emission savings or otherwise, depending on the specific production process (Hileman and Stratton, 2014). On-going research seeks to resolve issues around biofuels with different properties from standard jet fuel and create production routes for second-and third-generation biofuels, such as jet fuel from algae. Replacing plants with alternative mechanisms of using solar (or another source of) energy to combine water and CO2 into hydrocarbons could open a production route for a wholly synthetic jet fuel. Going beyond hydrocarbons, hydrogen and battery-electric powered propulsion have been considered, but are far from offering a realistic alternative within an appropriate timescale (Hileman and Stratton, 2014).

5 Future of Aviation and Climate Change

With rising demand and a limit to the technical options available for cutting CO2 emissions, it is essential to place aviation in the context of broader climate change policy objectives.

5.1 Global Climate Policies and Scenarios

In 2014, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its latest synthesis of the global climate change challenge. One of the new areas brought to the fore is the importance of cumulative greenhouse gas emissions in dictating the future global mean temperature increase. Global cumulative carbon budgets constrain emission pathways for all sectors, varying depending on the desired climate outcome. In short, from 2015 onward there remains around 1100–1400GtCO2 for a 50 : 50 (“reasonable”) chance of avoiding the 2 °C target threshold between “acceptable” or “dangerous” climate change (IPCC, 2014). Naturally, there are various paths that can be followed to remain within this constrained budget, in addition to a range of contributions by sectors that release CO2